7.3.1 A.C. circuit containing L and R in series As shown in Fig. 7.21, consider a_ resistor R and inductance L connected in series to a source of alternating emf € given by €=6, sin ot. b— Vp = RI —+-— V, = X,] —+ y g, sin wf Fig. 7.21 A series LR-circuit. Fig. 7.22 Phasor diagram for series LR-circuit. Let I be the current through the series circuit at any instant. Then > 7 : : 1. Voltage V, = RI across the resistance R will be in > > » phase with current | . So phasors Ve and | are in same direction, as shown in Fig. 7.22. The -wWe: amplitude of V, is R Vy =1)R Scanned with CamScanner2. Voltage Vv, =X, T across the inductance Lis ahead > of current I in phase by 7/2 rad. So phasor V, lies ~ n/2 rad anticlockwise w.r.t. the phasor I. Its amplitude is Vy =1yX, By parallelogram law of vector addition, > >.> Va + V, =& Using Pythagorean theorem, we get & =(VRy + (Vee =(IpR?2 +(IpX,)? = If (R? + x2) g) i Clearly, (24x? throught pe PPoses or impedes the flow of a.c. - Itis its i si called its Impedance and is denoted by Z. 2a UR a? 2 [Rone I= is the effective resistance of the [- X, =ol] Scanned with CamScanner‘The phase angle > between the resultant voltage and tis given by vi 1x, x tan b= —4. ork 0 0 curren I As the current lags behind the emf by phase angle $, so the instantaneous value of current is given by I= 1, sin(wt — 9). 73.2 A.C. circuit containing Cand Rin series As shown inFig. 7.23, consider a resistor R and capacitor Cconnected in series to a source of alternating emf & given by €=€, sin ot | Vy = RI Ve = XI —_© §, sin ot Fig. 7.23 A series CR-circuit. Fig. 7.24 Phasor diagram for series CR-circuit. Let I be the current through the series circuit at any instant. Then 1. Voltage Vi =R T across the resistance R will be in a > = phase with the current I. So phasors Vp and I’ are in same direction, as shown in Fig. 7.24. The a amplitude of Vp is ve =[)R Scanned with CamScanner> > 2. Voltage V..=X_ I across the capacitance C lags behind the current 7 in phase by 1/2 rad. So > 2 phasor Vo lies x/2 clockwise w.r.t. the phasor I. Its amplitude is ic Vo =IpXc By parallelogram law of vector addition, So VatVo=& Using Pythagorean theorem, we get BS = (VEY? + (VE)? =(UgR)? + (IpX eo)? =Ig (R?+X¢) or i, a ee ee Clearly, ./R? + > is the effective resistance of the series CR-circuit which opposes or impedes the flow of current through it and is called its impedance and is denoted by Z. Thus a - | Z=JR24X7 = [R24 [ex =< | V . \ oC? « oc The phase angle » between the resultant voltage and current is given by iG ! tang= 10 =/0 c 7c — Loc ; Vi kkk 2 As the current is ahead of emf by phase angle 4, so the instantaneous value of current is given by I=1, sin(at +4). Scanned with CamScanner7.7.4 Energy losses in transformers The main causes for energy loss in transformers are as follows : (i) Copper loss. Some energy is lost due to heating of copper wires used in the primary and secondary windings. This power loss (= I7R) can be minimised by using thick copper wires of low resistance. (ii) Eddy current loss. The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core which leads to some energy loss in the form of heat. This loss can be reduced by using laminated iron core. Scanned with CamScanner(iii) Hysteresis loss. The alternating current carries the iron core through cycles of magnetisation and demagnetisation. Work is done in e ach of these cycles and is lost as heat. This is called hysteresis loss and can be minimised by using core material having narrow hysteresis loop. (iv) Flux leakage. The magnetic flux produced by the primary may not fully pass through the secondary. Some of the flux may leak into air. This loss can be minimised by winding the primary and secondary coils over one another. (v) Humming loss. As the transformer works, its core lengthens and shortens during each cycle of the alternating voltage due to a phenomenon called magnetostriction. This gives rise to a humming sound. So some of the electrical energy is lost in the form of humming sound. 7.7.75 Some uses of transformers : (i) Small transformers are used in radio receivers, telephones, loud speakers, etc. (ii) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerators, air-conditioners, computers, etc. (iii) In stabilised power supplies. (iv) A step-down transformer is used for obtaining large current for electric welding. (2) A step-down transformer is used in induction furnace for melting metals. (vi) A step-up transformer is used for the production of X-rays. (vii) In the transmission of electric energy from the generating stations to the consumers. Scanned with CamScannerBrilsauaiy lau w uw Corus, 7.7.6 Disadvantages of transmitting the electrical power at low voltage : (i) Large lengths of transmission cables have appreciable resistance. Hence a large amount of energy (Rt) will be lost as heat during transmission. (ii) Large voltage drop (IR) occurs along the line wire. Hence the voltage at the receiving station will be much smaller than that at the generating station. (iii) To carry large currents and to keep the resistance of transmission wires low, thick wires have to be used. The cost of installing thick wires will be extremely high. 7.7.7. Use of transformers in long distance power transmission The long distance power transmission at low voltage and high current is neither efficient nor economical. If I is the current in the cable, and R its resistance, the power wasted in the cable is I ?R. The power loss can be reduced by reducing I or R. The power supplied Scanned with CamScannerby the generator is given by P= VI, where V is the voltage across its terminals. Since I= P/V, for a given amount of power P, the power loss is less if Lis less or V is high. In actual practice, as shown in Fig. 7.66, a typical power station generates 1000 kW at 6600 volts. This voltage is first stepped up to 132000 volts before transmission. Transmission lines from different power stations in a region deliver power to a common regional pool, called the grid. From the Step-up Step-down Step-down Generating Area Consumer station substation substation Fig. 7.66 Schematic diagram of a distribution system. grid, the power is fed to the cities at 33000 V, the stepping down is done outside the city. Then again at a sub-station, the supply is stepped down to 6600 V. For domestic purposes, the voltage is again stepped down to 220 V. 7.7.8 Advantages of a.c. over d.c. : (i) The generation of a.c. is more economical than d.c. Scanned with CamScanner(ii) The alternating voltage can be easily stepped up or stepped down by using a transformer. (iii) The alternating currents can be reduced by using a choke coil without any significant wastage of energy. (iv), The alternating currents can be transmitted to distant places without any significant line loss. (v) Also a.c. can be easily converted into d.c. by using rectifiers. (vi) A.C. machines are simple and robust and do not require much attention during their use. 7.7.9 Disadvantages of a.c. over d.c. : (i) Peak value of a.c. is high (Ip =V21 ). It is dangerous to work with a.c. rms (ii) In phenomena like electroplating, electro-refining, electrotyping , etc ; a.c. cannot be used. (iii) A.C. is transmitted more from the surface of conductor than from inside. This is called skin effect. Therefore, several fine insulated wires (and not a single thick wire) are required for the transmission of a.c. Scanned with CamScanner