Aquatic Plyometric Training Increases

Vertical Jump in Female Volleyball Players

GREGORY F. MARTEL, MATTHEW L. HARMER, JENNIFER M. LOGAN, and CHRISTOPHER B. PARKER
Department of Physical Therapy, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Princess Anne, MD

ABSTRACT
MARTEL, G. F., M. L. HARMER, J. M. LOGAN, and C. B. PARKER. Aquatic Plyometric Training Increases Vertical Jump in Female
Volleyball Players. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 37, No. 10, pp. 1814 –1819, 2005. Purpose: Numerous studies have reported that
land-based plyometrics can improve muscular strength, joint stability, and vertical jump (VJ) in athletes; however, due to the intense
nature of plyometric training, the potential for acute muscle soreness or even musculoskeletal injury exists. Performance of aquatic
plyometric training (APT) could lead to similar benefits, but with reduced risks due to the buoyancy of water. Unfortunately, there is
little information regarding the efficacy of APT. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of APT on VJ and muscular
strength in volleyball players. Methods: Nineteen female volleyball players (aged 15 ⫾ 1 yr) were randomly assigned to perform 6
wk of APT or flexibility exercises (CON) twice weekly, both in addition to traditional preseason volleyball training. Testing of leg
strength was performed at baseline and after 6 wk, and VJ was measured at baseline and after 2, 4, and 6 wk. Results: Similar increases
in VJ were observed in both groups after 4 wk (APT ⫽ 3.1%, CON ⫽ 4.9%; both P ⬍ 0.05); however, the APT group improved by
an additional 8% (P ⬍ 0.05) from week 4 to week 6, whereas there was no further improvement in the CON group (⫺0.9%; P ⫽ NS).
After 6 wk, both groups displayed significant improvements in concentric peak torque during knee extension and flexion at 60 and
180°䡠s⫺1 (all P ⬍ 0.05). Conclusions: The combination of APT and volleyball training resulted in larger improvements in VJ than in
the CON group. Thus, given the likely reduction in muscle soreness with APT versus land-based plyometrics, APT appears to be a
promising training option. Key Words: STRETCH-SHORTENING CYCLE, DEPTH JUMPS, BALLISTIC EXERCISE, STRENGTH
TRAINING

T
he effects of plyometric training, also referred to as
ballistic training or stretch-shortening exercise, have
been studied rather extensively in both athletic and
nonathletic populations. Benefits from this type of training
include improved measures of muscular strength and power
(4,8,14,18,23,27,29,30), joint function and stability
(6,14,29), reduced incidence of serious knee injuries
(13,14), and running economy (26). Furthermore, multiple
studies (5,9,11,12,14,17,18,20,23,27,30), but not all (6,7,26)
that have employed jump-specific plyometric exercises (i.e.,
depth jumps or drop jumps) have reported significant im-
provements in vertical jump (VJ). These increases in VJ
have been associated with factors such as increased power
output and maximum rate of force development (20) as well
as increased muscle fiber size (23); characteristics likely
attributed to the stretch reflex, high eccentric loading, and
explosive nature of plyometric exercises (20).
Despite the numerous benefits associated with high-im-
pact, high-intensity land-based plyometric training, the pos-
sibility exists for this type of training to induce acute muscle
soreness, muscle damage, or even musculoskeletal injuries
Address for correspondence: Greg Martel, PhD, Department of Physical
Therapy, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Princess Anne, MD
21853; E-mail: gfmartel@mail.umes.edu.
Submitted for publication December 2004.
Accepted for publication May 2005.
0195-9131/05/3710-1814/0
MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISE®
Copyright © 2005 by the American College of Sports Medicine
DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000184289.87574.60
1814
(1,11,15). Furthermore, for individuals undergoing current
rehabilitation of an injury, the use of land-based plyometric
training would most likely need to be delayed until such
time that it could be safely incorporated into the training
regimen. Thus, a relatively simple method of reducing im-
pact forces and eccentric loading while still providing suf-
ficient stimulus for physiological and sports-related im-
provements would be to perform plyometric training in a
swimming pool, or aquatic plyometric training (APT)
(25,28).
Although buoyancy reduces the stretch reflex and amount
of eccentric loading during aquatic plyometric exercise,
athletes encounter greater than normal resistance during
concentric movements because of the viscosity of water.
Thus, APT could provide a stimulus for improvement in a
slightly different manner than land-based plyometrics.
Surprisingly, we could locate only two studies in peer-
reviewed journals that examined APT (19,24). Miller and
colleagues (19) compared the effects of 8 wk of land-based
plyometrics versus APT on VJ, muscle power and torque,
muscle soreness, and range of motion in college-aged men
and women. Interestingly, the authors reported an increase
in muscle power only in the APT group, whereas both the
land-based and APT groups had increases in knee peak
torque during knee flexion at only one of three speeds at
which they were tested (6.28 rad䡠s⫺1). Furthermore, none of
the groups displayed significant increases in VJ. One pos-
sible explanation for these blunted training responses could
be the prescribed training intensity, which the authors char-
acterized as “low” to “medium” intensity for the first 4 wk
of the study (19).
 On the contrary, Robinson et al. (24) compared the effects
of 8 wk of land-based versus APT on VJ, muscle strength,
sprint velocity, and muscle soreness in healthy college-aged
women, reporting significant improvements in VJ (greater
than a 30% increase in VJ for both groups), isokinetic torque
production, and sprint velocity in both groups.
Although there were no significant differences in the
magnitude of improvements between the two modes of
training, the level of reported muscle soreness was signifi-
cantly higher in the women performing land-based plyomet-
rics as compared with those exercising in the water (24).
Thus, it appears that APT has the potential to provide
similar improvements in skeletal muscle function and/or
sport-related attributes as land-based plyometrics, but with
less soreness.
However, the findings of Robinson et al. (24) should be
interpreted with caution, as the authors did not compare the
training groups with a separate control group that was not
involved in plyometric activities. Thus, it is difficult to
determine the possible impact that a learning effect may
have had on their VJ data.
Despite the important findings of Robinson et al. (24), it
is not known if APT can provide increases in VJ and/or
muscular strength for athletes undergoing concurrent sport-
specific training. Thus, the purpose of the present study was
to examine the effects of combined APT and traditional
preseason volleyball training on muscular strength and VJ in
high school–aged female volleyball players as compared
with a control group performing a combination of flexibility
exercises and volleyball training (CON). We hypothesized
that the addition of APT to traditional volleyball training
would lead to greater enhancements in VJ and muscular
strength of the legs as compared with the CON group.
METHODS
Approach to the problem. The present study was
conducted to determine whether adding APT to traditional
volleyball training leads to larger increases in VJ and mus-
cular strength as compared with a combination of flexibility
exercises and traditional volleyball training (CON). We
decided not to utilize a land-based plyometric comparison
group for three reasons: 1) numerous previous investiga-
tions have substantiated the effectiveness of land-based
plyometrics for increasing VJ and muscular strength; 2)
only two previous studies have examined the efficacy of
APT, reporting opposing findings with regard to VJ; and 3)
to minimize the effects of outside physical activity on our
findings, we studied an intact volleyball team of 19 subjects
that were about to undergo the same program of preseason
volleyball training; thus, dividing the team into three smaller
groups would have reduced our sample size and statistical
power. We decided on a 6-wk APT period to allow for the
completion of all aspects of the study without interfering
with the beginning the competitive season, but still allowing
sufficient time for potential training adaptations. Also, due
to the time constraints of the length of preseason, we were
required to utilize the same order of testing before and after
AQUATIC PLYOMETRICS AND VERTICAL JUMP
TABLE 1. Physical characteristics of the subjects.
APT CON
(N ⴝ 10) (N ⴝ 9)
Age (yr) 15 ⫾ 1 14 ⫾ 1
Body mass (kg) 64 ⫾ 13 57 ⫾ 8
Height (cm) 167 ⫾ 9 164 ⫾ 8
Resting HR (bpm) 85 ⫾ 13 87 ⫾ 8
Predicted V̇O2max (L䡠min⫺1) 2.71 ⫾ 0.42 2.36 ⫾ 0.50
Predicted V̇O2max 42.4 ⫾ 7.0 41.4 ⫾ 7.1
(mL䡠kg⫺1䡠min⫺1)
None of the differences were significant. All data are mean ⫾ standard deviation (SD).
APT, aquatic plyometric training group; CON, control group.
the study for each subject and, because APT reduces the
stretch reflex and eccentric loading but increases resistance
to concentric actions, we chose to only examine concentric
isokinetic peak torque as a measure of muscular strength.
Subjects. Nineteen female volleyball players (15 ⫾ 1
yr, 61 ⫾ 11 kg) (Table 1) were selected as a sample of
convenience from a local high school volleyball team. The
subjects and their legal guardians were informed of the
potential risks and benefits of the study. The subjects then
provided written informed consent to participate in accor-
dance with the guidelines of the institutional review board of
the University of Maryland Eastern Shore for use of human
subjects. All subjects reported ⱖ2 yr of past experience in
the sport of volleyball and were healthy as determined
through a university-designed health history questionnaire
and routine physical examinations performed by a physi-
cian. Subjects were excluded from the study if they had
current or recent past musculoskeletal injuries, cardiovas-
cular disease, uncontrolled metabolic disorders such as di-
abetes mellitus, or a fear of water. Although all subjects
reported participation in submaximal aerobic exercise train-
ing for approximately 30 min䡠d⫺1, 2–3⫻ wk⫺1 during the 3
months before the study, none had participated in strength
training or plyometric training involving the legs during that
same time period, and none of the subjects had ever partic-
ipated in APT.
Submaximal cycle ergometry. To estimate baseline
fitness of the subjects before beginning the study, maximal
aerobic capacity (V̇O2max) was predicted for all subjects on
the same mechanically braked cycle ergometer (Monark,
Stockholm, Sweden) (2,3,10). All subjects were asked to
arrive at the laboratory without eating or drinking for at least
3 h, and without exercising for at least 8 h before testing.
The subjects were also asked to refrain from taking any
medications known to affect HR for at least 8 h before
testing. At rest, and during each stage of the test, HR was
monitored with a telemetry unit (Polar; Port Washington,
NY), blood pressures with a standard stethoscope and
sphygmomanometer, and ratings of perceived exertion with
the 20-point Borg scale. All subjects were asked to sit
quietly on the cycle ergometer for 5 min before obtaining
resting HR and blood pressures. All subjects pedaled at a
rate of 50 rpm with an initial resistance of 0.5 kp. Towards
the end of the initial 3-min stage, a HR was recorded and,
based upon the magnitude of the HR response to this initial
work rate, the resistance was adjusted upward for a second
3-min stage while the pedal rate was kept constant (10). The
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise姞 1815
same procedures were followed for a third stage and, in
cases where there were not at least two stages with HR
greater than 110 bpm, a fourth stage (10).
Vertical jump. Vertical jump height, defined as the
difference between standing reach height and the maximal
jump height, was measured to the nearest 0.64 cm (0.25
inches) in all subjects at baseline and after 2, 4, and 6 wk by
the same investigator (19,24). Briefly, the initial reach
height of each subject was determined by having them
stand, with feet flat, in a designated area adjacent to the wall
with their dominant arm raised as high as possible. Each
subject was then given an opportunity to perform two to
three submaximal practice countermovement jumps. After a
2–3-min recovery, each subject performed three separate
maximal VJ attempts. Although subjects were allowed to
squat and swing their arms during each maximal attempt,
they were required to maintain their feet within the desig-
nated area for all prejump movements. The highest of the
three VJ attempts for each subject was utilized for data
analysis. The intraclass correlation coefficient for the VJ test
was 0.9293 (␣ ⫽ 0.9633) and the test-retest reliability was
r ⫽ 0.93 (P ⬍ 0.001). For determination of sample size and
statistical power, using an estimate of effect size of 0.75 cm,
it was determined that seven subjects per group (14 total)
would be sufficient to provide a power of 80% at ␣ ⫽ 0.05.
Isokinetic peak torque. To assess the effects of APT
on nonspecific measures of leg strength, concentric peak
torque (N䡠m) was measured unilaterally in both legs of all
subjects during knee extension and flexion at 60 and
180°䡠s⫺1 by the same investigator before and after the study
with an isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex, Inc., Shirley, NY)
(16,21). The dynamometer was calibrated according to man-
ufacturer specifications before each testing session, includ-
ing the correction of gravitational effects on torque. All
subjects participated in a brief warm-up consisting of light
stationary cycling followed by static stretching of the ham-
strings, quadriceps, and calf muscle groups. The subjects
were then seated on the dynamometer with the hip and knee
flexed to 90°, the foot hanging in a comfortable resting
position, and the knee aligned with the dynamometer axis of
rotation. Before testing, all subjects were stabilized using
chest, thigh, and hip straps to reduce involvement of acces-
sory muscle groups, and underwent establishment of a com-
fortable range of motion.
Beginning with a speed of 60°䡠s⫺1, each subject per-
formed three to five submaximal practice lifts with the
dominant leg, followed by five maximal extension and
flexion efforts at the same speed. Rest periods of at least 30 s
were given between each maximal lift. Upon completing the
maximal lifts at 60°䡠s⫺1, a rest period of 2 min was given,
followed by five submaximal practice lifts at 180°䡠s⫺1. Each
subject then completed five maximal extension and flexion
maneuvers at this faster speed, utilizing the same proce-
dures. After completion of dominant leg testing, a rest
period of at least 2 min was given before following the exact
testing protocol for the nondominant leg. Peak torque values
were determined to be the highest values recorded in each
leg for both knee extension and flexion, at both speeds.
1816 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine
Study design. All baseline testing of leg strength (iso-
kinetic peak torque) and VJ was completed less than 1 wk
before the beginning of preseason volleyball training. The
APT program was conducted concurrently with preseason
volleyball training, and was completed before beginning the
competitive season. Upon completion of all baseline testing,
the subjects were randomly assigned to perform either APT
combined with preseason volleyball training, or flexibility
exercises combined with preseason volleyball training
(CON); therefore, all subjects participated in the preseason
volleyball training program, and APT was incorporated into
the preseason volleyball training for the experimental group
only (APT). The preseason volleyball training was con-
ducted 5– 6 d䡠wk⫺1, with each session lasting approximately
120 min. Typical preseason volleyball training sessions
consisted of 10 –15 min of submaximal warm-up exercises,
followed by oncourt skills training, tactical situations, and
actual game play. All volleyball sessions were directly su-
pervised by the high school volleyball coaches who were
informed about the study procedures, but were blinded to
group assignment of the subjects. Thus, the coaches did not
include any specific strength training or high-intensity plyo-
metric exercises as part of the preseason volleyball training,
other than volleyball drills that required the players to jump
as part of the activity.
Aquatic plyometric training (APT) program. The
APT program was conducted twice a week for 6 wk in a
swimming pool with a depth of approximately 122 cm and
a temperature of 28°C. All APT sessions were begun within
30 min after cessation of preseason volleyball training ses-
sions. Each APT session lasted approximately 45 min, and
consisted of a warm-up, APT, and cool-down, all performed
in the water. The warm-up consisted of approximately 5 min
of light jogging in the water. The APT exercises included
power skips, spike approaches, single- and double-leg
bounding, continuous jumping for height, squat jumps with
blocking form, and depth jumps (22). The subjects were
encouraged to perform all APT exercises in an explosive
manner, and to apply their maximal effort on all maneuvers.
The power skips, spike approaches, single- and double-
leg bounding, and squat jumps were all performed with
maximal effort along the width of the pool (12.2 m) two
times per session during the first week.
These exercises were then performed along the width of
the pool three times per session during the second week,
four times per session for the third and fourth weeks, and
five times for the fifth and sixth weeks. Bouts of continuous
maximal squat jumps were performed three times (10 s of
continuous jumps per bout, separated by 30-s recovery
periods) per session during the first week, four times per
session during the second week, four times per session
during weeks 3 and 4 (increased from 10 to 20 s for each
bout, separated by 30-s recovery periods), and four times per
session during weeks 5 and 6 (increased from 20 to 30 s for
each bout).
A series of depth jumps were performed involving three
submerged boxes (61 cm in height) two times per session
during week 1, three times per session for week 2, four times
http://www.acsm-msse.org
for weeks 3 and 4, and five times for weeks 5 and 6. The
subjects began the depth-jump circuit by squat jumping
from the pool floor onto the first box, then squat jumping
without hesitation as high as possible and landing on the
floor between the first and second box, at which point they
immediately squat jumped as high as possible, landing on
the second box. The subjects continued this pattern over the
third and final submerged box, and recovered while walking
back to the beginning of the circuit. After recovering for
approximately 30 s, the subjects began the next interval. The
cool-down period consisted of approximately 5 min of
walking in the water followed by static stretching of the
major muscle groups of the legs. Every APT session was
directly supervised by two of the investigators.
To prevent CON subjects from dropping out of the study
due to dissatisfaction about group assignment, we provided
an investigator-supervised whole-body flexibility program
twice a week for 6 wk. The program consisted of three sets
of 8 –10 static stretches for the major upper and lower body
muscle groups, with each stretch being held for approxi-
mately 30 s. All flexibility sessions were directed by the
same investigator, and were performed simultaneous to the
APT sessions, but at a different location.
Statistical analysis. Independent samples t-tests were
utilized to compare the physical characteristics of the APT
and CON groups at baseline. Analyses of variance
(ANOVA) with repeated measures (2 ⫻ 4 for VJ; 2 ⫻ 2 for
peak torque) were used to examine changes in VJ and
isokinetic concentric peak torque as a result of the study, as
well as to compare group means at each time point (SPSS
Inc., Chicago, IL). When significant time-by-group interac-
tions were observed, post hoc paired t-tests corrected for
alpha inflation (Bonferroni correction) were utilized for
identifying the specific differences. All data are mean ⫾
standard deviation (SD) with a significance level of P ⱕ
0.05.
RESULTS
Physical characteristics. Physical characteristics of
the subjects are presented in Table 1. There were no signif-
icant baseline differences between the APT and CON
groups for age, height, body mass, resting HR, or predicted
V̇O2max. All enrolled subjects completed the study, and
there were no reports of significant muscle soreness or
injuries resulting from the APT program.
Vertical jump. The VJ heights were similar in both
groups at baseline and after 2 wk of the study, and there
were no significant increases in VJ for either group after 2
wk (Table 2). However, there were similar, significant in-
TABLE 2. Vertical jump measurements at baseline and after 2, 4, and 6 wk
APT (N ⴝ 10) CON (N ⴝ 9)
VJ at baseline (cm) 33.4 ⫾ 4.7 31.9 ⫾ 5.3
VJ after 2 wk (cm) 33.1 ⫾ 4.7 32.1 ⫾ 5.4
VJ after 4 wk (cm) 34.4 ⫾ 5.6* 33.5 ⫾ 5.0*
VJ after 6 wk (cm) 37.1 ⫾ 4.5*† 33.2 ⫾ 4.7*
* Significantly greater than VJ at baseline (P ⬍ 0.05). † Significantly greater than VJ
after 4 wk (P ⬍ 0.05). All data are mean ⫾ SD. VJ, vertical jump height.
AQUATIC PLYOMETRICS AND VERTICAL JUMP
creases in VJ after 4 wk in both the APT and CON groups
(3 and 5%, respectively; both P ⬍ 0.05). A comparison of
baseline VJ to values obtained after 6 wk revealed that the
CON group had a higher VJ than at baseline, but was no
different from the increase noted after 4 wk. On the con-
trary, the APT group improved their VJ by an additional 8%
(P ⬍ 0.05) when comparing values obtained after 4 wk with
those obtained after 6 wk, for a total increase in VJ from
baseline of 11% (P ⬍ 0.05).
Isokinetic peak torque. There were no significant
differences in concentric peak torque in either the dominant
or nondominant leg between the APT and CON groups at
baseline (Table 3). Similar significant improvements in con-
centric peak torque were observed in the dominant leg of
both groups when comparing baseline values with those
obtained after 6 wk (all P ⬍ 0.05). More specifically, the
improvements in both groups were similar for knee exten-
sion and flexion at both 60 and 180°䡠s⫺l. Testing of the
nondominant leg for both groups revealed the same pattern
of improvements as the dominant leg, except that the APT
group displayed significantly larger increases than the CON
group for knee extension at 180°䡠s⫺l (P ⬍ 0.05).
DISCUSSION
Our hypothesis that larger increases in VJ height would
occur in the APT group as compared with the CON group
was supported, as APT resulted in a significantly larger
improvement in VJ by the sixth week (11 vs 4% for APT
and CON, respectively). With regard to concentric peak
torque, both the APT and CON groups demonstrated sig-
nificant improvements after the 6-wk study; however, the
APT group had a significantly larger increase than the CON
group for torque production in the nondominant leg during
maximal knee-extension exercise at 180°䡠s⫺l. Thus, our
study indicates, for the first time, that APT can produce
significant increases in VJ in high school–aged female
athletes.
Whereas Robinson et al. (24) examined the effects of 8
wk of land-based plyometrics and APT on VJ and torque
production in physically fit college-aged women, not all of
the women were currently involved in sports requiring the
presence of significant leg power and jumping ability, such
as volleyball or basketball. Although the subjects in the
present study were significantly younger than in the study
by Robinson et al., our findings coincide with and extend the
findings of Robinson et al. (24) in that APT can induce
significant improvements in VJ for young female athletes
who are undergoing concurrent sports training.
Despite the reported success of land-based plyometrics
for reducing sports-related injuries (6,14,29), the possibility
of land-based plyometrics resulting in acute muscle soreness
and musculoskeletal injury should not be ignored (1,15).
Robinson et al. (24) reported that women performing 8 wk
of APT had significantly less muscle soreness than those
performing a comparable program of land-based plyomet-
rics, especially after increases in training intensity. Al-
though the present study did not specifically assess muscle
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise姞 1817
TABLE 3. Concentric peak torque at baseline and after 6 wk (N䡠m).
APT (N ⴝ 10)
Baseline
Dominant leg
Knee flexion 60°䡠s⫺1 69 ⫾ 13
Knee extension 60°䡠s⫺1 108 ⫾ 29
Knee flexion 180°䡠s⫺1 48 ⫾ 13
Knee extension 180°䡠s⫺1 61 ⫾ 17
Nondominant leg
Knee flexion 60°䡠s⫺1 67 ⫾ 16
Knee extension 60°䡠s⫺1 97 ⫾ 24
Knee flexion 180°䡠s⫺1 56 ⫾ 25
Knee extension 180°䡠s⫺1 52 ⫾ 16
* Significantly greater than baseline (all P ⬍ 0.05). † Significantly greater increase than in the CON group (P ⬍ 0.05). All data are mean ⫾ SD. After, after 6 wk.
soreness, it is important to note that there were no occur-
rences of injury, no complaints of significant muscle sore-
ness, and no dropouts as a result of the APT program, but
there were significant increases in VJ and leg strength.
In further support of the possible advantages of APT,
Luebbers et al. (17) compared the effects of 4- and 7-wk
land-based plyometric training programs on VJ height and
power in physically active college-aged men. Despite both
high-intensity training programs being performed 3 d䡠wk⫺1
and equalized for training volume, Luebbers et al. (17)
observed significant decreases in VJ height shortly after
completion of both programs. However, when VJ height
was reexamined after both groups underwent a 4-wk recov-
ery period, both groups displayed significantly higher VJ
values than those obtained at baseline and immediately after
the plyometric programs. These findings suggest that high-
intensity land-based plyometrics may lead to an overtraining
effect and may require a recovery period before competition
(17). In contrast, neither the present study nor the study by
Robinson et al. (24) incorporated a recovery period, but both
observed significant increases in VJ shortly after training,
providing evidence that APT can induce performance re-
lated benefits (VJ height) without the need for a long re-
covery period.
Despite the unique findings of the present study, there are
factors that could be expanded upon by future investiga-
tions. Assessment of the effects of APT on muscle soreness,
muscle damage, skeletal muscle biochemistry, neuromuscu-
lar characteristics, and biomechanics could provide infor-
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1818 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine
CON (N ⴝ 9)
After Baseline After
79 ⫾ 12* 58 ⫾ 4 70 ⫾ 12*
120 ⫾ 25* 94 ⫾ 12 106 ⫾ 15*
56 ⫾ 10* 42 ⫾ 8 52 ⫾ 12*
69 ⫾ 21* 52 ⫾ 16 55 ⫾ 12*
79 ⫾ 14* 57 ⫾ 9 68 ⫾ 9*
113 ⫾ 27* 80 ⫾ 15 102 ⫾ 11*
63 ⫾ 16* 42 ⫾ 8 53 ⫾ 12*
72 ⫾ 20*† 49 ⫾ 8 56 ⫾ 15*
mation regarding possible mechanisms underlying training-
induced adaptations. In addition, there is a need to compare
the effects of land-based and APT programs on different
athletic populations, and to compare APT programs of vary-
ing intensity, duration, and volume. Furthermore, the as-
sessment of training-induced changes in muscular strength
may be enhanced by including measurements that are highly
specific to the mode of training. For example, the measure-
ment of isokinetic peak torque in a seated position, as in the
present study as well as numerous others, may not fully
represent the extent of muscle adaptations that may have
occurred as a result of APT or land-based plyometric train-
ing. Finally, because athletes would be exposed to greatly
reduced ground impact forces during APT due to the buoy-
ancy of water, investigations involving the efficacy of APT
as a training mode for individuals currently in the rehabil-
itation process as well as for secondary prevention of mus-
culoskeletal injuries seem warranted.
In summary, the present study indicates that APT can
produce significant increases in VJ and, to some extent,
isokinetic peak torque in young female volleyball players. In
addition, because athletes can perform high-intensity plyo-
metric exercises in water, it is proposed that APT could
provide similar benefits as land-based plyometrics, but with
lower risk of muscle soreness and/or overtraining.
The authors would like to thank Ms. Peggy Troiano and the entire
James M. Bennett High School Volleyball Team for their participa-
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