PROJECT

MANAGEMENT
OPEN ELECTIVE – II PROJECT MANAGEMENT FOR ENGINEERING

UNIT I PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

Project: Meaning, Attributes of a project, Project Life cycle, Project Stakeholders, Classification,
Importance of project management, Project Portfolio Management System, Different Project
Management Structure, Steps in Defining the Project, Project Rollup – Process breakdown structure –
Responsibility Matrices – External causes of delay and internal constraints

INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT
A project is a combination of interrelated activities to achieve a specific objective within a
schedule, budget, and quality. It involves the coordination of group activity, wherein the manager
plans, organizes, staffs direct, and controls to achieve an objective, with constraints on time, cost,
and performance of the end product. Project management is the combination of project and
management.
From all these descriptions, one can see that there are some specific attributes that define a
project and separate it from most ordinary work:
 A project has a beginning and an end.
 A project has limited resources
 A project follows a planned, organized method to meet its objectives with specific goals of
quality and performance.
 Every project is unique
Planning is the strong keys to make the project more effective and well utilization of resources
to achieve the goal. In this, we will focus on characteristics of the project like how objectives are
important for achieving the goal, the total time duration of the project, calculated risk, and
uncertainty of the project, the total estimated cost of the project, etc. are essential characteristics of
the project and will discuss some other characteristics of the project like team spirit, require funds,
directions, uniqueness, flexibility, and sub-contracting, etc.

DEFINITION OF PROJECT
A project is defined as a sequence of tasks that must be completed to attain a certain outcome.
According to the Project Management Institute (PMI), the term Project refers to ” to any temporary
endeavor with a definite beginning and end”.
ATTRIBUTES OF A PROJECT
CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROJECT
Projects are not homogeneous. Each project is different in itself. The distinctive
characteristics of a project are as follows.

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 Objectives
Every project is started with some objective or goal viz. time, budget, quality, and
quantity, when objectives are fulfilled project cause existing. You can initially define the
objectives of the project what actually need to achieve. Objectives are the key
characteristics of the project where you will see the progress of the project and time to time
analysis will show you the result of how much you have achieved.
 Single entity
A project is one whole thing. This means that in a project although different people
contribute still is recognized as a single entity. The teams are often specifically assembled
for a single project.
 Life Span
No project can be ceaseless and indefinite. It must have one and beyond which it
cannot proceed. Every project is invariably time-bound. At the time of planning, you will
see the time phase of the project where the team can work independently on the project
modules. Let’s consider an example project that is divided into three modules let’s say A,
B, and C. If the total time span of a project is 5 months, then you can set the time span for
modules independently like A can complete in 2 months and also B can complete in 2
months and C can complete in 1 month as per requirement.
 Require funds
Every project needs funds to reach the endpoint. Without adequate funds, no project
can be successfully implemented. Cost estimation is one of the essential factors for any

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organization. So, calculating in advance the required funds for the project will be very
impactful.
 Life Cycle
Each project has a life cycle with different stages like start, growth, maturity, and
decay. A project has to pass through different stages to get itself completed. Let’s consider
an example where the project is related to software development then you can say SDLC
(Software Development lifecycle) will be the life cycle of the project where you will see
many stages like planning, defining, designing, building, testing, and deployment, etc.
 Team Spirit
Team spirit is required to get the project completed because the project constitutes
different members having different characteristics and from various disciplines. But to
achieve common goal harmony, missionary zeal, team spirit is necessary.
 Risk and Uncertainty
The project is generally based on forecasting. So, risk and uncertainty are always
associated with projects. There will be a high degree of risk in those projects which are not
properly defined. Only the degree of control over risk and uncertainty varies with the
project being conceived based on information available.
 Directions
Project is always performed according to the directions given by the customers with
regard to time, quality and quantity, etc. The convenience of the supply sides of economics
such as labor availability ore resources and managerial talent etc. are all secondary
concerns, primary being the customer requirement.
 Uniqueness
Each project is unique in itself, and it’s having own features. No two projects are
similar even if the type of organization is the same. The uniqueness of the project can
measure by considering the many factors like objectives, features of the project, application
of the project, etc.
 Flexibility
Change and project are synonymous. A project sees many changes throughout its life
span. These changes can make projects more dynamic and flexible.

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 Sub-Contracting
Sub-contracting is a subset of every project and without which no project can be
completed unless it is a proprietary firm or tiny in nature. The more complexity of a project
the more will be the extent of contracting. Every project needs the help of an outsider
consultant, engineer, or expert in that field.
 Cost
If the quality of the project is to be changed there could be an impact on the cost of
the project. The cost could increase if more resources are required to complete the project
quicker.

PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

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The project life cycle is part of a larger life cycle called the systems development cycle that
virtually all human made systems follow. The SDC has four phases of this cycle:
1. Phase A: Conception phase
2. Phase B: Definition phase
3. Phase C: Execution phase
4. Phase D: Operation phase
The project life cycle typically spans Phases A, B, and C, because virtually all human-made
systems start out as projects. When Phase C ends, so does the project. The system ceases to be the
end-item of a project and becomes an operational entity; this is Phase D, operation.
Phase A: Conception
Every project is an attempt to solve a problem or fill a need, so a first step in system
development is recognizing that the problem or need exists. After that, the individuals facing the
problem—the customers, users, stakeholders—seek out someone who can help.
The steps they take—soliciting contractors who can do the work, evaluating their proposals,
and reaching an agreement—are all part of the so-called procurement management process.

If the customer is an organization that has someone internally capable of doing the work, it
turns to them. If not, it looks to outside contractors, possibly by sending them a formal request for
help called a request for proposal, or RFP.
Each contractor examines the customer’s problem and requirements as stated in the RFP and
determines the technical and economic feasibility of undertaking the project. If the contractor decides
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to respond to the request, it sends the customer its proposed solution (or “system concept”) in a
proposal or letter of interest. The customer then examines the proposals from all the contractors and
makes a choice.
The result is a formal agreement or contract between the customer and the chosen contractor.
Most ideas or proposals never get beyond Phase A because the problems addressed are judged as
insignificant or the proposal as impractical, infeasible, or lacking benefits to justify funding and
resources. The few that are approved and reach a contractual agreement move on to Phase B.
Phase B: Definition
Having reached agreement with the customer, the contractor begins a detailed analysis of the
system concept, during which it defines requirements that the system must fulfill to meet the
customer’s needs and the necessary functions and elements of the system to meet those requirements.
This definition results in a preliminary design for the system. As the process continues, the
major subsystems, components, and support systems of the proposed system are determined, as are
the resources, costs, and schedules necessary to build the system.
Meanwhile, project management assembles a comprehensive project plan that defines the
work activities, schedules, budgets, and resources to design, build, and implement the system. In
some industries, the tasks in Phases A and B are referred to as “front-end loading” (FEL) or
“frontend planning,” which refers to everything that happens in a project prior to the work execution
in Phase C.
Phase C: Execution
The execution phase is when the work as specified in the project plan is carried out; the phase
is sometimes also referred to as the “acquisition” phase because most system resources are acquired
then, and following the phase, the user acquires the system.
The execution phase often includes the stages of “design,” “production/build,” and
“implementation,” referring to the progression through which a system moves from being an idea to a
finished, operational end-item. All systems are composed of elements arranged in some configuration
or structure, and in the design stage, these elements and their configurations are defined.
In the production stage, the system is built, either as a single item or mass-produced item.
Finally, during implementation, the system is installed and becomes a part of the user’s environment.
Phase D: Operation
In the operation phase, the customer or user takes over to operate the system and maintain it.
For systems such as products and equipment that people use or rely upon daily, Phase D may last for

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years or decades, and the phase includes not only operation and maintenance of the system but
improvement and enhancement to keep the system viable and useful. Every system eventually
outlives its purposes or simply wears out. When that happens, the choices are to either scrap the
system or upgrade it so it remains useful. In the latter case, the “upgrade” is essentially a new system
concept, which initiates a new SDC and a new project.
For some systems, Phase D is short or non-existent: examples are political campaigns and
rock concerts—the project ends on Election Day or upon completion of the concert performance.
Virtually all projects progress through Phases A, B, and C, though not necessarily through the stages.
In some projects, certain stages receive little emphasis or are entirely skipped; many projects,
however, move through all the stages, even if informally.
For instance, although not every project requires proposal preparation, every project does start
with a proposal from someone. Similarly, while many projects do not involve “production,” every
project involves the production of something—even if only information.
PROJECT STAKEHOLDERS
Stakeholders are those with an interest in your project’s outcome. They are typically the
members of a project team, project managers, executives, project sponsors, customers, and users.
Stakeholders are people who will be affected by your project at any point in its life cycle, and
their input can directly impact the outcome. It’s essential to practice good stakeholder management
and continuously communicate to collaborate on the project.

Typical key stakeholders in a project

Some of the typical key project stakeholders you'll find in a project include:
 Customers: The direct user of a product or service, often both internal and external to the
company executing the project
 Project manager: The project's leader
 Project team members: The group executing the project under the project manager's
leadership
 Project sponsor: The project's financier
 Steering committee: An advisory group providing guidance on key decisions, which
includes the sponsor, executives, and key stakeholders from the organization
 Executives: The top management in the company executing the project; those who direct the
organization's strategy

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 Resource managers: Other managers who control resources needed for executing the project
There are many more examples of project stakeholders, including: sellers/suppliers, contractors,
owners, government agencies, media outlets, and even society at large.

TYPES OF PROJECTS
Types or Classification of Project
There are three broad categories of projects to consider: Strategic Projects, Operational
Projects, and Compliance Projects

 Strategic Projects involve creating something new and innovative. A new product, a new
service, a new retail location, a new branch or division, or even a new factory might be a
strategic project, because it will allow an organization to gain strategic advantage over its
competitors.
 Operational Projects improve current operations. These projects may not produce radical
improvements, but they will reduce costs, get work done more efficiently, or produce a higher
quality product.
 Compliance Projects must be done in order to comply with an industry or governmental
regulation or standard. Often there is no choice about whether to implement a project to meet
a regulation, but there may be several project options to consider, any of which would result
in meeting compliance requirements.

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 Traditional projects: These are run sequentially in phases. These phases are typically initiation,

planning, execution, monitoring, and closure. Most high-cost infrastructure projects make use of

traditional project management.

 Agile projects: These are used mainly in software development. They are people-focused and

adaptive. They also typically have short turnaround times.

 Remote projects: Remote project management is usually used by distributed teams that seldom

meet in person. Handling freelance contributors is an example of a remote project.

 Agency projects: Agency projects are outsourced to an agency that is likely to have projects

with multiple clients. Marketing and design projects are commonly outsourced to agencies.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Project management is a system approach for efficient and effective achievement of
project objectives through assignment of total responsibility and accountability to a single project
manager from inception to completion and coordination across functional lines with proper
utilization of planning and control tools

DEFINITION
According to Harold Kerzner: Project management is the planning, organizing,
directing and controlling of company resources to complete specific goals and objectives.

IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management is important because it helps every part of the business run more
efficiently and effectively. When done correctly, it enables leadership to plan and manage projects so
that every objective and deliverable is completed on time and within budget. It can also foster better
communication and collaboration between teams, and provide data-driven insights to help you make
better business decisions.
The benefits of good project management
 The importance of project management in organizations can’t be overstated.
 When it’s done right, it helps every part of the business run more smoothly.

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 It allows your team to focus on the work that matters, free from the distractions caused by
tasks going off track or budgets spinning out of control.
 It empowers them to deliver results that actually impact the business’s bottom line.
 And it enables your employees to see how their work contributes to the company’s strategic
goals.
Here are just a few of the benefits of good project management:
 Save time and money
With the right planning, you can ensure that your work is delivered on time and within
budget. Using project management methods, you can map your project’s journey from the outset
and know in advance where the deadlines — and projected spend — are going to fall, so you can
more efficiently allocate your resources, helping you to avoid delays and project overspend.
 Improve internal communications
Working together can be hard. With more efficient project management processes, you
can reduce the complexity of collaboration, increase transparency, and ensure accountability,
even when you’re working across teams or departments.
 Make better business decisions
With clearer records of how your project is progressing, you get a deeper understanding of
where your resources are being spent, what you need to prioritize and when, and if you’re at risk
of going off track. Good project management means that you can forecast issues before they
become issues, prevent bottlenecks, and make smarter, data-driven decisions.
 Iterate on your successes
Project management helps you to scale high performance and build on your team’s best
practices. By using the data and learnings from previous projects, you’re able to pinpoint where
your team is excelling and where there’s room for improvement. And by measuring your KPIs
you can create and track personalized benchmarks to understand how your team is performing
project over project.
TRIPLE CONSTRAINT IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

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The project management triangle is a model used to visualize the triple constraint theory. Let’s take a
look at each point on the triangle.
 Scope: This is the work that needs to be done. It documents the features and functions that
will be included in this iteration of the product. The scope documentation should make it clear
to everybody what will or won’t be included in the final product. You might consider using
a work breakdown structure (WBS) chart to break down the scope into actionable tasks.
 Time: How much time it will take to complete the tasks in the scope. To determine your time
constraint, set a timeline for each task in each iteration. Based on the timelines, set a deadline
for the final release of the product. Make sure that the timelines are realistic, especially if time
is the least flexible constraint in your project. A PERT chart can help you to map out the time
required for each task.
 Budget/Cost: The resources required to complete the project, including financial, labor,
materials, etc. Review previous, similar projects to help you estimate how much your budget
will cost.
Look at the following costs to help you determine the overall budget:
Resources: How much will it cost to pay people working on the project? Base the costs on
the estimated hours it takes to complete the tasks.
Materials: If you are in manufacturing, you have to consider the costs of raw materials and
the supply chain.
Equipment: Will this project require new hardware or software? Consider the costs of
upgrading vs. working with existing equipment.

PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A project portfolio is a group of projects and programs aimed at strategic objectives that share
resources and compete for funding. Each portfolio supports a theme—for example, a strategic
objective, product line, business unit, market, or geographical area of operation. Any program or
project that contributes to or falls within a particular theme is added to the portfolio; thus, most
organizations would have several portfolios.

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A portfolio can consist of programs, projects, other work activities, and even other portfolios.
Unlike projects in a program, projects and other elements in a portfolio are not necessarily
interdependent. They are grouped in the portfolio for the purpose of better managing them as a whole
and prioritizing and allocating resources among them to best achieve organizational goals. Almost by
definition, any organization that manages and allocates resources to more than one project has a
project portfolio—whether or not its managers recognize it.
Organizations familiar with the concept of a project portfolio commonly conform to a process
called project portfolio management; briefly, this involves two steps: (1) creating portfolios—
defining “themes” around which to form portfolios and criteria for including projects and programs
in each portfolio, and categorizing current and proposed projects and programs into particular
portfolios, and (2) managing portfolios—assessing proposed projects and programs to decide whether
each should be approved, put on hold, or rejected; prioritizing approved projects based on the risk
involved and contribution to strategic objectives and allocating resources so priority projects get
adequate funding; and tracking and managing projects and programs collectively in order to
maximize the return on the investment made.
The most rudimentary form of portfolio management is simply to track projects underway and
under consideration. The organization has two lists: one for “active” projects, another for “potential”
or on-hold projects. Simple as it might appear, creating and maintaining such lists in the absence of a
portfolio management process is not trivial, since managers routinely start projects without
registering them and don’t keep lists of all current and proposed projects.

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Process for successful projects

Successful projects and programs depend upon two things: choosing the right projects and
doing those projects the right way. The two happen in a process that involves senior managers,
business unit managers, and project managers:
 Strategic management: focus the organization. Senior managers articulate the vision and
mission of the organization, define strategies, set budgets, and allocate resources to business
units. Some examples of contrasting strategies are to be the low-cost or technology leader, be
innovative or imitative, or pursue mass or niche markets.
 Portfolio management: choose the right projects. Business unit managers develop
strategies, goals, and initiatives consistent with the corporate mission and strategies. Each
goal or initiative becomes the theme for creating a portfolio and setting specific criteria,
which become the basis for selecting projects from proposals generated internally or by
customers.
 Gating methodology: nurture or get rid of projects. Business unit managers assess each
project as it moves through gates by comparing its performance to other projects’
performance and gating criteria. Important but struggling projects are allocated more
resources; poorly performing or mediocre projects are put on hold or cancelled.

 Project management: do the projects right. Project managers guide projects using
principles and practices of project management as described throughout this book.
Project portfolio manager
Portfolio management requires roles for decision-making and a clear structure. The project
portfolio manager is charged with oversight of the project portfolio. Her aim is to achieve
organizational objectives through the portfolio’s investment in programs and projects; thus, she has
an important role in guiding the organization in the right direction and consequently has a much
broader and longer-term business perspective than project and program managers.
Working with the project review board (described subsequently), the portfolio manager’s role
is to:
 Ensure projects and programs align with strategic objectives and initiatives.
 Assess proposed projects and programs in terms of potential benefits, required resources, and
risk.
 Approve or recommend projects that can achieve strategic objectives within acceptable risk
and resource constraints.

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 Cluster related or interdependent projects and programs into portfolios.

 Prioritize programs and projects based upon contribution to strategic objectives, resource
requirements, and risks.
 Develop a resource plan and allocate resources to programs and projects.
 Seek an investment optimum by designing a mix of programs and projects to exploit
synergies among them and provide balance in terms of risk, size, duration, and so on.
 Monitor, review, and assess projects at phase gates for business impact and business
justification.
 Report assessment results and recommendations to senior executives.
 After projects are completed, assess and report the extent to which they delivered benefits as
claimed in the business case.
DIFFERENT PROJECT MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE
The meaning of Project management is the process of planning, organizing, executing,
and controlling a project. There are many different types of project management structures that
you can choose from depending on the structure of the project you are running or the specific
needs of your business.
Types of Project Management Structure
The three primary types of project management structures are:
 Functional
 Matrix and
 Projectized.

1. Functional Organization Structure

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Functional organization is a Project Management Structure that focuses on specialization

and departmentalization to achieve efficiency and effectiveness.
This structure is usually used in organizations with a flat hierarchy, where the project team
is formed of different units or departments.
The benefit of this (PMO) project organizational structure is that it allows more specialized
employees to contribute to a project without going through layers of management.
The disadvantage is that it may be difficult for the project manager to keep track of
everything happening within the team since each employee will have their responsibilities and
deadlines.
2. Projectized Organization Structure

Projectized organizations are those that have a structure that is designed to create and
deliver projects rather than complete long-term goals. In this way, it is similar to an ad hoc
organization in that it is temporary and focused on a specific task or set of functions.
The advantage of a projectized organization is that it can be very flexible in terms of how it
organizes its resources, which helps to ensure that the most appropriate people are assigned to

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each task at hand. This can be especially beneficial when the scope of a project changes
significantly over time. However, it may not be able to effectively manage large projects if there
isn't enough time spent planning ahead of time.
3. Matrix Organization Structure

Matrix organizations are one of the most flexible project management structures available.
It can be more responsive than other types of project management structures because it allows
teams to quickly shift their focus when necessary. It is also less costly than other types of project
management structures. Besides, they allow for greater employee involvement in decision-making
processes, resulting in better-quality decisions and higher employee satisfaction.
However, Matrix organizations may be less efficient than other structures because they
require more communication between teams and management. They may also be demanding for
new employees to understand.
Features of Project Organization Structure
Many features make up a good project organization structure, but the four main features are-
1. Flat Management Structure
 A flat management structure means everyone is responsible for their work and reports
directly to the higher-ups.
 In some cases, this can lead to accountability and transparency concerns.
 Therefore, we recommend creating a project organization structure as part of your
process.
 When you have a flat management structure, it's vital that everyone understands what
their role is within the company and how they fit into the bigger picture.

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 Having a clear idea of what each person needs to do will help them feel more
empowered and motivated about their work.
2. Clear Communication Guidelines and Procedures
 A project organization structure helps get clear communication guidelines and
procedures because it is used to communicate the roles and responsibilities of each
team member.
 It also contains information about reporting relationships, forms, templates, and
checklists required for various processes.
3. Comprehensive Planning
 A project organization structure is an integral part of comprehensive planning because
it helps ensure everyone involved in the project understands their role.
 It can be used to show how different departments or teams will work together on a
given project, and where each department or team falls in a hierarchy.
 This can help to ensure that everyone knows who they should report to if they have any
questions or concerns about their role.
Best Practices When Picking a Structure and Making a Chart
Choosing an appropriate chart structure can be daunting. But here are a few best practices that can
ease the process.
1. Structure: Keep in mind that the structure you choose will determine the effect of your chart.
Simple structures are easier to read, while more complex designs can be visually appealing.
2. Color Palette: Make sure you pick colors that are easy to read and contrast with one another so
viewers can easily distinguish them at a glance.
3. Typeface: Choose a font that is easy to read and readable across platforms (for example, one
that is available on mobile devices).
4. Size: Large fonts make data easier to see, but smaller fonts may convey more information per
unit area of space on the page or screen where the data is displayed (called "data density").
5. Layout: The layout helps people understand the relationships among different parts of a chart
by showing what goes with what. For example, connecting lines that represent other things with
different shapes such as circles or squares at each end of those lines; putting related text labels
next to their corresponding bars or columns, and so forth).

STEPS IN DEFINING THE PROJECT

Creating, planning and managing projects are essential activities for individuals and

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businesses in every industry. As projects may occur in different forms, it's important to know a
comprehensive project description. Learning the definition of a project can help you recognise
one and better understand project planning, control and management. In this article, we provide
the definition of a project, explain why they're important, describe the relationship between a
project, programme and portfolio and discuss project planning.
Projects may involve individuals, teams, departments or organisations, and they typically have
the following:
 Clear objectives and deliverables
 A start and end date
 Resources and constraints, such as time, money and quality

1. Set the project's goals

Start by understanding why a project is necessary. For example, you may create one to
implement workplace changes or address customer needs. Next, identify the project's sponsors and
stakeholders, such as clients, executives and communities. Meet with these stakeholders to
understand their needs and desires. Then prioritise their expectations and identify project goals that
address them.
2. Define the project scope

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Outline the tasks for the project team and the order to complete them. Defining the scope also
involves explaining what the project doesn't cover. A project's scope typically aligns with its purpose
and objectives.
3. Decide on the deliverables
Explain the deliverables to the project team after discussing the scope. Deliverables refer to
the specific products the team would produce or deliver during the project. Ensuring the team
understands the goals can create a sense of accountability and motivate them to focus on the tasks.
4. Create the scope statement
A scope statement is a document describing important project information, such as its
objectives, exclusions, milestones and team members. You can use this document as a reference and
share it with sponsors and stakeholders. They may offer changes or clarify expectations before
approving the project.
5. Develop a work structure
While you often understand the work for the team to complete, it's important to communicate
individual tasks to team members. Conveying this message typically means that you to divide the
project into realistic tasks and create an action plan. When developing the work structure, ensure you
establish time-frames for task completion. This can help team members plan their time and work to
meet deadlines. It can also help to consider delays and interruptions in your work structure. For
example, you may allow an extra day for tasks that typically take hours to complete.
6. Assign roles and responsibilities
Next, delegate tasks to team members and provide clear instructions. Depending on the
project, you may also defer to specialists or outsource specific roles to meet the deadlines. Consider
the strengths of team members when assigning roles and responsibilities. For example, suppose a
project involves organising a team-building event. You may delegate location-sourcing tasks to a
teammate who has experience finding suitable locations for team-building activities. Consider
involving team members when assigning roles and planning projects. Doing this can help improve
their expertise and enhance their commitment to the project.
7. Complete a risk assessment
A risk assessment is an evaluation of unexpected changes that may occur during a project.
These changes can impact the project's objectives and delivery timeline. Anticipating unexpected
changes can show your ability to take initiative at work. After identifying possible project risks,
develop a response plan, outlining actions for team members. For example, suppose you're working

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on a construction project. If you anticipate a delay in raw material supply, you can organise with a
new supplier to ensure the project meets the quality standard and due date.
PROJECT ROLLUP
A project roll-up summarizes the total of the planned work hours of the project, the total of
the actual hours logged in, the aggregate of the completion percentage based on all tasks in a
project, and the overall project duration based on the start date of the earliest task and end date of
the last task in the project. These details can also be rolled up to the milestones. Example: Task A
has two subtasks, C and D. When you log 4 hours for C and 3 hours for D, the log hours for the
parent task are automatically calculated as 7 hours.
PROCESS BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE
The Project Management Institute’s PMBOK® Guide—Third Edition defines WBS as “a
deliverable-oriented hierarchical decomposition of the work to be executed by the project team to
accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables. It organizes and defines the
total scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of the
project work. The WBS is decomposed into work packages. The deliverable orientation of the
hierarchy includes both internal and external deliverables.”
Some commonly used terms used with WBS project management include:
 Acceptance Criteria: Standards to be met to achieve customer or other stakeholder
requirements
 Budget: Expenses associated with the project, which can be broken down by deliverables or
phases
 Deliverables: The product, service or results created at various stages of the project. For
instance, in a website design project, a deliverable-based WBS would be structured around
deliverables such as URL, layout and written content
 Milestones: Critical stages of the project identified in the WBS
 Phases: The various stages of a project. For instance, in a website design project, a phase-
based WBS would be structured around things like discovery, design and launch, rather than
specific deliverables
 WBS: Work breakdown structure
Create and Use a WBS Effectively
To use a work breakdown structure effectively, it is important to include all components of a
project (remember that 100% rule described above) but without too much detail. Turns out, there can

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be too much of a good thing when it comes to the WBS.

To create a WBS:
1. Define the project.
The first step in creating a work breakdown structure is to clearly establish the project.
For some projects, this might be fairly straightforward. For other projects, it might require
refining the actual scope of the project so that the WBS is scaled appropriately and doesn’t
become unwieldy.
2. Set project boundaries.
Once the project is defined and described, you can set boundaries on what is and isn’t
included in the WBS.
3. Identify project deliverables.
This will include high-level deliverables associated with the project, such as a Project
Scope Statement or Mission Statement.
4. Define Level 1 elements.
Remember the 100% rule while creating the Level 1 deliverables.
5. Break down each of the Level 1 elements.
The process of breaking down Level 1 elements is called decomposition. It consists of
breaking down a task into smaller and smaller pieces, applying the 100% rule at each level.
At each subsequent level, ask yourself whether further decomposition would improve project
management. Continue breaking down the elements until the answer to that question is “no.”
When you’ve completed the decomposition process for each element in Level 1, the WBS is
complete.
6. Identify team members.
Identify an individual or team who is responsible for each element.
7. Create a Gantt chart to accompany the WBS.
A Gantt chart shows activities over time so that you can visually see information
related to the schedule of the project and its various activities.

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Types of work breakdown structures

Your work breakdown structure for each project can be different.
As a project manager, you may have to experiment to see which WBS works best for you and your
team. The goal is to show the hierarchy of your projects and make progress clear to everyone
involved — whether they are a team member or an external stakeholder.
Here are some work breakdown structure examples. You can use any of these to outline your WBS.
1. WBS spreadsheet: You can structure your WBS efficiently in a spreadsheet, noting the
different phases, tasks, or deliverables in the columns and rows.
2. WBS flowchart: You can structure your WBS in a diagrammatic workflow. Most WBS
examples and templates you may find are flowcharts.
3. WBS list: You can structure your WBS as a simple list of tasks or deliverables and subtasks.
This is the most straightforward approach to make a WBS.

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4. WBS Gantt chart: You can structure your WBS as a Gantt chart that represents both a
spreadsheet and a timeline. With a Gantt chart-structured WBS, you can link task
dependencies and show project milestones.
RESPONSIBILITY MATRICES
A Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) describes the participation of various
organizations, people, and their roles in completing tasks or deliverables for a project. It’s used by
the Program Manager (PM) in clarifying roles and responsibilities in a cross-functional team,
projects, and processes. A Request for Proposal (RFP) might request a RAM from a contractor.
Definition
A Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) describes the role and responsibilities of various
people and/or organizations in completing specific tasks for a project.

Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed (RACI) Matrix

A RAM is also called a Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed (RACI) matrix.
The PMBOK Guide 4th Edition defines RACI as a RAM that is used to illustrate the connections
between work packages or activities and project team members. On larger projects, RAMs can be
developed at various levels.
 Responsible (R): Those who do the work to achieve the task. There is typically one role with
a participation type of Responsible, although others can be delegated to assist in the work
required.
 Accountable (A): The one ultimately accountable for the correct and thorough completion of
the deliverable or task, and the one to whom Responsible is accountable. In other words, an

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Accountable must sign off (Approve) on work that Responsible provides. There must be only
one Accountable specified for each task or deliverable.
 Consulted (C): Those whose opinions are sought; and with whom there is two-way
communication.
 Informed (I): Those who are kept up-to-date on progress, often only on completion of the
task or deliverable; and with whom there is just one-way communication.
Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) Goal in Project Management
A RAM is used in project management as a communication tool to ensure that work tasks are
designated as a responsible agent. A RAM can define what a project team is responsible for within
each component of the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). It could also be used within a working
group to designate roles, responsibilities, and levels of authority for specific activities. The matrix
format shows all activities associated with one person and all people associated with one activity.
This ensures that there is only one person accountable for any one task to avoid confusion.

6 Steps to Developing a Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM)

Below is a list of the 6 (six) most common steps in developing a Responsibility Assignment Matrix
(RAM).
 Step 1: List all project tasks and deliverables
 Step 2: Identify all project stakeholders
 Step 3: Determine responsibility and accountability level for each task and deliverable
 Step 4: Assign stakeholders to each task
 Step 5: Assign overall stakeholder
 Step 6: Ensure all stakeholder know their responsibility
Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) Lessons Learned
A Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) is a tool used in project management to identify
and clarify the roles and responsibilities of the different people or groups working on a project. The
goal of making a RAM is to make sure that all tasks are done and that responsibilities don’t overlap
or get missed. Here are some things you can learn to make sure your RAM is built right:
 Define the project’s goals and scope in detail: Before making a RAM, it’s important to
have a clear idea of the project’s goals and scope. This will help make sure that all necessary
tasks are included and that the responsibilities are in line with the overall project goals.

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 Find out who all the stakeholders are and what their roles are: A RAM should have a list
of all the people or groups involved in the project, such as internal team members, external
partners, and customers. There should be roles and responsibilities for each stakeholder.
 Give each stakeholder specific tasks and responsibilities: Instead of giving each
stakeholder a general role, it is important to give them specific tasks and responsibilities. This
will help make sure that no one’s responsibilities get mixed up or left out.
 Make sure that all stakeholders know about and understand the RAM: It is important to
make sure that all stakeholders know about and understand the RAM. This can be done by
having regular meetings and giving updates, as well as by putting the RAM in writing.
 Review and update the RAM often: As the project moves forward, it may be necessary to
review and update the RAM. This can help make sure that the RAM stays correct and helps
the project reach its goals.
Difference Between a Responsibility Assignment Matrix and a Responsible, Accountable,
Consulted, and Informed (RACI) matrix.
The difference between a RAM matrix and RACI matrix is:
 A Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) describes the participation of various
organizations, people, and their roles in completing tasks or deliverables in a Work Break
Down Structure (WBS) for a project.
 A Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed (RACI) matrix is used on projects
where multiple groups of people as assigned a task. It helps on larger projects with a lot of
people and organizations. It also helps with outside stakeholders and their responsibilities on
a project.
 A RACI can have multiple RAM within it.
EXTERNAL CAUSES OF DELAY AND INTERNAL CONSTRAINTS
It is critical for the project manager to understand how project delays creep up while managing
projects. Only then they could prevent them from happening or deal with them when they inadvertently
occur.
Here are some of the most common causes for delays:
 Changes in project scope
 Resources become unavailable
 The project timeline is not planned properly

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 Project objectives and deliverables are not realistic within the project constraint
 External vendors don’t deliver on time
 The communication between project stakeholders is not effective
 Unpredictable external changes like disasters
Impact of delays in project
 If so many companies and project managers experience project delays, it can’t be that big a deal,
right? Wrong. Project delays cause a whole host of issues, some of which might not be obvious
right away.
 Delays add to project costs. Every day you’re late is another day paying for personnel and other
resources that weren’t factored into the budget. Time is money, after all. But there are other costs
to consider.
 Learn why project time management is essential in managing projects effectively.
 Your company’s reputation with the customer and other stakeholders could be damaged, not to
mention your reputation with your bosses.
 If your project is late, you may cause delays in other projects by tying up resources that are
needed elsewhere.
 If the delay is extreme enough, the entire project collapses and leads to project failure.
6 ways to avoid project delays
Clearly, project delays are best avoided, but is that even possible? To a wide extent, yes. While
you can’t prevent every delay, you can certainly take steps to keep your project on track and mitigate the
damage from delays that do occur.
1. Set realistic goals for your projects
Setting realistic goals is possibly the biggest factor in determining whether you’ll complete your
project on time.
Sometimes it’s tempting to set extremely ambitious goals, either to make a good impression or
because the client expects it.
Check out how project management tips can help you strategize projects effectively and
efficiently.
Remember that it’s far better to under promise and overdeliver than to overpromise and
underdeliver. Good goals are realistic, clear, and measurable.
 Realistic– Can we accomplish this goal with the allotted time and resources available to us?
 Clear– Do we know exactly what is being asked of us? Does everyone understand?

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 Measurable– Are there quantifiable indicators with which we can judge each goal?
2. Hold a team meeting
At the beginning of your project, gather your project team to communicate the vision for the
project.
Make sure everyone understands their roles as well as the purpose of the project as a whole.
Highlight the key project milestones you’ve set in your project plan and explain the benchmarks
for success.
Spend some time discussing the goals of the project and, if necessary, clarifying how they’ll be
measured.
3. Gather the right resources
It’s difficult to overstate the importance of gathering the right resources.
When it comes to financial resources, you’ve almost certainly been given a limited budget;
evaluate whether the amount budgeted can truly cover the project costs and then make adjustments or
secure additional funding at the outset.
Your most important resources are the people working with you on the project.
Assess the composition of your team to see if you have enough people to get the project done on
schedule and whether all those people have the necessary project management skills.
If not, you’ll need to update your project plan to factor in how much time and money it will cost
to add team members, provide training, or outsource to cover the gaps.
Don’t neglect the material resources required for your project.
Things like office space, computers, printers, and software are vital, and you can’t take for
granted that they’ll be available.
4. Schedule carefully
A project schedule is more than a timetable. It’s a comprehensive document that details the
project timeline and the organizational resources required to complete each task.
To create a project schedule, divide the project into
 individual tasks and activities,
 various phases of the project,
 determine project dependencies,
 sequence the activities, and
 estimate the required resources and duration of each task

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with the help of a project scheduling tool. The schedule should be readily available to every member of
the project team.
5. Track and measure progress
Data collection is crucial to project success. It’s important to set good goals, but it does little
good if you don’t collect data in order to track and measure your project progress towards those goals so
that it will increase transparency in projects.
You must have systems for tracking task completion, quality, and budget. Take account regularly to see
if your team is on target.
6. Forecast
Forecasting in project management consists of taking stock of the current status of the project at
a given point and extrapolating from the available data to predict results at the end of the project.
At the beginning of the project, there’s not enough data to forecast with any accuracy, so
forecasting should only be done once the project is at least 25% complete.
Forecasting takes project risks into account and can be cast in terms of time, cost, quality, or a
combination of those factors.
If your forecast shows your off target, you can often take the opportunity to course-correct
before the project is delayed.
If you discover it’s too late to prevent a delay, there are steps you can take to mitigate the
severity of the delay.

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