Journal of Sports Sciences, June 2005; 23(6): 593 – 599

Fatigue in soccer: A brief review

MAGNI MOHR, PETER KRUSTRUP, & JENS BANGSBO

Institute of Exercise and Sport Sciences, Department of Human Physiology, August Krogh Institute, University of Copenhagen,
Copenhagen, Denmark

(Accepted 24 July 2004)

Abstract
This review describes when fatigue may develop during soccer games and the potential physiological mechanisms that cause
fatigue in soccer. According to time – motion analyses and performance measures during match-play, fatigue or reduced
performance seems to occur at three different stages in the game: (1) after short-term intense periods in both halves; (2) in
the initial phase of the second half; and (3) towards the end of the game. Temporary fatigue after periods of intense exercise
in the game does not appear to be linked directly to muscle glycogen concentration, lactate accumulation, acidity or the
breakdown of creatine phosphate. Instead, it may be related to disturbances in muscle ion homeostasis and an impaired
excitation of the sarcolemma. Soccer players’ ability to perform maximally is inhibited in the initial phase of the second half,
which may be due to lower muscle temperatures compared with the end of the first half. Thus, when players perform low-
intensity activities in the interval between the two halves, both muscle temperature and performance are preserved. Several
studies have shown that fatigue sets in towards the end of a game, which may be caused by low glycogen concentrations in a
considerable number of individual muscle fibres. In a hot and humid environment, dehydration and a reduced cerebral
function may also contribute to the deterioration in performance. In conclusion, fatigue or impaired performance in soccer
occurs during various phases in a game, and different physiological mechanisms appear to operate in different periods of a
game.

Keywords: Time–motion analysis, high-intensity exericse, sprint performance, muscle metabolism.

aerobic loading during a game is about 75% of

Introduction
The physical aspects of soccer have been studied
intensively in male participants. Using time – motion
analysis, it has been demonstrated that elite players
typically cover a total distance of 9 – 12 km during a
game (Bangsbo 1994; Bangsbo, Nørregaard, &
Thorsøe, 1991; Reilly & Thomas, 1976; Rienzi,
Drust, Reilly, Carter, & Martin, 1998; Van Gool,
Van Gerven, & Boutmans, 1988; Mohr, Krustrup, &
Bangsbo, 2003a; Mohr, Ellingsgaard, Andersson,
Bangsbo, & Krustrup, 2003b). The type of exercise
performed in soccer is intermittent, with a change in
activity every 4 – 6 s (Bangsbo, 1994; Mohr et al.,
2003a,b; Reilly & Thomas, 1976). Thus, an inter-
national top-class player performs approximately
1350 activities during a game, including about 220
runs at high speed (Mohr et al., 2003a). Besides
running, other game-related and energy-demanding
activities, such as dribbling, tackling and heading,
contribute to the overall demands on the player
(Bangsbo, 1994; Reilly, 1997). On average, the
maximal oxygen uptake (Bangsbo, 1994; Mohr et al.,
2003b; Reilly, 1994), with the anaerobic system
being highly taxed during intense periods of a game
(Bangsbo, 1994; Ekblom, 1986; Krustrup et al.,
2003a; Reilly 1997). This review discusses fatigue
during a game and the physiological mechanisms
that may impair a player’s physical performance.
Fatigue is defined as ‘‘failure to maintain the
required or expected power output’’ (Edwards,
1983).
Temporary fatigue during a game
Studies have demonstrated that the amount of
sprinting, high-intensity running and distance cov-
ered are lower in the second half than in the first half
of a game (Bangsbo, 1994; Bangsbo et al., 1991;
Mohr et al., 2003a,b; Reilly & Thomas, 1976). This
may indicate that performance is inhibited in the
second half and fatigue occurs towards the end of a
game. The question is whether the players also

Correspondence: J. Bangsbo, The August Krogh Institute, IFI, Universitetsparken 13, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark. E-mail: jbangsbo@aki.ku.dk
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online ª 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/02640410400021286
594 M. Mohr et al.
experience temporary fatigue during a game. In a
recent study, top-class professional male players were
examined in competitive games at the highest
international level by the use of time – motion video
analysis (Mohr et al., 2003a). The amount of high-
intensity running in the 5-min period immediately
after the most intense 5-min interval recorded during
the game was observed to be less than the average of
the entire game (Figure 1). This phenomenon has
also been found in top-class women’s soccer
(unpublished observations). This finding indicates
that performance was reduced after a period of
intense exercise, which could have been a result of
the natural variation in the intensity in games due to
tactical or psychological factors. However, in another
study players performed a repeated sprint test
immediately after a short-term intense period during
the game and at the end of each half (Krustrup et al.,
2003a). It was shown that after intense periods in the
first half, the players’ sprint performance was
significantly reduced, whereas at the end of the first
half the ability to perform repeated sprints was
recovered (Figure 2). Together, these results suggest
that soccer players experience fatigue temporarily
during the game.
Average blood lactate concentrations of 3 –
6 mmol × l71 have been observed during soccer
games, with individual values above 12 mmol × l71
(Agnevik, 1970; Bangsbo, 1994; Ekblom, 1986;
Krustrup et al., 2003a). Such values suggest that
the anaerobic energy system is highly taxed during
intense periods of the game. In a recent study of
muscle lactate and pH during a soccer match,
muscle lactate rose fourfold compared with resting
values after intense periods in both halves. In
concert, muscle acidosis was markedly elevated after
these intense sequences (Krustrup et al., 2003a).
Figure 1. High-intensity running in the most intense 5-min period
during the game, the following 5-min period as well as the game
average for elite players during competitive matches (n = 18). *
Significant difference between the 5-min period immediately after
the most intense period during the game and the game average
(data from Mohr et al., 2003a).
Additionally, a weak but significant correlation
(r = 0.41) was found between muscle lactate and
decreased sprinting performance after an intense
period (Krustrup et al., 2003a). Therefore, it could
be suggested that temporary fatigue during a game
may be related to high muscle lactate concentrations
and/or muscle acidosis, since it has been demon-
strated in vitro that high lactate and low pH impair
muscle performance during intense contractions
(Fitts, 1994). However, muscle lactate concentra-
tions during the game were rather low (on average
*20 mmol × kg71 dry weight) compared with those
found at exhaustion after high-intensity exercise
(Bangsbo, Graham, Kiens, & Saltin, 1992a; Bangsbo
et al., 1992b; Gaitanos, Williams, Boobis, & Brooks,
1993). Furthermore, in a study using the Yo-Yo
intermittent recovery test, in which athletes perform
intense intermittent exercise to exhaustion, muscle
lactate and pH recorded 1.5 min before the point of
fatigue were not different from those seen at
exhaustion (Krustrup et al., 2003b). Thus, it is
unlikely that elevated muscle lactate and lowered
muscle pH cause fatigue during a soccer game. The
development of fatigue that occurs temporarily
during a game may be due to low muscle creatine
phosphate concentrations, since performance in
intense intermittent exercise has been demonstrated
to be elevated after a period of creatine supplementa-
tion (Balsom, Seger, Sjödin, & Ekblom, 1992;
Greenhaff, Bodin, Söderlund, & Hultman, 1994).
In addition, it has been shown that after intense
periods in soccer the decrease in muscle creatine
phosphate is significantly correlated with impairment
in sprint ability (Krustrup et al., 2003a). On the other
hand, muscle creatine phosphate was only lowered
by 25%, which in part could be due to the fast
recovery of creatine phosphate and the approxi-
mately 20 s delay in collecting the muscle biopsy in
this study. Creatine phosphate may have been
significantly lower in individual muscle fibres, since
the stores of creatine phosphate have been reported
to be almost depleted in individual fibres at the point
of fatigue after intense exercise (Søderlund &
Hultman, 1991). However, during the Yo-Yo
intermittent recovery test, no changes were observed
in muscle creatine phosphate in the final phase of
exercise (Krustrup et al., 2003b), and this fact argues
against creatine phosphate having a potential inhibi-
tory effect on performance during intense
intermittent exercise. Together, these findings sug-
gest that temporary fatigue in soccer is not causally
linked to high muscle lactate, high muscle acidosis or
low muscle creatine phosphate.
It has been suggested that the development of
fatigue during high-intensity exercise is related to an
accumulation of potassium in the muscle interstitium
(Bangsbo, Madsen, Kiens, & Richter, 1996; Fitts,

Figure 2. Performance of three 30-m sprints separated by 25 s of
active recovery expressed as a percentage of the best sprint
performance (n = 16). The three sprints were performed before
the game and immediately after an intense period in each half of a
soccer game (A, n = 16) as well as before the game and
immediately after each half (B, n = 20). * Significant difference
from pre-match sprint performance (data from Krustrup et al.,
2003a).
1994; Nordsborg, Mohr, Pedersen, Nielsen, &
Bangsbo, 2003). At the point of exhaustion after
intense short-term exercise (*5 min), the interstitial
potassium concentration is elevated to around
12 mmol × l71 (Nielsen et al., 2004; Nordsborg et
al., 2003; Mohr et al., 2004b), which according to in
vitro studies is high enough to depolarize the muscle
membrane potential and reduce force development
markedly (Cairnes & Dulhunty, 1995). Part of the
potassium loss from the muscle during intense
exercise has been proposed to occur through the
KATP channels located in the sarcolemma, which
tend to open when intramuscular pH declines
(Davies, 1990; Davies, Standen, & Stanfield,
1991). Hence, the accumulation of interstitial
potassium may be closely related to the anaerobic
Fatigue in soccer 595
metabolism. In line with this, Nordsborg et al. (2003)
demonstrated that the rate of accumulation of
interstitial potassium in exercising human leg muscle
was significantly increased when muscle pH was
lowered (Bangsbo et al., 1996) due to intense arm
exercise before the leg exercise. Thus, soccer players
may experience temporary fatigue as a consequence
of accumulation of extracellular potassium and
concomitant electrical disturbances in the muscle
cell. However, at present little is known about
potassium turnover in the muscle during a soccer
game.
Fatigue at the end of a game
The amount of high-intensity exercise declines
towards the end of a match (Bangsbo, 1994;
Bangsbo et al., 1991; Mohr et al., 2003a; Reilly &
Thomas, 1976; Rienzi et al., 1998) (Figure 3a).
Thus, Mohr et al. (2003a) observed that for both top-
class players and professional players of a lower
standard, the amount of high-intensity running was
reduced in the last 15 min of a game. This was seen
in both groups of players despite the fact that the top-
class players exercised at a much higher intensity.
Furthermore, only 3% of the players had their most
intense exercise period in the last 15 min of the
game, and more than 40% of the players had their
least intense exercise period in the last 15 min
(Figure 3b). This study only included top-class male
players; however, it has also been shown in top-class
female players that the exercise intensity declines in
the final phase of a game (Mohr et al., 2003b).
Apparently, most players experience fatigue towards
the end of the game. Accordingly, the ability to
perform repeated sprints was reduced after com-
pared with before a game (Krustrup et al., 2003a;
Mohr, Krustrup, Nybo, Nielsen, & Bangsbo, 2004a;
Rebelo, Krustrup, Soares, & Bangsbo, 1998) (see
Figure 3). Furthermore, it was observed that
substitutes who came on in the second half sprinted
and ran at a high intensity (63 and 25% more,
respectively) than players who played the entire game
(Figure 4). Thus, the reduction in exercise intensity
and sprint performance in the final phase of games is
independent of playing position, level of competition
and gender, indicating that most players utilize their
physical potential during a game.
Blood samples taken during soccer games have
shown that blood lactate concentration declines in
the later stages of a game, whereas plasma free fatty
acids are increased (Bangsbo, 1994; Krustrup et al.,
2003a). This trend is a result of reduced exercise
intensity and a change in substrate utilization
towards the end of a game. An increasing lipid
turnover during the game may be induced by low
muscle glycogen concentrations together with ele-
596 M. Mohr et al.
vated concentrations of catecholamine (Bangsbo,
1994; Galbo, 1983). The results of studies using
dietary manipulation indicate that lowered muscle
glycogen contributes to the development of fatigue
during long-term intermittent exercise (Balsom,
Gaintanos, Søderlund, & Ekblom, 1999; Bangsbo,
Nørregaard, & Thorsøe, 1992c). In a number of
studies, muscle glycogen has been determined
before, during and after a game. In a study by Saltin
(1973), the muscle glycogen stores were almost
depleted at half time when the pre-match levels were
low (*200 mmol × kg71 dry weight). When the
players started the game with normal muscle glyco-
gen concentrations (*400 mmol × kg71 dry weight),
the values were still rather high at half time, but
below 50 mmol × kg71 dry weight at the end of the
game. Others obtained muscle biopsies before and
after a game and found the glycogen concentrations
to be *200 mmol × kg71 dry weight after the game
(Jacobs, Westlin, Karlson, Rasmusson, & Houghton,
1982; Smaros, 1980), indicating that muscle glyco-
gen stores are not always depleted during a soccer
Figure 3. Distance covered by sprinting during 15-min periods
throughout competitive soccer games at the highest international
level (A, n = 18) and distribution of 15-min intervals with the
most (&) and least (&) intense running for elite players during
competitive matches (B, n = 93). * Significant difference from the
first four 15-min periods of the game (modified from Mohr et al.,
2003a).
game. Recently, muscle tissue obtained before and
after a soccer game was analysed for muscle fibre
type specific glycogen depletion, using the PAS-
staining technique (Krustrup et al., 2003a). It was
shown that after the game about half of the type I and
type IIA fibres were almost or completely depleted of
muscle glycogen. Thus, fatigue at the end of soccer
games may be caused by glycogen depletion of
individual muscle fibres. Hypoglycaemia has also
been suggested to cause fatigue during long-term
exercise (Fitts, 1994), but the blood glucose con-
centration does not reach critical values during a
soccer game (Bangsbo, 1994; Ekblom, 1986; Krustr-
up et al., 2003a). Other factors such as dehydration
and hyperthermia have also been suggested as agents
responsible for the development of fatigue in the later
stages of a soccer game (Reilly, 1997). During a
soccer game played in a normal thermal environ-
ment, many players lose more than 3 litres of fluid
(Bangsbo, 1994; Reilly, 1997), which may have a
negative effect on performance towards the end of
the match (Saltin, 1964). It has been demonstrated
that a loss in body mass of only 1 – 2% contributes to
an elevation in core temperature as well as cardio-
vascular strain (Hoffman et al., 1994). In soccer, the
average core temperature ranges from 39.0 to 39.58C
(Ekblom, 1986; Mohr et al., 2004a; Smodlaka,
1978). In these studies, individual values were above
408C, which may be high enough to induce central
fatigue due to a deterioration in cerebral function
(Nybo & Nielsen; 2001). However, Mohr et al.
(2004a) found no differences in core temperature
between the end of the first and the second halves. In
a hot and humid environment, a decrease in body
fluid of 4 – 5 litres (Mustafa & Mahmoud, 1979) can
occur and hyperthermia may become a key factor in
the development of fatigue in the final stage of the
game.
Figure 4. High-intensity running and sprinting during the final
15 min of a game by players participating in the entire game (&)
and substitutes only participating in the second half (&). *
Significant difference between substitutes and players participating
in the entire game (data from Mohr et al., 2003a).
 Fatigue in soccer 597

Impaired performance in the initial phase of the

second half
It has been shown that top-class male soccer players
perform less high-intensity running in the first
5 min of the second half compared with the first
half (see Figure 5). In the following two 5-min
periods, no differences were found between the two
halves (Mohr et al., 2003a). This pattern is also
seen in the women’s game (unpublished observa-
tions) and in match officials (Krustrup & Bangsbo,
2001; Krustrup, Mohr, & Bangsbo, 2002). Such
findings lead to the proposal that the normal
routines of resting during the entire 15-min half- Figure 5. High-intensity running by elite soccer players during the
time interval in soccer is not an optimal preparation initial phase of the first (&) and second (&) halves of competitive
games (n = 42). * Significant difference between the two halves
for the second half, which has been suggested to (data from Mohr et al., 2003a).
relate to a decline in muscle temperature (Bangsbo,
1995).
Several studies have found a close relationship
between muscle temperature and high-intensity
exercise performance (Asmussen & Bøje, 1945;
Bergh & Ekblom, 1979; Houmnad et al., 1991;
Sargeant, 1987; Stewart & Sleivert, 1998). In a
recent study, it was shown that muscle temperature
was higher than 398C after a proper warm-up before
a soccer match and that it remained at this level
throughout the first half (Mohr et al., 2004a).
However, during the half-time break, muscle
temperature declined by around 28C when the
players carried out their normal routines (Figure 6).
The players also performed a sprint test before as
well as after each half; the ability to sprint
repeatedly was unchanged at the end of the first
half, but after the half-time break sprint perfor- Figure 6. Muscle temperature measured repeatedly during a
mance had deteriorated (Mohr et al., 2004a). friendly soccer game (n = 8). * Significant difference between the
Another group of players in the same game carried same point in the two halves (data from Mohr et al., 2004a).
out a re-warm-up period, consisting of low- to
moderate-intensity aerobic activities, in the final 7 –
8 min of the half-time interval. These players were
able to maintain both muscle temperature and
sprint performance during the half-time break
(Figure 7). Moreover, a significant negative correla-
tion (r = 70.62) was observed between the
decrease in sprint performance and the decrease
in muscle temperature at half-time (Mohr et al.,
2004a). These results indicate that soccer players
perform better physically when they prepare for the
second half by re-warming at half-time, which
appears to be related to a high maintained muscle
temperature. However, the high sprint performance
after a re-warm-up period at half-time may also be
related to physiological mechanisms independent of
muscle temperature (e.g. muscle oxygen uptake
kinetics are accelerated by previous exercise without
Figure 7. Sprint performance before and after each half with (&)
a coherent change in muscle temperature) (Krus- and without (&) a period of active re-warm-up at half-time
trup, Gonzaléz-Alonso, Quistorff, & Bangsbo, 2001; (n = 16). * Significant difference from pre-match sprint perfor-
McDonald, Pedersen, & Hughson, 1997). mance (data from Mohr et al., 2004a).
598 M. Mohr et al.
Summary
The exercise intensity of top-class soccer players
declines in periods during a game, most likely due to
fatigue. These critical parts of the game may be
immediately after short-term intense periods (tem-
porary fatigue) in the initial phase of the second half
and towards the end of the game. The physiological
mechanisms responsible for fatigue appear to change
during different periods of a match. Temporary
fatigue may be related to disturbed muscle ion
homeostasis. Impaired exercise ability in the first
few minutes after half-time could be explained by a
markedly lowered muscle temperature at the start of
the second half. The decrement in the last stage of a
game may be caused by a depletion of muscle
glycogen in individual fibres, and under thermal
stress conditions also dehydration and the concomi-
tant hyperthermia.
Acknowledgement
The original studies by the authors presented in this
review were supported by Team Danmark and The
Sports Research Council (Idrættens Forskningsråd).
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