It may not be obvious while lying in the sun on a hot summer’s day, but a considerable amount of heat is

also coming from below you – emana�ng from deep within the Earth. This heat drives important
geological processes, such as the movement of tectonic plates and the flow of magma near the surface
of the Earth. However, despite this, where exactly up to half of this heat actually comes from is a
mystery. It is thought that a type of neutrinos emited by radioac�ve processes in the Earth’s interior
may provide important clues to solving this mystery. The problem is that they are nearly impossible to
catch.

The known sources of heat from the Earth’s interior are radioac�ve decays, and residual heat from when
our planet was first formed. The amount of hea�ng from radioac�vity, es�mated based on
measurements of the composi�on of rock samples, is highly uncertain – accoun�ng for anywhere from
25-90% of the total heat flow. The main known sources of radioac�vity within the Earth are unstable
types of uranium, thorium and potassium – something we know based on samples of rock up to 200km
below the surface. What lurks beneath that depth is uncertain. We know that the geo-neutrinos emited
when uranium decays have more energy than those emited when potassium splits up. Therefore, by
measuring the energy of geo-neutrinos, we can know what type of radioac�ve material they come from.
In fact, this is a much easier way to figure out what is inside the Earth than drilling tens of kilometres
down below the surface.

Unfortunately, geo-neutrinos are notoriously difficult to detect. Rather than interac�ng with ordinary
mater such as that inside detectors, they tend to just whizz right through them. That’s why it took a
huge underground detector filled with about 1,000 tonnes of liquid to make the first observa�on of geo-
neutrinos, in 2003. These detectors measure neutrinos by registering their collision with atoms in the
liquid. Approximately half of the Earth’s heat caused by radioac�vity (20 terawats) can be explained by
decays of uranium and thorium. The source of the remaining 50% is an open ques�on. However,
measurements so far have been unable to measure the contribu�on from potassium decays – the
neutrinos emited in this process have too low an energy. So it could be that the rest of the heat comes
from potassium decay.

Our new research suggests we can make a map of the heat flow from inside the Earth by measuring the
direc�on the geo-neutrino comes from, as well as its energy. Measuring geo-neutrinos could help map
the heat flow in the Earth’s interior. This would help us unravel the longstanding mystery of what source
of heat powers the convec�on (transfer of heat by movement of fluids) in the outer core that generates
the Earth’s geomagne�c field. This field is vital for retaining our atmosphere which protects life on Earth
from the sun’s harmful radia�on. It’s strange that we know so litle about what’s going on under the
ground that we walk on. That makes it exci�ng to think about how these measurements could finally
allow the pioneering explora�on of the veiled inner workings of the Earth.

Q 1 All of the following are the Earth’s sources of heat EXCEPT:

1.Neutrinos emana�ng from within the earth.

2.Heat from the decay of radioac�ve elements.

3.Heat from the sun.

4.Heat le� over from the planet’s forma�on.

Q 2 All of the following are the Earth’s sources of heat EXCEPT:

1.Neutrinos emana�ng from within the earth.

2.Heat from the decay of radioac�ve elements.

3.Heat from the sun.

4.Heat le� over from the planet’s forma�on.

Q 3 The main purpose of the second paragraph is to suggest that:

1.rock structures vary extensively within the earth.

2.it is not known what lies 200 km below the surface of the earth.

3.naturally-occurring isotopes account for only half of the earth’s interior energy.

4.neutrinos might hold the key to understanding the source of earth’s internal heat.

Described by Hall of Fame broadcaster Harry Caray as "a song that reflects the charisma of baseball,
"Take Me Out to the Ball Game," writen in 1908 by lyricist Jack Norworth and composer Albert von
Tilzer, is inextricably linked to America's na�onal pas�me.

A litle more than a decade ago, George Boziwick, historian and former chief of the music division of the
New York Public Library for the Performing Arts at Lincoln Centre, uncovered the hidden history behind
the tune: the song was writen as Jack Norworth's ode to his girlfriend, the progressive and outspoken
Trixie Friganza, a famous vaudeville actress and suffragist.

Born in Grenola, Kansas, in 1870, Friganza was a vaudeville star by the age of 19, and her life was defined
by her impact both on and off the stage. As a well-known comedic actress, Friganza was best known for
playing larger-than-life characters, including Caroline Vokes in The Orchid and Mrs Radcliffe in The
Sweetest Girl in Paris. Off the stage, she was an influen�al and prominent suffragist who advocated for
women's social and poli�cal equality. The early 1900s were a cri�cal �me in the fight for the vote:
members of the Women's Progressive Suffrage Union held the first suffrage march in the United States in
New York City in 1908, the Na�onal Associa�on for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was
established in 1909 to fight for vo�ng rights of people of colour, and in 1910, 10,000 people gathered in
New York City's Union Square for what was then the largest demonstra�on in support of women's
suffrage in American history.

Friganza, an unflinching supporter in the fight for the ballot, was a vital presence in a movement that
needed to draw young, dynamic women into the cause. She atended rallies in support of women's right
to vote, gave speeches to gathering crowds, and donated generously to suffrage organisa�ons. "I do not
believe any man – at least no man I know – is beter fited to form a poli�cal opinion than I am," Friganza
declared at a suffrage rally in New York City in 1908.

"Trixie was one of the major suffragists," says Susan Clermont, senior music specialist at the Library of
Congress. "She was one of those women with her banner and her hat and her white dress, and she was a
real force to be reckoned with for women's rights." In 1907, Friganza's two worlds—celebrity and
ac�vism—would collide when she began a roman�c rela�onship with Jack Norworth.

Norworth, a well-known vaudeville performer and songwriter in his own right, was married to actress
Louise Dresser when he met Friganza. (When news of the wedded couple's separa�on hit the press,
Dresser announced that her husband was leaving her for the rival vaudeville star.) The affair was at its
peak in 1908 when Norworth, riding the subway alone on an early spring day through New York City,
no�ced a sign that read "Baseball Today—Polo Grounds" and has�ly wrote the lyrics of what would
become "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" on the back of an envelope. Today, those original lyrics,
complete with Norworth’s annota�ons, are on display at the Na�onal Baseball Hall of Fame in
Cooperstown, New York.

Q 1 All of the following statements are true about Friganza EXCEPT:

1.She was a versa�le actress who showcased her talent in different genres.

2.She was vocal in demanding the vo�ng rights of women in the United States.

3.She provided financial support to the suffrage movement in America.

4.She believed in her worth as a competent voter in the male-dominated society.

Q 2 All of the following contributed to Friganza's success as a suffragist EXCEPT:

1.She, herself being a young model, was able to influence and atract youngsters.

2.She was very vocal, and fearlessly advocated women’s equality in society.

3.She played larger-than-life characters on stage that boosted her impact on the movement.

4.The public iden�fied her atrac�ve and dynamic personality with the movement.

Q 3 Which of the following CANNOT be inferred from the passage about Norworth?

1.The song by Norworth was addressed to Friganza.

2.The story behind his lyrics remained hidden for a century.

3.Norworth was gi�ed with a fine lyrical ability.

4.Norworth was an ardent follower of baseball