Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater means used water, contaminated water.

Water treatment objectives :
▪ If we want to discharge the waste water into the nearby waterways or we
want to reuse the water - in both the cases, we have to treat the
wastewater.
▪ The pollutants present in the waste water steal DO from the surface
water as they decompose (see the aerobic decomposition of organic
matter on page 7). Thus fish and other aquatic wildlife die from oxygen
starvation.
▪ Therefore, without treatment, waste water cannot be discarded to the
water bodies.
▪ Treated water can be used in various industrial processes like in the
boilers or it may be re-used for irrigation of a green way, lawn or park.
 Sewage treatment is a multi-stage process:

❖ Preliminary, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary.

❖ Tertiary treatment also known as “advanced treatment”.
❖ Preliminary (won’t be discussed here) and Primary treatment is a physical
process;
❖ Secondary treatment is a biological process because, microbes are made
utilized in this process and
❖ Tertiary treatment includes a variety of processes - to remove various
types of contaminants like inorganic (various metals, ammonia and other
N-containing pollutants etc) & organic pollutants (won’t be discussed
here), pathogens, color & odor producing substances etc. - could be
physical, biological and chemical.
 Preliminary Treatment
Bar Screen : screening Grit chamber : removal
❖ Inert dense material such as sand,
broken glass, silt, and pebbles is
called grit.
❖ In the grit chamber, flow rate is
slowed just enough to allow the sand
and gravel to settle on the bottom.
The grit is collected and disposed of
in landfill.
Screens are made of long, closely
spaced, narrow metal bars. They
block large floating material that
could clog pipes or pumps. Bulky
materials such as sticks, wood, rags,
large food particles, toys and other
bulky objects are removed through
screening. grit chamber
 Primary Treatment :

▪ Inorganic and organic Suspended solids

suspended particles and

portion of the
biodegradable organic
matters (BOD) are settled
out and removed from
sewage.
▪ Primary sedimentation
tanks generally able to Diagram is FYI
remove from 50 to 70 % of
the suspended solids and
25 to 40 % of the BOD. sedimentation tank

Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 & 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 +

reaction : suspended solids → suspended solids

ppt forms → Sludges

▪ Primary treatment allows the removal of undissolved suspended solids,
oil, grease etc. Suspended solids are too small and too light to get settled
down by the gravity, hence, they float on the surface of the wastewater.
▪ To make them settle down (ie., in order to get the precipitation of the
suspended solids) flocculating chemicals are added.
▪ Coagulation followed by filtration is normally carried out.
▪ To enhance sedimentation, coagulants such as aluminium sulphate (alum)
is added. Calcium hydroxide is also added. Lime helps increase the pH.
▪ Alum (Al2(SO4)3•18H2O) forms heavy gelatinous aluminum hydroxide
precipitate at high pH (see the above reaction) that would eventually
settle down at the bottom of the sedimentation tank. And it does so,
along with the suspended solids.
▪ These settled materials are known as primary sludge and the remaining
liquid subjected to secondary treatment.
▪ The settled primary sludge solids must be continuously removed from the
bottom of the sedimentation tank. Primary sludges often have a strong
odor and require treatment prior to disposal (see later on page 9).
 Secondary Treatment
▪ The effluent from the primary basin is then transferred to sedimentation
tank known as secondary clarifiers. Removal of biodegradable organic
contaminants (BOD) is usually accomplished in this process.
▪ There are several methods in the secondary treatment. Here, “activated
sludge method” is described very briefly.
▪ The process is carried out at an ambient temperature, under open air,
where the effluent is brought in contact with oxygen. A mixture of variety
of micro-organisms (called biological sludge) - bacteria and other types - is
added to the tank and they are allowed to live, grow and multiply there.
▪ Because microorganisms feed on organic materials (see the reaction
below), they break down the dissolved BOD in presence of ample amount
of oxygen. Organic matter {CH2O} + O2 CO2 + H2O + (SO42-, PO43-, NO3-)
▪ To facilitate the bio-decomposition reaction, air is also blown into the tank.
▪ These types of contaminants are known as the oxygen-consuming wastes.
▪ After the decomposition process gets over, these organisms and remaining
▪ undecomposed
. material settled down at the bottom of the secondary
clarifier and are known as secondary sludges.
▪ Like primary sludges, secondary sludges too require treatment prior to
disposal (see later on page 10) and is done together with primary sludges.
A large tank (called an
aeration tank) containing
wastewater, where the
wastewater is brought in
contact with sufficient
oxygen and a mixture of
variety of microbes
(biological mass is termed
as “activated sludge”) to
expedite the aerobic bio
decomposition reaction
which actually help
remove the BOD. Aeration tank
• Settled sludge contains 20-30% microbes, and they are essential for the
decomposition, therefore they are sent back to the aeration tank to expedite the
microbial decomposition reaction; larger amount of microbes help
decomposition faster. The sludge is returned to the aeration tank is called return
sludge.
• Sludges comprise mainly water (up to 99%), dissolved solids, settled and
suspended solids, faecal matter, bacteria and other micro-organisms, nutrients
(N, P, K), metals & ENERGY
Trickling Filter Method
• Trickling filter is a circular concrete tank.
• Inside the tank there is bed of stones which is 3-10 feet deep and the
diameter of the tank is generally more than 200 feet.
• Air is circulated upward
through the spaces among
the stones providing
sufficient oxygen for the
metabolic processes (to
prevent anaerobic
decomposition as it produces
end products with
unpleasant smell). Section through a trickling filter.
• microbes decompose the biodegradable organic matter.
• Sludge is produced by this process and these sludges comprise remaining
undecomposed solids found in wastewater plus organisms used in the
treatment process.
• These sludges reach the secondary basin and collected from the bottom of
the secondary basin. These sludges will be treated along with primary
sludges.
Anaerobic Digestion
▪ Sludges generated at primary and secondary sedimentation tank are
pumped to anaerobic digesters.
▪ “Digestion" : substrate is heated and subjected to microbial decomposition.
▪ Digester : the equipment that is used to carry out the digestion. It is an air-
tight container where the substrates are heated and the fermentation
process takes place.
▪ Anaerobic : the entire digestion process is done in the absence of air.
▪ Digestion process is of two types – mesophilic and thermophilic.
▪ Mesophilic digestion: the sludge is fermented at a temperature around 36°C.
▪ Thermophilic digestion : the sludge is fermented at a temperature of 55°C.
▪ The first stage in fermentation reaction is commonly referred to as "acid
fermentation" (hydrolysis takes place and volatile acid is formed).
▪ However in the last stage, methanogenic bacteria convert the acids and
soluble organics mainly into methane and carbon dioxide. This stage is
generally referred to as "methane fermentation".
▪ C6H12O6 3CH4 + 3CO2 + ……………. (recall the anaerobic degradation rexn)
▪ Anaerobic digestion is of great advantage because of its two major end
products (these are two major features of anaerobic digestion) -
(i) production of biogas and (ii) formation of “sludge cake”.
 Sludges collected from primary
and secondary basins

Anaerobic digesters

(i) Composition of biogas :

▪ 50 to 75 per cent CH4 and 25 to 45 per cent CO2 together with minor
quantities of nitrogen ( 1%), hydrogen ( 1%), NH3 ( 1%) and H2S ( 1%).
▪
▪ Biogas may be used as the source of alternative energy. Like natural gas,
biogas can also be used as a fuel .
▪ 1 m3 CH4 = 1 litre diesel fuel
 ▪ (ii) After the sludge digestion, the sludge is dewatered,
this dried sludge is called a sludge cake.
▪ Sludge cake may be converted into fertilizer pellets and
can be used as fertilizer. The product is then sold to the
local market

Tertiary treatment : only disinfection process are described here

(discussion regarding the removal of other contaminants are skipped)
▪ Secondary sewage effluent often contains a number of disease-causing
microorganisms (called pathogens), requiring disinfection.
▪ Additionally, several inorganics, non-biodegradable organics pollutants could
be present (we will skip this part), that too are removed at this stage.
Common Disinfection Agents are : (a) chlorine and chloramines; (b) bleaching
powder; (c) chlorine dioxide; (d) ozone; (e) ultraviolet radiation
• Chlorine and chloramines have been the mostly used but their uses
becoming less because of the byproducts (called chloramines) they produce.
• The use of ozone is growing; it is the greenest disinfection agent, because it
can be made on site with air as the raw and produces few undesirable
byproducts.
Disinfection by Chlorine and chloramines :
Chlorine is added to the water : (i)
Hypochlorous acid, a weak acid, can ionize : (ii)
HOCl and OCl- together known as free available chlorine . Free available
chlorine is very effective in killing bacteria, but not against virus.
▪ Ammonia occurs in the water naturally as NH4+ (recall the anaerobic
decomposition reaction), or in case, ammonia hasn’t been removed from
the waste water prior to this step, ammonia consumes the HOCl.
▪ As a result, initially, the purpose of adding chlorine to the water to
produce HOCl and OCl- to kill the bacteria does not serve the goal.
▪ Although the products (called chloramines, see the reactions below) of
the reaction between ammonia and HOCl are also able to kill the bacteria
to some extent, thereby known as weaker disinfectants (less effective in
killing bacteria in compare to “free available chlorine”).
NH4+ + HOCl ↔ NH2Cl + H2O + H+ NH2Cl = monochloramine
NH2Cl + HOCl ↔ NHCl2 + H2O NHCl2 = dichloramine
NHCl2 + HOCl ↔ NCl3 + H2O NCl3 = trichloramine
▪ These 3 chloramines are together called “combined available chlorine”.
▪ Chloramines cause the “chlorine” smell and produce “chlorine odor”.
▪ At the end, these chloramines are converted to N2 gas and escapes from
the aqueous media (see the reaction below).

▪ Of course, we do not pass chlorine gas into water, rather we add chlorine
producing compounds like sodium hypochlorite to the water. Thus
produced chlorine reacts with water, and HOCl is formed.
Estimate the amount of chlorine needs to be added in a pool
(for disinfection purpose):
▪ The overall disinfection reaction can be presented in the following way as
well.

▪ Thus, the stoichiometric weight ratio is 213/28 = 7.6 g Cl2 per gram of N
(as ammonia). Thus, the stoichiometric weight ratio of Cl2: N is 7.6 :1.
▪ Now, it is well understood that when we add 7.6 g of Cl2 per gm of N (in
this case it is NH3), the entire ammonia has been converted to N2 gas.
▪ Therefore the ratio of Cl2: N (7.6 : 1) at which entire ammonia present in
the water oxidizes to nitrogen gas is known as breakpoint.
▪ It follows that in order to regenerate the “free available chlorine” in water
to be treated containing nitrogenous pollutants (such as ammonia), we
have to keep adding chlorine beyond breakpoint, to ensure disinfection.
▪ Hence, in practice, ratio of Cl2: N is maintained as 10 : 1 to make sure of
having the good enough amount of chlorine (in the form of “free available
chlorine”) in the water to be disinfected.

I II

Formation of Free available chlorine

chloramines
Graph is FYI
Breakpoint

Since, large amount of chlorine is added in this process, excess chlorine

from over-chlorinated water may be removed by the following way -
(i) by filtering the over chlorinated water through activated carbon.
(ii) by addition of a small % of SO2, Na2SO3 or Na2S2O3.
 SO2 + Cl2 + 2H2O H2SO4 + 2HCl
Na2SO3 + Cl2 + 2H2O Na2SO4 + 2HCl

2. Removal of microorganisms by adding beaching powder:

Bleaching powder is added to waste water and the water is allowed to
stand undisturbed for several hours. This produces hypochlorous acid.
Ca(OCl)Cl + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Hypochlorous acid being a weak acid, dissociates into HOCl & OCl- :
Cl2 + 2H2O HOCl + OCl- (rest of the story remains the same as noted earlier)

3. Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2), is an effective water disinfectant that is of particular

interest because, it does not chlorinate or oxidize ammonia/other nitrogen-
containing compounds. In the water, chlorite (ClO2-) is the predominant end
product that kills bacteria.

4. Ozone is sometimes used as a disinfectant in place of chlorine.

Unlike chlorine, ozone is destructive to viruses.
Disadvantage: Quite expensive method, hence not employed for disinfection
of municipal water supply.
Removal techniques of taste, odor & color producing substances :
✓ Both organic and inorganic substances may produce taste, odor, and color
in water. So, before we supply the water for domestic purpose, we should
remove these taste, odor or colour producing substances.
✓ Taste, odor, and color agents can come from
i) metabolites produced by various bacteria in water
ii) mineral substances in water,
iii) salts from soil, and
iv) from chemical pollutant sources.
Odor producing Organic substances:
❑ The most commonly reported taste and odor compounds, geosmin and
methylisoborneol are the volatile metabolites produced in surface water
sources by naturally occurring cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
❑ Geosmin and methylisoborneol typically produce earthy or musty tastes
and odors in water
Odor producing inorganic substances:
✓ Iron and hydrogen sulfide are two common inorganic compounds known
to produce odors in drinking water.
 Color producing inorganic substances:
➢ Yellow tinge indicates the presence of chromium.
➢ Yellowish red color tinge indicates the presence of iron.
➢ Red brown color indicates the presence of peaty matter.
Taste producing inorganic substances:
Most of the mineral substances affect water taste but do not cause odor.
➢ Bitter taste is due to the presence of iron, aluminium, manganese,
sulphate or excess of lime.
➢ Brakish taste is due to the presence of unusual amount of salts.

Various processes are used to remove agents that cause taste & odor.
i) Simple aeration can remove volatile materials, such as odorous hydrogen
sulfide.
ii) For non-volatile metabolic products by bacteria, oxidation that destroys
organics usually removes taste, odor, and color. Chlorine, potassium
permanganate, chlorine dioxide can be used.
iii) Ozone Water Treatment : Ozone used by itself or UV has been found to be
effective in removing geosmin and methylisoborneol.