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    17 Communication and Internet Technologies

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    chem hoang

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    Chapter 17: Communication and Internet technologies By the end of this chapter you should be able to: ‘= showunderstanding of the TCP/IP protocol suite ‘= show understanding of circuit switching '= show understanding of protocols (HTTP, FTP, POP3, IMAP, ‘= show understanding of packet switching 1m show understanding of why a protocol s essential for SMTP, BitTorrent) and their purposes, ‘communication between computers = show understanding of how protocol implementation ‘an be viewed as a stack, where each layer has ts own functionality Cr au ue Ne Rec ces red 17.01 Transmission modes mmunication over an internetwork there are two possible apy switching or packet switching, Circuit switching Circuit switchingis the method used inthe traditional tee Switched Telephone Networks PTSNs) have nov the same method can be provi ‘communication, In Chapter? was introduced, Typically this is provided ina leased lin service. The conceptisilusrated in igure 1201, which nges which have a switching function and which are connected via a number of intermediate nodes with a switching function 2 Ve fo v re system, Because the Public rgely converted to digital technology, for data transfer that was traditionally used forvoice net usage by @ PTSN z | = Figure 17.01 Circuit switched data transmission gebe Er fata transfer to take place, the following has to happen he sender provides the identity of the intended receiver lata ver is ready to 2cce ceiver s available, a sequence of links is established across the net he data is transferred, 5. Thelinksare removed. itis not necessary for this discussion to define what could constitute a node ina circuit. switched network, The links that are provided between the nodes are dedicated channels in shared transmission media that guarentee unimpeded transmission, When a telephone call 2s finished theres a definite end to the call with removal of the links. However, fora leased- ine data connection there might be a perm itestablishe Packet switching he packet sw ching method allows data transmission without a circuit being established, sent in a continuous stream. Instead data is packaged in portions inside packets. A packet consists of a header which contains instructions for delivery plus the data ody. The method is similar to that used by the postal service but rather more complex! The network schematic shown in Figure 17.01 is still appropriate to describe packet switching except that the links used are not defined at the time a packet is transmitted by the sender, inctionality compared to that required in a 1s a node end supports packet switching Furthermore, the nodes will have an extended ;ched transmission, How a router ac iscussed in Section 17.0 When packet i used, there are two ways thal the network can provide jon-or mnectionless service is hed with no knowledge of whether or not icket, and h conn ted service. Ifa vided, a packet s dis the sion has 'sready to accey 1s no way of finding out ifthe transmi Cee Cac URE aang succeeded. In a connection-oriented service the frst packet sent includes a request for an acknowledgement. Ifthe acknowledgement is received, the sender transmits further packets no acknowledgement is received, the sender tries again with the first packet. 17.02 Protocols ‘The basic definition of protocol is simple -itisa set of rules. So, what do these rules relate to? Before answering, itshould be understood thet we olen talk ebout'a protocot’ when ‘we are referring to a protocol suite which contains more than one individual protocol. The complexity of networking requires many individual protocols. A further complication is that ‘there might be a number of ctferent versions of a protocol. Finally, there are often protaco's that can be used to complement the use of another protocol The set of rules that constitute a protocol must be agreed between the sender and the receiver for any communication transmitted over a network At the simplest level, a protocol could define that a positive voltage represents abit with value 1. A protocol might define a transmission speed theta sender must not exceed, Many ofthe rules relate tothe format of a message or of a component of a message. For example, a definition ofthe format ofthe frst 40 bytes in @ packet. 17.03 A protocol stack m Fora protocol suite the protocols can be viewed as layers within a protocol stack. There are a number of aspects relating to this concept. + Each layercan only accept input from the next higher layer or the next lower layer + Thereis a defined interface between adjacent layers which constitutes the only interaction allowed between layers. + Alayeris serviced by the actions of lower layers. + With the possible exception of the lowest layer the functioning ofa layer is created by installed software ‘+ Alayer may comprise sub-layers. ‘+ Any user interaction wil take place using protocols associated with the highest level ayer in the stack + Any direct access to hardware is confined to the lowest layerin the stack. 17.04 The TCP/IP protocol suite ‘TCP/IP isthe protocol suite underpinning Internet usage. TCP/IP can be explained on the basis of the network model show in Figure 17.02. \tcan be seen that TCP/IP only occupies the top three layers of this model. m Unfortunately there are diferent names used for to ofthe layers. Figure 17.02 shows the "Network layer and the Datalink yer. In some sources these willbe named asthe Internet ayer and the Link ayer. Cr au ue Ne Rec ces red rept suite < Identical packets > = = Protocol stack for Protocol stack for oneend-system forarouter another ené-system Figure 17.02 A network model relating to the TCP/IP protocol suite am shows the logical conn corresponding layers in these two systems. An application can run on one end-system and with an applicati ind-system sends a ‘mes: running on 2 ifferent e'to cend-system, The application layer protocol on the sender the transport layer protocol on the same system. The transport layer protacol then initiates, process which results in the identical ‘message’ being delivered to the receiver end. system. (On the receiver end-system, the final stage is the transport layer p delivering the ‘message’ to the application layer protocol he TeP} umber o} prises protocols, including the following, + application layer: HTTP, SMTP, DNS, FTP, POPS, IMAP + transportlayer: TCP, UDP, SCT MP, ICMP, ARP. 1osen to illustrate t The selection has bee range of ‘urthe d ols that is still evolving, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) If an application is running on an end-system where a ‘message’ is to be sent toa different end-system the application will be controled by an application layer protocol as described above. The protocol will transmit the user data to the trensport layer. The TCP protocol erating in the transport layer now has to take responsiblity for ensuring the sa ofthe ‘message’ to the receiver. The TCP protocol creates suficient packets to hold all ofthe Each packet consists of a header plus the user data delivery Cee Cac URE aang Question 17.01 Can you find out some details about 1 form ld send to IP? packet ‘As well as ensuring safe delivery, TCP has to ensure that any response is directed back to the application protocol. So, one item in the header isthe port number which identifies the application layer protocol. For example, for HTTP the port number is 80. The packet must also include the port number forthe application layer protocol atthe receiving end:-system. However, TCP is not concerned with the address of the receiving end:-system. Ifthe packet is one of a sequence, a sequence number is included to ensure eventual correct reassembly of the user dat The TCP protocol is connection-oriented. In accordance with the procedure described in Section 170, initially just one packet of a sequence is sent to the network layer. Once thernetwork layer returns an acknowledgement to the Transport ayer indicating that the connection has been established, TCP sends the other packets and receives response packets containing acknowledgements. Ths allows missing packets to be identified and re-sent. IP (Internet Protocol) The function ofthe network layer, and in particular of the IP, is to ensure correct routing over the Internet. To do this the IP protocol takes the packet received from the transport layer and adds a further header. The header contains the IP addresses of both the sender and the receiver, To find the IP address ofthe receiver, itis very likely to use the DNS service to find the address corresponding to the URL supplied in the user data, The DNS services discussed insome detail in Chapter? (Section 209} ‘The IP packet, which is usually called 2 ‘datagram; is sent to the data-link layer and therefore toa different protocol suite. Ihe data-lik layer assembles datagrams into frames’ as discussed in the next section ofthis chapter. Once the IP packet has been sent to the data link layer, IP has no further duty. IP functions as a connectionless service, Once a packet has been sent, P will have no knowledge of whether or notit reached its destination. if1P receives @ packet which contains an acknowledgement ofa previously sent packet, it wil simply pass the packet on to TCP with no awareness ofthe content. The router [As Figure 1702 shows, the frame sent by the data-link layer wil arrive ata router during, transmission (more likely at several routers). At this stage, the datagram content of the frame is given back to IP. tis now the function of the router software to choose the next target host inthe transmission. The software has access to a routing table appropriate to thet router. The size and complexity ofthe Internet prohibits a router fram havinga global routing table. Once the appropriate address has been inserted into the datagram, P passes it backto the date link layer ofthe router, ‘The routing table for every router has details of any current problems with any of the options. for the next transmission step. This ensures that packets are delivered to their destination in the shortest possible time available ‘The major distinction between @ switch end a router as anode in anetworkis that when a frame arrives ata switch, itis transmitted on without any routing decision. Aswitch operates in the data-link ayer but has no access to the network layer. Cr au ue Ne Rec ces red 17.05 The Ethernet protocol stack As discussed in Chapter? (Section 2.0 local area network {LAN}. As such thel thernetis 2 protocol suite designed for use ina an function in an isolated LAN with no connection to jernet or any other network. However, itis naw almost inevitable that a LAN 1d to the Internet and, therefore, a LAN's protocol suite will support the prot tein use for the Internet. we look at the protocol stack for one end-system, as: the TCP/IP protocol suite occupies the top three layers of the five-layer stack and is therefore supported by the lower two layers, TCP/IP has no concern with the functioning of these ‘two lower layers; itis designed to be capable of being supported by whatever protocols are available. It should be noted that some sources only use 2 four-layer stack for an end-system, his is either a decision to only include layers that are handled entirely by software. Or itis 2 decision to amalgamate all of the support for TCPIIP into one layer ‘own in Figure 1702, we can see that Ethernet is the most likely protocol to be used to provide the functionality required of the ‘two lower layers. Logically the Ethernet suite can ‘as comprising two sub-layers for each of the Data link and Physical layers, This is ilustrated in Figure 1 Figure 17.03 The sub-layers of Ethernet is explain how Ethernet functions n supporting TCPYI +The Logical Link Cont layer. IL manages data checking ti protocol is responsible fo cal it has no responsibilty for iccesstully delivered. a transmission has been + The Medium Acces trol MAC) protocol is responsible for assembling the Ethernet packet which is referred to asa frame. Two components ofthis are the address of the nsmitter and the address ofthe receiver. In addition the MAC protocol initiates frame nd handles recovery from transmission failure due to a collision (possibly CSMA/CD). + The Physical Coding Sublayer (PCS) protocol s responsible for coding data ready for ransmission or decoding data received. It either receives a frame from the MAC protocol orsends 0 +The Physical Medium Attachme’ protocol is respo signal transmitting and receiving, Cee Cac URE aang MAC addresses Both addresses in the Ethernet frame are examples of what are called physical or MAC addresses, A MAC address isthe one which uniquely defines one NIC, 2s described in Chapter2 (Section 2.04) ‘The reason that unique addresses have so far been guaranteed is that the 48 bits used for the definition have given a sufficient number of different addresses. However, there is 2 64-bit alternative whichis already used occasionally buts avalable for future use when 48 bits are insufficient, The 48-bit address is usually written in hexadecimal notation, for example: 443091224110 Inone version of this addressing scheme the first three bytes identify the manufacturer. 17.06 Application-layer protocols associated with TCP/IP There are very many application-layer protocols. This discussion considers some that are used most often, HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) ™ Be careful notto confuse HTTP and HTML. Because HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) underpins the World Wide Web it has to be considered to be the most important applicatior-iayer protocol. Every time a user accesses a website using a browser, HTTP is used but its functionality’ hidden from view. HTTP is atransaction-oriented, client-server protocol. The transaction involves the client sendinga ‘request’ message and the server sending back a ‘response’ message. The HTTP protocol defines the format ofthe message, The fist line ofa request message isthe ‘request line’ Optionally this can be followed by header lines ll ofthis uses ASCII coding. The format, of the request nes:

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