Spring Mass System m= mass b= damping k = restoring force/spring f(t) = external force o=circular frequency= mx+bx+kx=f(t), if b=0 undamped,

if f(t)=0 unforced If undamped an unforced, solution = C1cos(ot) + C2sin(ot) x(t)=Acos(ot-) Natural Frequency= f0= o/2 Period = T = 1/ f0= A= tan()=c2/c1 where C2 is in front of the sin, and C1 in front of cos. =

How to solve 2nd order linear homogeneous equations with constant coefficients Real characteristic roots For ay+by+cy=0 where a,b,c are real and a 0, characteristic equation is ar2+br+c=0. Find values for r. Case 1: Real Unequal Characteristic Roots y(t)=C1er1t+C2er2t Case 2: Real Repeated Characteristic Root y(t) = C1ert+C2tert Case 3: Complex Characteristic Roots For r1,2=i, y(t)=et(C1cost+C2sint)

Wronskian, if 0, functions are linearly independent How the superposition principle works for homogeneous and non-homogeneous equations If yp(t) is a solution to the NH, and yh(t) is a solution to H, then any other solution to NH can be written as y(t)= yp(t)+ yh(t) Any solution to H can be written as a linear combination of multiple solutions to the NH

Method of Undetermined Coefficients If f(t) = tet, yp(t)= t(At+B) et

If f(t)= 2tcos(3t)+sin(3t), yp(t)=(At+B)cos3t+(Ct+d)sin3t

Remember to find homogenous solution first! How to set up the particular solution using Variation of Parameters For y+p(t)y+q(t)y=f(t) 1. Homogeneous solution: yh(t)=c1y1(t)+c2y2(t) 2. yp(t)=v1(t)y1(t)+v2(t)y2(t) where v1= and v2= , integrate to find solution.

What causes beats and resonance in forced oscillation problems Beats: the circular frequency of the forcing function, f0 or f Resonance: f0 or f = = o= circular frequency o circular frequency

The definition of a Linear Transformation A linear transformation T on a vector space V to a vector space W is a function T:VW that preserves scalar multiplication and vector addition. That is, for all u, v within V and real constants c: o T(cu)=cT(u) o T(u+v)=T(u)+T(v)

How to find the hidden linear transformation in a linear ODE What the kernel and image of a linear transformation are and how to find them The Ker(T) is the set of vectors that map to the 0 vector. o If Ker(T) is the trivial vector, T is injective The Im(T) is the span of the column vectors of the matrix for the LT. If Im(T)=W, then T is surjective. Format: Im(T)=Span{ }

Using the notion of a kernel, how to explain why the solution space of a 2nd order linear homogenous ODE is a vector space Check Closure

Under scalar multiplication: Let v be within Ker(T) and c be a real number, is cv still in the Ker(T)? T(cv)=cT(v)=0 yes Under vector addition: T(v1+v2)=T(v1)+T(v2)=0+0 yes How to compute the matrix of a linear transformation T:Rk > Rn 1. Let en be the standard vectors (1,0) ,(0,1) 2. The standard matrix A of a linear transformation is A=[T(e1)| T(e2)| | T(en)]

How to compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a 2x2 or 3x3 matrix. For the Matrix the matrix becomes and solve for .

Set the determinant equal to 0, so (a

How to change coordinates from a strange basis to the standard basis and vice versa let uB be the coordinate vector relative to basis B={b1,b2,,bn} and us be the coordinate vector relative to the standard basis S

To change coordinates from basis B to the standard basis:

MbuB=us where Mb=[b1|b2||bn] To change coordinates from the standard basis to B: Mb-1us=ub How to diagonalize a matrix An nxn matrix in diagonalizable o iff if it has n linearly independent real eigenvectors o iff the sum of the dimensions of its eigenspaces is n Step 1: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A Step 2: Find the eigenvectors of each eigenvalue. Step 3: Construct an nxn diagonal matrix D of the eigenvalues Step 4: Construct an nxn matrix P with the eigenvectors vi as columns, listed in order corresponding to the eigenvalues in D.

AP=PD A=PDP-1 D=P-1AP The superposition principle for n x n homogenous and nonhomogenous systems of DEs Homogenous: x=Ax, let x1,x2,,xn be solutions for this equation Then, any linear combination of these solution vectors is also a solution for the initial equation. That is, x= c1x1+c2x2++cnxn How to find the hidden linear transformation in linear nxn homogenous and nonhomogenous systems of DEs. The linear transformation is always the matrix multiplied by the vector valued function How to find the solution to homogenous nxn DE systems with constant coefficients For x=Ax Compute the eigenvalues and vectors of A. With eigenvalues 1, 2,, n and vectors v1,v2, ,vn When the eigenvalues are both real, x(t)=C1e 1t v1+C2 e 2t v2 When the eigenvalues are imaginary i, v1,v2=piq: x(t)=C1 et(costp-sintq)+C2 et(sintp+costq) How to draw a rough sketch of the phase plane for autonomous nxn DE systems (linear and nonlinear) What autonomous means in relation to differential equation and what this has to do with sketching the phase plane Autonomous means that there are no ts on the RHS of the equation, meaning that you can sketch general direction arrows of the solutions only depending on x and y, not t. How to find nullclines and what they mean For the equation V-nullcline: where x=f(x,y)=0, and the slopes are all vertical H-nullcline: where y=g(x,y)=0, and the slopes are all horizontal How to determine the stability of the equilibrium solutions for linear 2x2 systems with constant coefficients Trajectories move toward or away from the equilibrium according to the sign of the eigenvalues (- goes towards, + goes away)

How to decouple a 2x2 linear system, what that means and when this is not possible. It is not possible when A is not diagonalizable. NONHOMOGENOUS To decouple: x=Ax+f(t) Step1: Calculate the eigenvalues and find the corresponding n independent eigenvectors of A. Step 2: Form the diagonal matrix D whose diagonal elements are the eigenvalues and the matrix P whose columns are the n eigenvectors, listed in the same order as their corresponding eigenvalues. Then find P-1. Step 3: Let x=Pw and w=Dw+P-1f(t) Then use the solution for w to solve for x. HOMOGENOUS To decouple: x=Ax x=Pw w=Dw

How to solve 2x2 nonhomogeneous systems with constant coefficients (3 methods) Method 1: Decoupling (see above) Method 2: Undetermined coefficients For x=Ax+f(t) 1. Solve homogenous system xh(t) 2. Set xp(t)=a matrix of the same size as f(t) with generalized functions 3. Take the derivative of xp(t) 4. Plug into original equation, and solve for unknown variables 5. x(t)=xh(t)+xp(t) Method 3: Variation of parameters: For x=Ax+f(t) 1. Solve homogenous equation

2. X(t)=the matrix given by the homogenous solution Ex: if xh= C1e3t 3. Find X-1(t) 4. v(t)= X-1(t)f(t) 5. Integrate each component of v. 6. Then, xp= X(t)v(t) 7. x(t)=xh(t)+xp(t) How to linearize a 2x2 nonlinear homogenous systems at an equilibrium solution For the equation translated by u=x-xe and v=y-ye: where How to determine the stability of an equilibrium solution to a 2x2 autonomous nonlinear system Find the eigenvalues of J(xe,ye), see table . How the phase plane trajectories of the nonlinear system near the equilibrium compare to the trajectories of linearization , the linearized system at equilibrium point(xe,ye) +C2e-t , then X(t)=