HISTORY FORM FOUR

Summary

Based on Somaliland syllabus

Copyright : Mohamoud Abdirahman Faarah

Email:haatufgaaraad77@mail.com (063-4306681)

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Chapter one: The rise of nationalism in Somaliland
European countries which had been competing for African colonization
1- Britain
2- France
3- Italy
4- Germany
5- Spain
6- Portugal
7- Belgium

Agents Europeans used to accelerate colonization of Africa

1- Missionaries
2- Explorers
3- Traders
4- Businessmen
5- Companies
6- Humanitarians

Stages of partition of Africa of 1884-85

1- Signing treaties with African chiefs

2- They used divide and rule
3- They used military forces
4- Colonial rivals solved their differences at diplomatic table
5- They used treacheries and gifts to the African kings
6- Colonial home government was to send administrators
The main three European powers rivals at the Horn of Africa
1- Britain
2- France
3- Italy

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Rise of nationalism in Somaliland – factors

1- After the two world wars there was change in international opinion toward
colonization
2- Experience gained by Somaliland who participated in the war and
realization that white man is not superior to the blacks
3- Soldiers who returned from the war brought with them new ideas Of
nationalism
4- Formation of ONU
5- New colonies were freed such – Ghana and India
6- Islamic religion which stand for human freedom
7- Pastoral life of Somali culture – seasonal movement, look after pasture and
water for their livestock
8- Transfer of Haud and reserved area to Ethiopia by the British in 1954

Leading nationalism personalities in Somaliland

1- Sayed Mohamed Abdullah Hassan 1901-1920 against British

2- Haji Faarah Omar – was exiled or imprisoned at Camaran Island in
Yemen(1940)
3- Sheikh Bashir Yusuf Hassan Fiqi- a national hero who began armed struggle
against British rule , finally was killed in battle field as a martyr with dignity
4- Ugas Dodi Ugas Roble– 1941 was exiled and imprisoned in camaran island
of Yemen. He was stron nationalist figure after his release he was invited by
Haile Selassie of Ethiopia but rejected his invitation
Aims of the nationalist figures
1- To free Somaliland from colonization
2- To stop spread of Christianity
3- To strengthen Islamic religion
Reasons for Sayed Mohamed Abdullah Hassan resistance against British
1- Political and independence
2- Nationalism/unification
3- Religion

Achievements of Sayed Mohamed Abdullah Hassan.

1- Became a national hero among Somali people
2- Established his Islamic own order known as –( Salehiyah)

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 3- Stopped spread of Christianity why
Why Britain colonized Somaliland
 As source of food for their base at Aden
 Strategic position
 To compete with other European powers
The main three political parties in Somaliland during colonial days
1- SNL
2- USP
3- NU.
All the three shared the same aim of independent and union with Somalia.
Therefore in February 1960 an election for new legislative council was held where
by SNL gained twenty seats mines thirty three seats while NUF get one seat and
USP won twelve seats t. The Council consisted of 33 natives (Somalis) and 12 non-
natives of English and Indian and Arab origins.
Four Somaliland elders selected to leave for London demanding
return of reserved area
1. Sultan Abdirahman sultan Dirie
2. Sultan Abdilahi sultan Dirie
3. Abdirahman Ali M ohamed(Dube Ali yare )
4. Michel Ali Hussein(Michel Mariamo)

Independence and union

 Somaliland independence was 26 June 1960, having its constitution,
parliament and government.
 The newly born government was pressured by the people who were very
interested in the old dreams of a greater Somali state consist of all Somali
inhabited territory.
 In 1960, representatives of Somaliland and Somalia agreed after
discussions an act of union were signed by both states.
 In the morning of 1st July 1960 legislatives members from Somaliland and
Somalia met in joint session at Mogadishu, and constitution drafted
Somalia was accepted with no concrete discussions and president was
elected.
 The first president of the union, the Somali republic, was Aden Abdulla
Osman Daar .

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  the first prime minister was of the Somali republic Abdirshid Ali
Sharmarke, who also south.
Why did Somaliland politicians make negotiation with south
on the issue of power sharing?
1. There were a great pressure from the people
2. Because of their division
3. They were very young and ill-experience
4. They wanted to lay foundation stone greater of Somalia

The impact of the union on the social- political system

The first president appointed prime minister from the south, in addition all key
ministers and two army commanders were also appointed from the south. The
north got only the speaker of parliament and the deputy of prime minister who
didn’t alive long, there were mistakes:
1. The first mistake was made by northern politicians who didn’t make any
negotiations on power sharing to the south.
2. The second mistake was the lack of vision of president Aden Abdulle Osman
and his southern supporters who clearly built on injustice system.

Referendum in 1961 and the abortive coup

 On September 1961 the new Somali constitution was put to a referendum.
 The people of Somaliland didn’t accepted to the constitution ,after 80% of
the people of Somaliland voted ‘No” to the constitution.
 The capital of Somali republic became Mogadishu.
 Corruption, nepotism and tribal political rivalries became constant.
 In response , a group of young Somaliland officers attempted a military
coup in December 1961
Causes of the abortive coup
1. Dissatisfaction of power sharing
2. Inequality and injustice
3. They wanted to regain their independence

Chapter 2: The Military Regime of (1969-1991)

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  The 1969 Somali coup was the bloodless takeover of Somalia's government
on 21 October 1969 by military officers of the Supreme Revolutionary
Council led by Siad Barre.
 Somali troops supported by tanks under the command of Barre
stormed Mogadishu and seized key government buildings and ordered the
resignation of the country's leaders.
 The coup leaders deposed President Sheikh Mukhtar Mohamed
Hussein and Prime Minister Mohammad Egal and led to the twenty-one
year long military rule by Barre and the imposition of an authoritarian
government in Somalia until 1991.
Causes
Coup leaders claim to have acted in order to put an end
1. widespread corruption
2. Tribalism and nepotism
3. Lack of development
There were two factors that facilitated the coup of 1969
 Foreign intervention (Cold war)
 President Abdirashiid’s assassination

Some of the 25-Members of Supreme revolutionary council (SRC):

1. Major Gen. Maxamed Siyaad Barre (Military)- Chairman

2. Major Gen. Jaamac Cali Qorsheel (Police)- deputy chairman
3. Gen. Maxamed Ceynaanshe Guuleed (Military)- deputy chairman
4:Gen. Salaad Gabeyre Kediye (Military)
5:Gen. Maxamed Cali Samatar (Military )
6:Col. Ismaaciil Cali Abokar (Military)
7: Captain. Muuse Rabiile Good (military)

The military officers took a number of steps after the coup

1. The constitution was dismissed .
2. The parliament was dissolved .
3. Most of the politicians were arrested.
4. All political parties were banned .

Dictatorship and scientific socialism

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  Scientific socialism :It is a type of socialism that is based on scientific
principles and research, rather than just ideas and beliefs.
 Dictatorship: is a form of government in which one person or a small group
possesses absolute power without effective constitutional limitations.
 Scientific socialism is wealth sharing based on knowledge. On June 1976
Mohamed Siyad dissolved the supreme revolutionary council and
established a soviet style totalitarian dictatorship.
 He nationalized all industries and other property, in 1976 an opposition
organization called Somali democratic action front (SODAF) announced in
Rome Italy to oppose Mohamed Siyad regime.

The war of 1977 against Ethiopia

Causes
A. Border dispute
B. Siyad Bare’s ambition to retain his position
C. Somalia was willing to return Somali territories from Ethiopia
D. The Intervention of world super powers(it was part of Cold war)

Consequences of 1977-78 war with Ethiopia

1. Defeat of Somali forces
2. The soviet union became to the side of Ethiopia
3. Soviet cut all support to the regime
4. The war crippled the economy of Somali government
5. Attempted coup in 1978

Factors that led the failure of the 1978 coup

1. Poor preparation
2. Insufficient communication
3. They all were same Somali clan
Siyad Barre’s main achievements
 He was rapidly industrialized the country
 Writing of Somali language
 promoting cooperative farming
 All of Somalia’s major industries, from farming and oil to banking,
were nationalized.

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  He built strong national army
 Barre pushed the idea of a Greater Somalia

Major factors which helped disintegration of union between Somalia and

Somaliland after 1960
 Different colonial legacies such as language and education
 Social and cultural differences
 The lion’s share of the government was taken by southerners
 Inadequate political representation given to northerners
 Hostile policies against Somali-landers
 National resources were not shared equally
 Suppression and dictatorial rule subjected to Somali landers
 Detention without trial subjected to Somali landers

Chapter 3: The Scramble of Somalia and the again of

Somaliland independence
After the defeat of siyad military against Ethiopia war in 1977 forces formed and
facilitated formation of opposing movement against the triumphed troops of
Somalia. The most power full was Somalia national movement (SNM) supported
mainly central regions of the north. In 1981 the civil war began by SNM and
Somali salvation democratic front (SSDF), both groups based in Ethiopia and
carried out cross border attacks towards Siyad Barre regime

The main opposing movement against Siyad Barre regime

1- SNM(6 April 1981)
2- SSDF (1978)
3- USC (1989)
4- SPM (1990)

Formation of SNM
 The Somali National Movement (SNM) was formed in 1981 in London by
different Somali diaspora groups from Saudi Arabia and the United
Kingdom

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  It took almost a decade for the SNM to liberate Somaliland from Barre
dictatorship.
 The SNM chairmanship changed four times during that period: Ahmed
Mohamed Guleid (Jimale) (1981-1982); Sheikh Yusuf Sheikh Ali Sheikh
Madar (1982-1983); Abdulkadir Kosar (1983-1984); Ahmed Mohamed
Mohamoud (Sillanyo) (1984-1990) and Abdurahman Mohamed Ali (from
1990 until he became the first president of Somaliland in 1991).

Founders of SNM
1. Ahmed Ismail Abdi 'Duksi',
2. Hassan Isse Jama,
3. Abdisalam Yasin,
4. Hassan Adan Wadadid
Reasons behind formation of Somali national movement –SNM 1981
1. No equal power sharing b/w north and south
2. Disappear of the dream of greater Somalia
3. Oppression and strains in the north regions
4. Economic distribution b/w south and north became injustice
5. Huge influx of refugee from Ethiopia mainly from the clan of Siyad Barre
regime
6. To set up democratic administration in Somalia with all opposition s
participating the rule.
7. To free the political prisoners in all over the country

In 1988 Siyad realized that his government lost the war against SNM on March
1988 he traveled to Djibouti for an IGAD meeting while Siyad and Mangistu met
for the first time under auspices of the president of Djibouti Hassan Gulied
Abtidon.

The points of agreements

1. To disclaim all Somali territorial claims against Ethiopia
2. Demarcation of the boundary between Somalia and Ethiopia
3. Release Ethiopian prisoners held in 1977 war
4. To close the SNM bases in Ethiopia and expulsion from Ethiopian, Mengistu
Haile Marian accepted and signed.

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SNM Senate (Guurti) . Formation 1988- at Adaroosh meeting
Function
1- Ammunitions
2- Logistics
3- Problem solving house for both politicians and clans
Scape of Siyad barre in 29th Jan 1991
 Somali President Mohamed Siad Barre was forced to flee his palace in
Mogadishu on 29 January 1991
Peace making process
 After the SNM defeated Siyad Barre I returned to Somaliland and worked
with other elders to defuse conflicts between different clans.
 I played a leading part in the various Somaliland national reconciliation
conferences, which discussed the future of Somaliland and how to
incorporate people from clans that had previously supported the Barre
regime.
Main conference
1- Berbera conference of 1991
2:Borama conference (1991)
2- Burao conference of 1991
3- Boorama conference of 1993

Outcome of Borama conference of 1991

1- Ceasefire within seven days

2- After these seven days any person commit a crime or looting will be
punished solely
3- Agreed need for mutual understanding between west Hargeisa and east
Borama
4- Undamaged looted property would be returned to the belonged person
5- Forget what was happened
6- A committee consist of seven person from each part was nominated

Articles of first Burao conference of 27th – 5th may 1991

A declaration that the northerners regions would establish a separate
administration without links to Mogadishu.
Articles

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 1- Islamic sharia law must be implemented
2- Maintenance of security and stability
3- Formation of government in north with two year mandate
4- Central committee of SNM and the government must fairly divided among
clans in the north
5- The issue of Sanaag regions must given special attention

Second phase of Burao conference 18th may 1991

Declaration of Somaliland as an independent state with abdirahman ahmed ali as
the first president and Hassan essa Jama as vice president with two year
mandate.

Achievement of SNM
1. Succeeded in their main aim which was to overthrow the military regime
of Siyad Barre
2. Capturing northern regions of Somalia
3. Declared the new state of Somaliland 1n 1991
4. Made a surprising degree of peace b/w clans of the former British
protectorate
Achievement of the transitional government
1- Complete defeat of Siyad Barre from all Somaliland territories
2- Reconciliation of peoples of Somaliland
3- Establishment of peace and stability across the whole of Somaliland 4-
Restoration of sovereignty
4- Establishment of administration including leaders of both sides of the
civil war
Boorama conference in 1993 – outcome
1. Institutionalization of the Guurti and house of representatives
2. In 1993 Egal was elected as new president while Abdirahman Aw-Ali was
elected as new vice president
Achievement of Egal
1- Demobilization, disarmament and re-integration
2- Initiated system of government based on peace , order and rule of law
3- Foundation for Somaliland government organs
4- Formed the first paid armed forces and police
5- Paid salaries to civil services
6- New currency was printed

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 7- Developed constitution
8- Foundation for political multi-party system to be held in Somaliland
9- Introduced new flag changing the previous one
Sources of law in Somaliland
1- Islamic Sharia
2 Traditional law
3- International law

In 2002 president Egal died and Mr Dahir Riyale the vice president became the
constitutional president and in presidential election of 2003 Riyaale won the
election

The president Rayaale’s achievements

1- Implemented democratic free and fair election – municipal , presidential
and parliament
2- Extended administration to eastern regions
3- Strengthened capacity of national army
4- Kept law and order
5- Education was expanded
6- He made smart handing over in which he became a model for Somaliland
and Africa
Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud siilaanyo became the new president (In 2010)
Achievements
1- Increased salaries of civil services and armed forces
2- Distributed ranks of different armed forces
3- Developed infrastructure
4- Increased national budget maintain peace and stability
5- Introduced a unified curriculum for both public and private schools with
text books
6- Free primary education
7- National currency for eastern regions

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The result of the first world war (Chapter 4)

introduction

 World War I was a major conflict fought between 1914 and 1918.
 World War I was fought between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers.
 The main members of the Allied Powers were France, Russia, and Britain.
 The United States also fought on the side of the Allies after 1917.
 The main members of the Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary,
the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

A – Political result of the First World War

1. Size of Germany was reduced
2. Collapse of Habsburg empire
3. Rise of USA as a super power
4. The war undermined existence of Othman empire
5. All colonies were also taken over as mandated territories under the
league of Nations
6. Led to creation of the league of Nation
7. In Russia The pressure of the war led to two revolutions in 1917
8. Created revolutionary ideas among colonized people – decolonization
9. The anarchy after the war led to rise of dictators – Benito Mussolini in
Italy – and Adolf Hitler in Germany who together became the architects
of the second world war
B – Social results
1. Millions of soldiers and civilians were killed
2. Thousands of people were displaced , homeless created refugee problems
3. Outbreak of diseases
4. Families were separated and thousands of children orphaned
5. Enormous of food shortage created starvation
C – Economic results
1. Allies spent millions of pounds to buy guns , food and other war materials
2. Damaged Europe’s economic resources
3. Enormous expense created debts for next generation insecurity which
disrupted economic activities

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 4. Destruction of properties and infrastructure
5. Insecurity disrupted economic activities

The Different Allied views about how to deal with defeated powers
 France , represented by Clemenceau wanted a harsh peace settlement to
ruin Germany
economically and militarily so that she could not again threaten France
 Britain – represented by prime minister Liod George wanted less severe
peace settlement to
enable Germany to recover quickly so she could resume her role as a
major consumer of British goods
 USA represented by president Woodrow Wilson was in favor of lenient
peace settlement
although he had to accepted British- French demands for reparation –
compensation for damages
The elements of Versailles treaty against Germany
1- Loss of territories in Europe
2- Loss of colonies in Africa
3- War guilt
4- Reparation
5- Disarmament
6- Rhineland to be demilitarized
7- Forbidden union between Germany and Austria
The peace treaties signed between Allies and defeated countries
1- The treaty of St.Germain 1919 with Austria
2- The treaty of Neuilly 1919 part of Bulgaria went to Yugoslavia
3- The treaty of Trianon with Hungary and Yugoslavia 1920
4- The treaty of Lausanne 1923 with Turkish
The League of Nations
Formation – 1919 in Switzerland – Geneva – 42 members at the beginning and 55
by 1926 when Germany admitted. First secretary – Eric Drummond 1919-1923

Aims –
1- To maintain peace and Establishment
2- Encourage inter-co-operation
3- Respect sovereignty of member states

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 4- Disarmament discourage production of weapons of mass destruction
Covenant of the league
1- Decrease production of war armaments
2- Guarantee and respect national integrity and independence
3- Submit inter-dispute to the league for peaceful settlement
4- Control aggression through economic rather than military action
5- Exchange information on national armament programme
6- Establishment of mandate territories

Organs of the League

1- The Assembly – its function- decide general policy , handle finance of the
league
2- The council – it contained 4 permanent members –Britain, France, Italy and
japan. The nonpermanent members were 4. There were four other non-
permanent members who were elected by the Assembly for period of three
years. The number of non-permanent members had increased to 9 by 1926 and
all had equal voting .Function – deal with specific issues as they arose.
3- The secretariat – looked after all the paperwork. Prepare agenda. writing
resolution and reports to the Assembly
4- The permanent court of international court of justices ICJ- headquarter
Hague-Holland. It consisted of 15 judges of different nationalities. Functions-Deal
with disputes between countries. Settlement of international disputes.
Interpretation of treaties.
5- Specialized agencies – deal with. Mandates, military affairs, minority groups,
refugees, labor, health, drugs, slavery, main agencies were – international labor
organization (ILO) international Health Organization (IHO)

Achievements of the league

 - Formed international labor organization ILO
 - Established international health organization IHO
 - Provide relief for refugees, famine, disease zone, and war casualties
 - Supported reduction of trade on dangerous drugs
 - Sopped the war between Greece-Bulgaria in 1925
 - Settled disputes between member states
 - Supervised mandate territories

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  - Held number of disarmament conference

Factors behind failure of league of nation to preserve world peace

1. It was more related to Versailles treaty
2. It was rejected by USA
3. Absence of other important powers
4. Failure of world disarmament conference 1932
5. It had no military force of its own
6. The world economic crises of 1929
7. Failed to raise enough funds
8. It was pro-British-French affairs

Chapter 5:The Second World War (1939-1945)

Introduction

 World War II, the largest and deadliest conflict in human history, involved
more than 50 nations and was fought on land, sea and air in nearly every
part of the world.
 Also known as the Second World War,
 it was caused in part by the economic crisis of the Great Depression and by
political tensions left unresolved following the end of World War I.
 By the end of World War II, an estimated 60 to 80 million people had died,
including up to 55 million civilians.
Allied powers
1- Great Britain
2- France
3- Soviet union
4- USA
Axis powers
1- Germany
2- Japan
3- Italy
Fronts of the war
 Europe front

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  Pacific front
The causes 0f the second world war
1- Versailles Treaty
2- Rivaly Competition
3- The of Dictators and New Policy
4- Great Economic Depression
5- Hitler’s ambition
6- Nationalism
7- Territorial violation

Hitler’s Aggressive activities in Europe that contributed mainly into

Outbreak of the Second World War
1- Building up of German army
2- March into Rhineland
3- Annexed Austria into Germany
4- Invaded Czechoslovakia
5- Invaded Poland
Reasons behind entry of USA in the Second World War
1- In 1941 japan , without warning attacked the American military base in Hawaii
of pearl harbor

Allies air bomb

1- Prepared way for land invasion
2- Caused huge destruction in industry , factories and railways
3- Hardly hit the economy of Axis powers
4- Weakened Axis capacity to resist
5- It ruin Germanys ability to produce war materials

Cause for the defeat of Axis powers

1- Axis powers faced a short-age of valuable raw materials
2- Allies were superior on air and Naval
3- Axis powers went out far beyond their basic capacity
4- The Allies had massive resources
5- The Axis powers made grave tactical mistakes example
6- Hitler concentrated on production of V-rockets at the expense of jet-
aircraft , Hitler failed to halt the Russian winter campaign

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The political results of the Second World War

1- Rise of two super powers USA, USSR

2- The communist zone was extended to include nearly half of the continent
resulting the (iron ) that geographically divided Europe
3- It caused the cold war
4- Weakened western powers had to receive assistance and protection from
USA
5- Establishment of UNO
6- Division of Germany into east and west
7- Creation of Israel state in 1947
8- Introduction of marshal plan from USA to Europe
9- Decolonization
10- Production of nuclear weapons

Economic results of the Second World War

1- Ended Europe’s economic domination of the rest of the world

2- Enormous destruction of industries
3- War created unemployment
4- Slowed economic development of countries involved in the war
5- It led to development of engineering

Social results of the Second World War

1- Massive loss of human life
2- Millions lost their houses
3- Pharmacologists developed DDT to destroy disease spreading
4- Doctors made great advance in surgery
5- Bitter feelings and mistrust developed among countries
6- The war produced new kind of life

Chapter 6:The United Nations Organization (UNO)

Introduction

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  United Nations Organization (UNO) is a global organization of autonomous
and independent states, founded on October 24, 1945.
 The aftermath of World War2 led to the establishment of the United
Nations Organization to maintain peace and keep nations away from war
and destruction.
 The Organization of the United Nations has been established in 1945.
Currently, the United Nations consists of 193 member-states.
 Around 51 countries of the world got together to maintain world peace and
security. They agreed to form the United Nations by signing a treaty known
as the United Nations Charter.
 The United Nations is headquartered in New York City

Aims of the UNO

1- Preserve peace and eliminate war

2- Remove causes of conflict by encouraging economic ,social, educational
,scientific and cultural
3- progress particularly under-developed countries
4- Safeguard the rights of all individual rights

Structure of the UNO- five main organs

1- General Assembly – functions
a. Discuss and make decisions about international problems decide UN
budget
b. Supervise the work of many other UN bodies
2- The security council – functions
a. Deal with crises as they arise and take economic and military action if
necessary against aggressor.
b. Approve applications for UN membership
c. Council began with eleven members, five are permanent, china, USA,
USSR, France and Britain.
d. Other six elected by general assembly for two year term, increased to ten
in 1965. Decisions need nine of the 15 members but must include all the
five permanent members this means anyone of the five can veto the
decisions and prevent any action
3- The secretariat – functions

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  The Secretariat provides service to the other principal organs
 Preparing agen da
 Translates documents into all UN official languages
4-The Economic and Social Council ECOSOC
Has 27 members elected by general assembly. Functions
▪ Health
▪ Education
▪ Population
▪ problems
▪ Drugs
▪ Human rights
▪ Status of woman
▪ Co-ordinates work of other commission
5-The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
 The International Court of Justice (ICJ), also called the World Court, is one
of the six main bodies of the United Nations (UN).
 It consist of 15 judges
 The International Court of Justice is responsible for settling disputes
between parties and following international law
 The ICJ headquarter is situated at the Peace Palace in The Hague
(Netherlands)

Difference of the UNO from the League of Nations

1- UN spends more time and resources on economic and social matters
2- UN safeguard human rights
3- UN take more decisive action than the league
4-UN has much wider membership
Challenges facing UNO
1- Border conflict or political instability
2- Ideological differences
3- The Veto power
4- Arm race
5- National interest
6- Divided loyalty

Chapter 7: The Cold War

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Introduction
The Cold War was a long period of tension between the democracies of the
Western World and the communist countries of Eastern Europe. The west was led
by the United States and Eastern Europe was led by the Soviet Union. These two
countries became known as superpowers. Although the two superpowers never
officially declared war on each other, they fought indirectly in proxy wars, the
arms race, and the space race.

Time Period (1945 - 1991)

Wars

 Korean War
 Vietnam War
 Chinese Civil War
 Yom Kippur War
 Soviet Afghanistan War

Causes
1- Ideological differences – mutual suspicions
2- Arm race
3- Iron Curtain policy adopted by USSR
4- The veto power
5- Formation of North Atlantic Treaty organization NATO
6- The Marshal plan of 1949

Collapse of the Cold war

 Dramatic events took place in eastern Europe from 1988-1999

 Rising of opposition groups and mass demonstration
 Undemocratic system of communism government
 Defeat of all communism government in the elections in eastern Europe
 End of berlin wall and Germany re-united
 In 1991 soviet split in to 15 separate independent republics
 Rise of one power in the world
 Disappear of Warsaw pact

Effects of the cold war

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 1- Splitting of the same country into two hostile separate states
2- Suspicion and insecurity
3- Space race
4- - Arm race
5- In some cases developed into real war – Korea and Vietnam
6- Various crises took place during 1950s and 1960s
7- Coups and counter coups in third world countries led to rise
of dictates Europe itself was split into two opposing groups

Common challenges faced Africans since independence

 Social challenges
1- Widespread of illiteracy
2- Poor housing and sanitation
3- Inadequate health facilities
4- Mass unemployment
5- Inadequate social amenities
6- High incidents of Acquired immune deficiency AIDS and related diseases
 . Economic challenges
1- Underdeveloped industrial sector
2- Inadequate infrastructure development such banks ,insurance, transport
and communication
network
3- Unequal distribution of economic resources
4- Overdependence of former colonial masters and other foreigners for
economic aid 5- High level of foreign aid.
 . Political challenges
1- Political instability
2- Difficult of national unity because of various ethnic groups
3- Border disputes
4- Increasing refugee influx
5- Internal power struggle due to ambitious politicians
6- Ideological differences resulted from cold war, some were communist
others were capitalist

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Organization of African Unity OAU Formation
Formed in Addis Ababa 1963 from 30 countries out of 32 independent. Morocco
and Togo are not present but joined later
Aims of the OAU
1- Promote unity of African states
2- Improving life for the African people
3- Defend sovereignty and independence of African states
4- Eradicate all forms of colonialism from the continent
5- Promote international-co-operation
6- Avoid interfering in internal affairs of members states
7- Uphold non-alignment in Africa’s relation with the rest of the world

The structure of the AOU – the organs

1 – The assembly of the Heads of states and government. Met once a year and if
there is urgent
issue could hold extra ordinary sessions. They elect chairman every year from
among the head
state up to 1981.
Functions
1- Policy formulation
2- Coordination of policy and implementation
3- Reviewing the OAU structure
2. The council of ministers. Consist of all foreign ministers and met twice a year
Functions
1- Prepare the agenda of assembly meetings
2- Prepare the budget to be approval by the assembly
3- Implement policies and decisions passed by the heads of state
4- Implement decisions and policies of the assembly
3. The general secretariat.
He or she elected for a four –year term. Function
1- Did the day –to-day activities of the OAU
2- To provide administrative services to the organization
4 – The commission for mediation, conciliation and arbitration
Has a total of 21 member states Responsible for peaceful settlement of disputes
involving member states.

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Performance and achievements of the OAU
1- Liberating Africa from European colonization
2- Supported nationalists in south Africa in their struggle against apartheid
3- Provided a forum which African could share their common problems
4- African leaders were able to embrace collective voice in international
affairs
5- Advanced the interest of Pan-African movement by glorifying African
dignity against racism, genocide and colonialism
6- Helped resolving disputes among members through peaceful means
7- Promoted economic and technical co-operation and development
through African Development Bank by giving loans to members
8- Promoted social and cultural heritage by holding of all African games
every 4 years and African military games to ensure interaction
9- Promoted development in science and technical research

Failures of the OAU

1. Failed to effectively settle the Congo crises in 1964

2. Allowed its leaders to become dictators and military rulers because its
charter was silent on issues concerning democratic reforms, human
rights, peace, justice and freedom of expression.
3. Failed to attain unity and peace in the continent , causing inter-state
conflict
4. Failed to stop the Rwanda genocide of 1994 and DRC civil war
5. Failed to stop civil war in Somalia, Sudan, Liberia and Sierra Leone.

Challenges encountered by the OAU

1- Political instability
2- Border disputes
3- Personal conflicts
4- Interference in internal affairs
5- Strong links with former colonizer for financial aids or military assistance
6- Inadequate funds
7- Lack of standing army

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The African Union – AU
Formation. In Durban – South Africa 2002. Thabo Mbeki was elected chairman of
AU and Amara Essay of ivory coast the secretary general replacing Ahmed Salem.

AU different from OAU

1- Challenges the OAU noninterference policy by allowing for intervention
in internal affairs in states
experiencing conflict or under widespread of human rights violation.
2- AU is a union of African people it enables more participation of people.
3- Has an ambitious development agenda
4- AU is more accountable
5- AU Has standing African army and African court of justices to enforce law
Aims and objectives of AU
1-To unite Africans
2- To defend sovereignty and independence of member states
3- Accelerate socio-economic and political integration
4- Promote peace, security and stability
5- Promote and protect human and people’s rights
6- Promote democracy , good governance
7- Promote sustainable development of African economies
8- Promote co-operation and uplifting the living standard of Africans
9- Promote researches
10- Eradicate preventable diseases and promote African health within
collaboration with international partners

The structure of the AU – main organs.

A. The assembly.
Meets once a year, is the supreme organ in decision making in the union
Functions
 Formulation of common policies
 Consider admission of new members
 Receive ,consider, and take decisions on reports from of other organs
 Establish new organs of the AU
 Adopt the unions budget
 Direct the security council on management of conflicts
 Appointment and termination of judges of the court of justice
B. The executive council

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 Foreign affair ministers
Functions
1- Prepare the agenda for the assembly
2- Co-ordination of policies in areas of common interests
C. The commission.
This is the secretariat made up of a chairperson deputy, eight commission and
staff members
 Functions
1- Day to day administration of the union
2- Implementation of the union decisions
3- Implementation of unions meetings and activities
4- Receive application for membership
5- Initiate proposal by other organs
D. Peace and Security Council PSC
15 members and have standing force
Function
 Promote peace and security in Africa
 Use of peaceful method in making peace
 Support peace operation peace building in post conflict
 Humanitarian and disaster management
 Any other function decided by the assembly
Challenges encountered by the AU
1- Several conflict b/w member states
2- Regional power imbalance – some states have more power and influence than
other states
3- Poverty and conflict over scarce resources

Chapter 9: Conflict in The Middle East

Summary of events

The area known as the Middle East has been one of the world‟s most troubled
regionssince 1945. Wars and civil wars have been raged almost non-stop and
there was a time when the whole region was at peace. The Middle E ast consists
of the “Egypt, ThePalastine, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Iran, Turkey, TheYemen Republic, The United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain and

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Oman.
Most of these states except Turkey and Iran are peopled by Arabs. The Middle
East also contains the small Jewish state which was created by the United Nations
organization in 1948 in Palestine. The creation of Israel in Palestine outraged Arab
opinion throughout the world. The Arabs especially blamed Britain who they felt
they had been more sympathetic to the Jews than Arabs. Most of them blamed
USA who had supported the idea of Jews state very strongly. The Arab states
refused to recognize Israel as a legal stated and they vowed to destroy it.

Water importance of Middle East

1- Suez Canal
2- Hormuz
3- Bab-al-man dab
4- Aqaba
5- Nile river
6- Euphrates and Tigris rivers
Arab common things
1- They are all Muslims except half of Lebanon are Christians
2- All speak Arabic language
3- Most of them wanted to see destruction of Israel state
4- They all seek for unity

Causes of the conflict

1. Religious beliefs
2. Creation of Israel
3. The strategic position of Arabia
4. The rich oil deposit in Arabia
5. The desire of some Arabs to achieve political and economic unity among
Arab states
6. The desire of many Arabs to put to an end of foreign intervention in their
countries
7. Numerous civil wars E.g. civil war in Lebanon which lasted for 15 years from
1975, the war between Iran and Iraq 1980-1988, the Gulf war 1990-1991
Attempts made to increase the unity among Arabs
 The Arab league founded in 1945

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  Pan-Arabism in the mid 1950s with the energetic leadership off colonel
“Gamal Abdel Nasser

Interference in the Middle East by other countries

 Britain and French involvement in the Middle East. Britain ruled Egypt from
1882 to 1922. also France was given a large area in the middle east taken
from the defeated Turks to look after as mandate
 The middle east is a very important strategic position in the world it acts as
crossroad between western nations, communist bloc and the third world
countries in Africa and Asia
 The Middle East produces over a third of world‟s oil supplies. The main
producers are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait
 The lack of unity among Arab states encouraged other countries to
intervene in the Middle East

The creation of Israel

 The origin of the problem went back almost 2000 years to the year A.D 71
when most of the Jews were driven out of Palestine which was their
homeland by the Romans.
 In 1897 some Jews living in Europe founded “The World Zionist
Organization” atBasle Switzerland. Zionists were people who believed that
Jews ought to be able to go back to Palestine and have what they called “ A
national homeland”
 Britain become involved in 1917 when the foreign minister, Arthur Balfour
announced that Britain supported the idea of Jewish national home in
Palestine when Palestine become a British mandate after 1919 and large
number of Jews began to arrive in Palestine. Arabs protested to the British
that they wanted an independent Palestine for Arabs and end to the
immigration of Jews
 Nazi persecution of Jews in Germany after 1933 caused a flood of refugees,
and by 1940s about half the population of Palestine was Jewish. In 1937 the
British Peel Commission proposed dividing Palestine into two separate
stated one for Palestines and one for Jewish

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  The Second World War made the situation worse because there were
hundreds of and thousands of Jews refugees from Hitler’s Europe
desperately looking for some where to go

The Arab-Israeli War -1948-9

The war erupted after thousands of Jews flooded into Palestine where the Arabs
responded bitterly to have independent Palestine. The Arabs who attended the
war were “Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Lebanon
The Outcome of the War
 The Israelis defeated the Arabs
 The Israelis captured more Palestine than UN partition had given them
 They ended up with about three-quarter of Palestine plus the Egyptian port
of Eilat on the Red sea
 The Israelis won because they fought desperately with military experience
while the Arabs states were divided among themselves and poorly
equipped also Palestinians demoralized

The Suez War-1956

It was a fought between Egypt and UK, France and Israel
Causes
 On 26 July 1956, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal

The outcome of the war

 It was complete humiliation for Britain and France who achieved none of
their aims
 It was triumph for president Nasser
 The war failed to overthrow president Nasser
 The Egyptians blocked the canal
 The Arabs reduced oil supplies to western Europe
 The American aid was replaced by Russian aid
 The British soon lost its ally in Iraq

The six days war -1967

The Arabs had not signed a peace treaty at the end of 1948-49 war and were
still refusing to give Israel official recognition. In 1967 they joined together

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 again in a determined attempt to destroy Israel. The lead was taken by Iraq,
Syria and Egypt

Results of the war

 For the Israelis it was spectacular success. Their success was attributed
the slow and ponderous Arab troop build up which gave the Israelis plenty
of warning, Israeli superiority in air and inadequate Arab preparation and
communication
 For the Arabs it was humiliation and especially for Nasser who now
realized that the Arabs needed outside help if they were ever to free
Palestine

The Yom Kippur War-1973

 Egyptian and Syrian forces attacked early on the feast of “Yom Kippur”,
a Jewish religious festival hoping to catch the Israelis off guard.
 After some early Arab success, the Israelis mainly using USA weapons
were able to turn the tables.
 They succeeded in hanging on to all the territory they had captured in
1967 and even crossed the Suez Canal into Egypt.
 Later USA and USSR intervened to try to bring peace settlement. Acting
with UN cooperation , they organized a ceasefire, which both sides
accepted

Camp David Peace Treaty -1978-9

The treaty was between Israel and Egypt under Jimmy Carter the president of
USA. It took place Camp David in Washington. The Egyptian leader was Anwar
Sadat and Israeli leader was Menachem

Why did the two sides begin to talk to each other?

 President Anwar Sadat convinced that Israel could not be destroyed by
force and that was foolish to keep on wasting Egypt‟s resources on
fruitless wars.
 The Israelis were suffering from economic problems because of their
enormous defense expenditure and partly because of world recession

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  President Jimmy Carter of USA played a vital role in setting up formal
negotiations between the two sides which began in September 1978 at
Camp David near Washington
The peace treaty and its aftermath
The peace talks with Jimmy carter acting as intermediary led to peace treaty
being signed in Washington in March 1979. The main points agreed were;
 The state of war that had existed between Egypt and Israel since 1948 was
now ended
 Israel promised to withdraw its troops from Sinai peninsula
 Egypt promised not to attack Israel again and granted to supply her with oil
from the recently opened wells in Sinai peninsula
 Israel ships could use the Suez canal Unfortunately the peace treaty was
condemned by the PLO and most Arab states except Sudan and Morocco.

The Iran-Iraq war 1980-8 and Iraq’s motives

President Saddam had several motives for launching the attack
 He was afraid of militant Islam spreading across the border into Iraq from
Iran
 A long-standing dispute existed over the Shatt-el-Arab water way
 Saddam thought that the Iranian forces would be weak and demoralized
 The end of the war 1988.

The gulf war 1990-1

Even before he had accepted the peace terms at the end of the Iran-Iraq war,
Saddam Hussein began his next of aggression. His forces invaded and quickly
occupied the small neighboring state of Kuwait (august 1990)

Saddam Hussein’s motives

 His real motives were probably to get his hands on the wealth of Kuwait
 He did not expect any action from the outside world

The world unties against Saddam Hussein

 The UN placed trade sanctions on Iraq, cutting of its oil exports,

 Saddam was ordered to remove his troops by 15th January 1991

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  When the 15th January deadline passed, operation Desert Storm was
launched against Iraqis.
 The campaign in two parts was quickly successful. First came a series of
bombing attack on Baghdad
 The second phase the attackon the Iraqi army itself, began on 24th
February. With 4 days the Iraqis had been driven out of Kuwait and routed

Peace between Israel and PLO-1993

The first major breakthrough, took place at a conference on Oslo become known
as the “Oslo Accord” it was agreed that;
 Israel formally recognized PLO(Palestinian Liberation Organization)
 The PLO recognized Israel’s rights to exist and promised to give up terrorism
 The Palestinians should be given limited self-rule on the west bank and parts in
the Gaza strip areas occupied by Israel
 Israeli troops should be withdrawn these areas

War in Iraq =2003

 The Iraq War was fought between Iraq and a group of countries led by the
United States and the United Kingdom.
 It began on March 20, 2003 and ended on December 18, 2011.
 The war resulted in the toppling of the Iraqi government led by Saddam

Leading up to the War

 In 1990, Iraq invaded the country of Kuwait and started the Gulf War.
 After Iraq lost the Gulf War, they had agreed to inspections by the United
Nations.
 By the early 2000s, Iraq was refusing to allow U.N. inspectors into the
country.
 Then 9/11 happened. The U.S. began to worry that the leader of Iraq,
Saddam Hussein, was helping terrorists and that he was secretly
developing weapons of mass destruction
Result

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  There weren't any WMDs found in Iraq after the invasion.
 There were 26 countries that made up the multinational force in Iraq.
 Iraq adopted a new democratic constitution in 2005.
 The war had been one of the most destructive conflicts of the late 20th
century
 There have been over million Iraqis dead the effect of the war
 Life-threatening damage to Iraqi health care and other infrastructure has
not been repaired
 civilians are still dying in significant numbers

Chapter 10: Report of Khat Consumption

Introduction
 The origins of khat are often argued.
 Many believe that they are Ethiopian in nature, from where it spread to
the hillsides of East Africa and Yemen.
 Others believe that khat originated in Yemen before spreading to Ethiopia
and nearby countries.
 The earliest recorded use of khat medically is believed to be within the New
Testament.
 The ancient Egyptians considered the khat plant a "divine food" which was
capable of releasing humanity's divinity.
 The Egyptians used the plant for more than its stimulating effects

Cultivation and uses

 Khat has been grown for use as a stimulant for centuries in the Horn of
Africa and
the Arabian Peninsula.
 Khat is Yemen’s main agricultural product. One in six people – about 5-6
million Yemenis – are wholly dependent on its trade
 It’s estimated that 80 or 90% of Somaliland’s adult male population, as well
as 20% of its
female population, chew the bitter leaf.
 Khat is the number-one employer in Hargeisa, generating between 8,000
and 10,000 jobs
 Somaliland spends about $524m a year – about 30% of GDP – importing Ethiopian khat

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Khat chewers are victims to the following
1. Strong desire or compulsion to take khat
2. Difficulties in controlling khat –taking behavior
3. Nightmare dreams – dubaabka habeenka
4. Neglect of alternative interests due to time spent using khat
5. Harmful consequences
Chemically
1. The chemicals found in khat are Cathine and cathinone
2. Both Cathinone and Cathine are central nervous system (CNS) stimulants
3. increased blood pressure, a state of euphoria.

The colonial administration of khat belt zone, imposed khat ban

legislation in
1- Kenya – 1945-1956
2- Djibouti – 1956-1957
3- Somaliland – 1921-1957
4- South Yemen 1957-1958
Effects of khat.
 Health problems
 Mental illness
 Khat challenges food security and contributes to malnutrition
 Negative effect on woman and children khat leads to increased insecurity
 A major contributor to poverty
 May lead to family problems – divorce
 Transforms Somali value and tradition , changes what is considered
acceptable and normal
 Hard currency drain estimated about $ 250 million yearly
 Negative effect on economic development
 Khat lowers productivity and work morale
 Environmental problems because of khat plastic bags

Suggestions to minimize negative effects of khat

 Alternative jobs for those trade on khat must be created
 Government to increase tax on khat

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 Awareness programs about Khat
 Introduction of khat knowledge in school curriculum
 The amount of khat importing the country should be reduced
 Time limit

@Gathered by : Mohamoud Abdirahman Faarah

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