 Time

 Project scope

 Budget

Despite the availability of multiple resources, project management tools,

training materials, and flexible methodologies, companies are still wasting

millions of dollars every year and are struggling to tackle the project

management challenges and issues they face.

A study published in the Harvard Business Review states that one in every

six projects costs more than 200 percent of the estimated amount and almost

70 percent of IT projects face project delays. It is the job of project managers

to prevent that but in doing so they face a lot of challenges.

1. Scope creep
Scope creep is a natural and expected phenomenon for any project. There

are times when it can be beneficial but mostly the cons outweigh the

pros. 52% of project teams reported facing scope creep in 2017 and the

trend is continuing upwards. Clients who don’t precisely know what they want

and have vague requirements are one of the biggest project management

challenges for both managers and the project team.

How to deal with it:

Proactively engaging with clients during the project planning phase can help

you get their exact requirements as well as understand their expectations.

Additionally, planning your resource and talent usage accurately is also key.

It’s also important to not take up ad-hoc change requests during project

execution as this can result in delays and added costs. Stick to the initial

plan.

2. Lack of communication
Effective communication in project management is extremely important for a

successful project. You need to have timely and transparent methods of

communication to ensure that all stakeholders are involved in the process.

Deloitte states that 32 percent of professionals believe that communication is

the biggest issue of project management.

Miscommunication is also dangerous for project teams because it affects

their teamwork. It can cause conflicts among team members and can

potentially delay the project.

How to deal with it:

Project managers often rely on various collaborative and project

management software available in the market in order to ensure that

everyone stays updated. Project collaboration tools not only make it easier

for managers to carry on their duties but also ensure greater transparency in

projects and accountability within the team. This is achieved through features

such as contextual comments, @mentions, and priority assignment

capabilities.

Additionally, regular, short stand-up meetings a few times weekly can go a

long way in preventing miscommunication.

3. Lack of clear goals and success criteria

Clarity is one of the most important requirements for the successful

completion of the project and the lack of it creates several project

management issues. A study states that about 39% of projects fail due to the
lack of a project plan and a clearly defined project goal.

It is also important for a project manager to come up with a way of

quantifying project progress by setting up project milestones and quality

tests. In addition to helping your team progress, having a clear set of

objectives will also help project managers defend their vision in front of the

upper management and the customers.

How to deal with it:

Popular approaches to goal setting like SMART and CLEAR can help a

project manager come up with a set of effective goals right from the start of a

project. This can help overcome the barriers of project management.

Additionally, one must keep in mind that not clearly defining goals is a

mistake. Therefore, once you create goals for your project team, make them

obvious to teammates. Document them.

4. Budgeting issues
Most managers consider financial issues as one of the biggest hurdles in

effective project management. A study in 2017 revealed that 49.5 % of

manufacturing managers report costs as the biggest project management

challenge they face. By efficient cost management, a manager can avoid

various common complications a project may face and strive for better and

quicker results.

How to deal with it:

It is absolutely necessary to adopt a proper project scheduling tool, budgeting

procedure and make realistic assumptions to avoid cost overruns. Planning

the project scope must be done keeping in mind the budget in hand. Else,

budget limitations could threaten the very success of a poorly budgeted

project. Like everywhere else in project management, documenting is key.

5. Inadequate skills of team members

A chain is as strong as its weakest link and in the case of project teams,

performance highly depends on their individual skill levels. As a project

manager, you can create the most ideal environment but if the team does not

possess the necessary skills to tackle the problem at hand, your project is

bound to fail. This is a huge project management problem that can only be

solved with proper experience and foresight.

How to deal with it:

Effective project managers pre-determine the needed project management

skills and competencies and assess the available workforce to determine

whether t additional staff and skillsets are required or not.

An effective project initiation plan will deal with the needs of the project and

the resources required to accomplish it. These resources include the human

skill component as well. The project plan will further build upon the

groundwork of the initiation document.

6. Inadequate risk management

Having the foresight to identify potential ‘what if’ scenarios and making up

contingency plans is an important aspect of project management. Projects

rarely go exactly as planned because there are so many variables that can

create unlimited possibilities.

How to deal with it:

It is the job of every project manager to come up with alternate plans that the

team may adopt if the project begins to spiral out of control. Having a project

risk management system helps in identifying the types of risks and mitigating
them. Having a contingency plan in place is critical. This plan should identify

all risks that the course of action to be taken if they materialize it.

7. Lack of accountability
A project team performs really well when every member feels responsible

and tries to fulfill the role assigned to them. Lack of accountability on the part

of team members can sink an entire project.

How to deal with it:

Effective project managers assign responsibilities to team members and

direct the team toward the common goal of successfully completing their

project. Having a project tool that allows responsibilities to be assigned and

tracked is key to fostering accountability. Additionally, having regular check-

ins within the team also fosters accountability.

8. The limited engagement of stakeholders

It is important for project managers to ensure that all the project

stakeholders are on the same page and have a clear vision of the project. An

uninvolved client can cause a lot of problems in the final stages of a project

so it’s important to consider the customer’s feedback and keep them updated

throughout the project.

How to deal with it:

Invite your client and other stakeholders to your project management tool so

they can actively participate in shaping the project and providing feedback.
Further, ensure that you keep all internal and external stakeholders in the

loop right from the project planning stage. Schedule regular meetings with all

stakeholders and address their concerns as required.

9. Unrealistic deadlines
Having an impossible deadline is another project management challenge that

can severely affect the quality of the end product. Any effective project

manager knows the capability of the project team and negotiates the project

timeline by prioritizing deadlines and project tasks.

What Is Qualitative vs.

Quantitative Study?
There are two distinct types of data collection and study—qualitative and

quantitative. While both provide an analysis of data, they differ in their

approach and the type of data they collect. Awareness of these approaches

can help researchers construct their study and data collection methods.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data Collection

As qualitative and quantitative studies collect different data, their data

collection methods differ considerably. Quantitative studies rely on numerical

or measurable data. In contrast, qualitative studies rely on personal accounts

or documents that illustrate in detail how people think or respond within

society.

Qualitative Research
Qualitative research methods include gathering and interpreting non-

numerical data. The following are some sources of qualitative data:1

 Interviews

 Focus groups

 Documents

 Personal accounts or papers

 Cultural records

 Observation

In the course of a qualitative study, the researcher may conduct interviews or

focus groups to collect data that is not available in existing documents or

records. To allow freedom for varied or unexpected answers, interviews and

focus groups may be unstructured or semi-structured.

An unstructured or semi-structured format allows the researcher to pose

open-ended questions and follow where the responses lead. The responses
provide a comprehensive perspective on each individual’s experiences,

which are then compared with those of other participants in the study.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative studies, in contrast, require different data collection methods.

These methods include compiling numerical data to test causal relationships

among variables. Some forms of data collection for this type of study

include:1

 Experiments
  Questionnaires

 Surveys

 Database reports

The above collection methods yield data that lends itself to numerical

analysis. Questionnaires in this case have a multiple-choice format to

generate countable answers, like yes or no, which can be turned into

quantifiable data.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Outcomes

One of the factors distinguishing qualitative from quantitative studies is the

nature of the intended outcome. Qualitative researchers seek to learn from

details of the testimonies of those they are studying, also called their

informants. Over the course of a study, conclusions are drawn by compiling,

comparing and evaluating the informants’ feedback and input. Qualitative

research is often focused on answering the “why” behind a phenomenon,

correlation or behavior.

In contrast, quantitative data are analyzed numerically to develop a statistical

picture of a trend or connection. Such statistical results may shed light on

cause-and-effect relationships. They may either confirm or disprove the

study’s original hypothesis. Whether positive or negative, the outcome can

spark awareness and action. Quantitative research is often focused on

answering the questions of “what” or “how” in regards to a phenomenon,

correlation or behavior.

Benefits and Limitations

Each form of research has benefits and shortcomings. Researchers must

consider their hypotheses and what forms of data collection and analysis are

likely to produce the most relevant findings.

Qualitative Studies: Pros and Cons

The qualitative method allows for creativity, varied interpretations and

flexibility. The scope of the research project can change as more information

is gathered.

However, qualitative studies are more subjective in their results and

interpretation than are quantitative studies. The expertise and perspective of

the researcher may strongly influence the interpretation of results and the

conclusions reached, as personal bias can be hard to manage. In addition,

qualitative studies often test a smaller sample size because of the costs and

efforts associated with qualitative data collection methods.1

Quantitative Studies: Pros and Cons

Quantitative studies produce objective data, free from the subjectivity of a

qualitative study. Results can be clearly communicated through statistics and

numbers. Quantitative studies can be quickly produced with the benefit of

data computing software.

Yet, while the objectivity is a benefit of the quantitative method, it can be

viewed as a more restrictive form of study. Participants cannot tailor their

responses or add context. Further, statistical analysis requires a large data

sample, which calls for a large pool of participants.1

What Is a Common Goal of Qualitative and Quantitative Research?

Both quantitative and qualitative methods seek to find patterns in the data

they collect that point to a relationship between elements. Qualitative and

quantitative data are both instrumental in supporting existing theories and

developing new ones. Ultimately, the researcher must determine which kind

of research best serves the goals of the study.

Become a Qualitative or Quantitative Researcher

Some researchers choose to adhere to and hone a single methodological

approach throughout their time as doctoral learners — or in their profession.

Research skills are critical in a variety of high-level careers.

If you have a desire to conduct research, a qualitative or quantitative doctoral

degree can support your initiative. Throughout your program, you will learn

methods for constructing a qualitative or quantitative study and producing

written research findings.

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type
of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical

methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured
and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test
hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as

words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences,
opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.
Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the
phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and

qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be
observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting

non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to

understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to

their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or

audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or

in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive,

naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative

researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense

of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.

Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of

some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of

psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not

seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture

the totality of human experience and the essence of being human. Exploring

participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re:

Humanism ).
The aim of qualitative research is to understand the social reality of

individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as its participants feel

it or live it. ThResearch following a qualitative approach is exploratory and

seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior,

operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate

hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary

accounts, in-depth interviews, documents, focus groups, case study

research, and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how

people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within

the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials,

ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts,

documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal

experience.
Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Examples

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts: Verbatim records of what participants said during an

interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes

and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts

can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support

research findings.

Observations: The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they

observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other

relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain

insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions,

and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews: generate qualitative data through the use of open

questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their

own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s

understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals: Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text.

Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered

qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors,

environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher

does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily

write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be

used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory

(Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or

discourse analysis.us, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.
Key Features
 Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context.
Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field,
in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived;
they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
 Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for
themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions.
Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the
persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.

 Thequalitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the

active participation of the researcher, no data exists.

 Thestudy’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or

changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no
single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the
observer.

 Thetheory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process,

evolving from the data as they are collected.
Limitations of Qualitative Research
 Becauseof the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not
generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.

 Theproblem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism.

Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in
single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of
reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played
by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to
replicate qualitative studies.

 Also,
contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be
replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider
context than the one studied with confidence.

 The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is

lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge
of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must
be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness
symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

 Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an
insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that
are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the
scientific, more positivistic inquiries.

 Qualitativedescriptions can be important in suggesting possible

relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.

 Qualitative
analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data,
which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).

 Qualitativeresearch uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research

might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could
turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might
otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and
analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between

variables, make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and

phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a
theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods
Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with
measuring things. However, other research methods, such as controlled
observations and questionnaires, can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would

generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that
can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how a research participant can react to and

express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of

the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

Examples
There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research,
including mental health. Here are a few examples:

1. Standardized psychological assessments: One example of a

standardized psychological assessment of IQ that uses quantitative data
is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a
self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles.

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess

attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

2. Neuroimaging data: Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and

fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.
 This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific
mental processes or disorders.

3. Clinical outcome measures: The use of clinical outcome measures

provides objective, standardized data that can be used to assess
treatment effectiveness and monitor symptoms over time, helping
mental health professionals make informed decisions about treatment
and care.
For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-
administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of
depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with

higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms.

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with
decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing
patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or
inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential

statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between
groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized
control study).

Key Features
 Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by
conducting their studies in the lab.
 The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated
from the data.
 The design of the study is determined before it begins.
 For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately
from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
 Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

 Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings.
In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or
the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants
(Carr, 1994).
  Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical
analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation
(Black, 1999).

 Variabilityof data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more
accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable
because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also
affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.

 Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena

because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the
theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

 Scientificobjectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with
statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of
mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically
objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).

 Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.

 Rapidanalysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for

prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data
involved (Antonius, 2003).

 Replication:Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be

checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities
of interpretation.

 Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius,

2003).
 6 STAGES IN THE
INNOVATION PROCESS
Innovation is a collaborative process by which organizations abandon old paradigms and make
significant advances. Innovative ideas come from several sources, including “unreasonable”
demands or goals and time pressures. However, there are many blocks to innovation. An
innovative idea is not helpful to an organization unless it is tested and implemented. This article
presents the six steps in the innovation process.

There are six stages in the process of innovation: generating ideas, capturing ideas, beginning
innovation, developing a business-effectiveness strategy, applying business improvement, and
decline.

1. Generating Ideas

Generating ideas is the exhilarating part of the process. It is done in teams, rather than
individually. Innovative ideas generally come from a vision, an unreasonable demand, or a goal.

2. Capturing Ideas
Capturing the ideas from the first stage is done by means of team discussion or discussion among
peers. It is important to record the ideas.

3. Beginning Innovation

Review the list of ideas and develop them into a series of statements of ideas. Next, quantify the
benefits of each idea to be pursued. Do this in reference to the department, the organization,
and/or the customer. Describe how the statement fits with the organization’s strategy, mission,
and objectives. Finally, estimate the business potential—the expected outcomes of implementing
the idea. These steps are designed to capture the idea and have the team members agree on a
statement of feasibility before presenting the suggested innovation to management.

4. Developing a Business-Effectiveness Strategy

Innovation implementation begins here. It usually means rethinking an existing process, product,
or service. This is not the same as looking at an existing process and improving it. It is describing
what a future process (such as building a house in three hours) will look like.

The team first develops this “picture of the future.” This usually is where the innovation resides.
The easiest way to start is to have the team members list their basic assumptions about the way
things are now done (which the innovation is intended to overcome). Then they brainstorm,
record, and discuss every idea that arises about a possible future process. It helps to use yellow
self-stick notes to record ideas individually and then to consolidate them all. The team concludes
by writing a paragraph that describes the innovation and illustrating it on a flowchart. This
provides the team with a look at the entire future process.

Essentially the team will have detailed how to go about the process without concern for current
thinking or typical procedure. This is similar to what Mary Peter did with her inventory system in
the example at the beginning of this article.

5. Applying Business Improvement

Once the innovation is applied, it is necessary to continuously examine it for possible

improvements (to the process or product or service). In the example of building a house in three
hours, how could the team improve the process by using fewer people or less money?

The team starts this process by identifying the business-process gaps between what is done in the
present and what is done in the innovation. This is followed by identifying the blockages and
barriers to implementing the innovation. Estimating the difficulties, benefits, costs, support
required, and risks is necessary before the team can refine the innovation process. Then it will be
ready to apply the improvements identified.

6. Decline

In time, it often becomes obvious that what was once an innovation no longer fits. Continuous
improvement of the existing process, product, or service is no longer of value; the former
innovation has become outdated or outmoded. It is time to let it go, abandon the existing thinking,
and set a new goal to start the innovation process once again. It is time for new innovations in
response to external pressure.