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SMEARED CRACKING FEM SIMULATION OF ALKALI SILICA EXPANSION USING A

NEW MACROSCOPIC COUPLED MODEL

Conference Paper · January 2004

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 SMEARED CRACKING FEM SIMULATION OF ALKALI SILICA
EXPANSION USING A NEW MACROSCOPIC COUPLED MODEL

Eduardo M. R. Fairbairn* (eduardo@coc.ufrj.br), Fernando L. B. Ribeiro, Romildo D. Toledo-Filho,

Luciana E. Lopes, Marcos M. Silvoso
(COPPE/The post-Graduate Engineering Institute,
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, C.P. 68506, CEP 21945-970- Rio de Janeiro-RJ-Brasil)
Marcia F. F. Águas, Quintiliano M. Guedes
(FURNAS Centrais Elétricas SA - DEC) – Rua Real Grandeza 219,
CEP 22281-031-Rio de Janeiro-RJ-Brasil

ABSTRACT：

We present an ASR thermo-chemo-mechanical expansion model recently developed, whose main feature is the
representation of the stress-induced anisotropy, which is taken into account by means of a classical smeared
cracking model that was implemented in a 3D Finite Element code. This model considers the influence of
temperature and humidity in the development of ASR. Since cracking occurs generally at the beginning of the
swelling process, it is suggested that the assessment of the reaction characteristics in free expansion tests could be
attained considering a cracked specimen. Hence, an inverse analysis is used to determine ASR parameters.
Besides the validation of the model by the simulation of laboratory tests, it was applied to the simulation of alkali-
silica expansion in a real gravity dam. We computed the displacements at the crest of the block comparing it with
measures taken in the field for the last 25 years. The good correlation between experimental and numerical data
displayed the accuracy of the model indicating its potentialities to engineering applications.
Key words: Alkali-silica reaction; numerical modeling; coupled model; cracking

( Si − O − Si + 2OH − + 2Na + → 2(Si − O − Na) + H 2 O ).

1 INTRODUCTION
Several types of models that are expected to simulate
the behavior of structures affected by Alkali Silica
Reaction (ASR) have been presented in the literature
(see, for instance, a survey on numerical models by
Léger et al [1], and a survey on mechanical models
by Peterson and Ulm [2]).
In what concerns the evolution of the reaction, it is
generally accepted the scheme proposed by Dent
Glasser and Kataoka [3] under which there are two
distinct phases to be considered: gel formation
( Si − OH + OH − → Si − O − Na + H 2 O ); and water
absorption by the gel, causing expansion
According to this mechanism, the reaction not always
leads to expansion, which is a consequence of the
unbalanced amounts of reactants and reaction
products. As long as there is enough void space to be
filled by the gel, concrete volume remains
unchanged. In this way, most models consider the
influence of moisture on the extension of ASR [4][5].
Also, as indicated from laboratory tests [6][7]
temperature influences the kinetics of the reaction,
and should be taken into account to model ASR
swelling.
There is still discussion on how the stresses can
influence the development of the reaction. A
compilation of several tests that have been performed

Eduardo M.R. Fairbairn: eduardo@coc.ufrj.br,

+55 (21) 2562-8481
+55 (21) 2562-8484
at a wide variation of stress levels and of confinement
conditions is presented in reference [5], but these
results are not conclusive. At the present time, the
most conclusive study available in the literature is the
series of tests developed by Larive [6]. This author
performed tests on specimens submitted to varying
longitudinal compressive stresses having the
following magnitudes: σ =0; σ =5MPa;
σ =10MPa; and σ =10MPa. These stresses
corresponds to volumetric expansions due to ASR :
∆V / V = 0.403 ; ∆V / V = 0.329 ; ∆V / V = 0.430 ;
∆V / V = 0.247 .
These results indicate that, at least for stress levels
varying from 0 to 10 MPa, the volumetric expansion
does not display a tendency towards reduction.
Therefore, since the model presented in this paper is
principally dedicated to dams, which have reduced
confinement levels ( σ ≤ 10 MPa ), we will accept the
hypothesis that the volumetric expansion is not
coupled to the confinement. This does not mean that
the stress level does not affect the behavior of the
expansion by ASR. It introduces a stress-induced
anisotropy displayed by the inhibition of the
deformation in the direction of the applied stresses,
and cracks develop mainly in the direction parallel to
loading [6]. This would be expected, since the
applied stresses act similarly to prestressing,
inhibiting cracking in the direction perpendicular to
it.
In what concerns the structural and micro structural
modeling, one can find several models, at different
degrees of sophistication, for ASR swelling at
material level [4][8]. For example, the model
developed by Adeghe et al [9] considers solely the
influence of the stresses on the evolution of ASR.
This simple model with some improvements have
been implemented in a 3D FEM code and have been
used to simulate the effects of ASR expansion in
several existing dams using inverse analysis for the
determination of its parameters [9]. Bazant et al [10]
developed a model based on fracture mechanics,
using a coupled diffusion approach to describe the
kinetics of the reaction presented by Bazant and
Stefens [11]. Damage models have been presented by
Huang and Pietrusczak [12] and Capra and co-
authors [13][5] who introduced probabilistic and
fracture mechanics concepts that allows the
representation of the anisotropic behavior of ASR
swelling. Ulm, Coussy and co-authors [4][14][15]
presented a series of models based on thermo-chemo-
mechanical models extended to anisotropic plasticity
allowing for the representation of stress-induced
anisotropy. It should also be mentioned a new
generation of ASR models based on micromechanics
concepts [16][17].
In this paper we present a recently developed model
[18] that simulates (ASR) within the framework of
thermo-chemo-mechanical couplings theory [4][19].
It considers cracking as the factor that determines the
anisotropic behavior of the structure, since
compressive loading acts as prestressing for a given
direction, avoiding cracking in this direction. It also
considers that the expansion is a function of
temperature and humidity. The model is used to
simulate Larive’s tests [6]. Since cracking occurs
generally at the beginning of the swelling process, it
is suggested that the assessment of the reaction
characteristics from free expansion tests would be
performed considering a cracked specimen. Hence,
an inverse analysis is used to determine ASR
parameters. The model is also used to simulate the
behavior of a real dam attained by ASR. We analyze
the displacements at the crest of the block comparing
it with measures taken in the field for the last 25
years. The good correlation between experimental
and numerical data displays the accuracy of the
model indicating its potentialities to engineering
applications.
2 AAR CHEMO-MECHANICAL
EXPANSION MODEL – 1D THINK
MODEL
The 1D analogue model described herein, helps to
explain the assumptions considered in this work. This
model was coined after Ulm et al [4] and further
enhanced to allow for cracking of the concrete
skeleton. Let the domain Ω, of boundary ∂Ω ,
interior to a domain Γ of boundary ∂Γ , and let
σ=P/A and ε =∆/h be, respectively, the macroscopic
stress and strain on ∂Ω (see Figure 1 and Figure 2).
Even though if at the level of Γ concrete is
considered as homogeneous, at the level of Ω
concrete is considered as a porous media composed
by a skeleton and a connected porosity that may be
subjected (or not) to ASR gel pressure, p g , acting on
the porous. At this level, we consider that the gel
pressure is auto equilibrated by the stress σ s in the
skeleton. The equilibrium is expressed as:
σ ⋅ A = σ S A − pg A
c s π
(1)
where, on Ω, Ac = As + Aπ is the total concrete
area, As is the skeleton area, Aπ the projected area
of the porous space, and pg=0 if the specimen is not
yet attempted by ASR.
 denoted δ , is considered to be the superposition of
P S

Γ both, elastic and cracking deformations of the

σ skeleton, as sketched in Figure 1. It is equal to the
S Ω S
∆ /2
total macroscopic deformation ∆. Therefore, it can be
h
written:
∆ /2
σ
δ Se ; S δ S δ Se + δ Scr
ε Se = ε = = = ε Se + ε Scr ;
h h h (5)
P ε =εS

Figure 1 - One-dimensional domains

σ where, ε Se is the elastic strain of the skeleton and ε is

δ Se/2 ∆ /2= the total (macroscopic) strain in Ω, which is
δ S/2
considered as equal to the total strain ε S in the

h/2
Ω skeleton.

δ π/2 The model considers that the pore deforms with the
l0π /2 same strain as the whole domain Ω. Hence, it can be
δ Scr
/2
εg written that:
S S
σs
pg (6)
δπ
επ = π
=ε
l0
Figure 2 - One-dimensional domains
where ε π is the strain at the pore, δ π is the
Let us now define the fictitious stress σ S and the deformation, and l 0π is the initial length of the pore.
fictitious pressure p g distributed allover the concrete
area, such that: It is also considered that the swelling of the gel is
represented by the imposed deformation ε g .
σ S AC = σ S As and p g Ac = p g Aπ (2) Therefore, if Dg is defined as the compliance of the
gel, the following constitutive equation can be
written:
Therefore, equation (1) can be rewritten as:

σ =σ S − pg (3) ( )
pg = Dg − ε π −ε g = Dg − ε −ε g ( ) (7)

The model considers that a narrow region inside where x =

1
(x + x ) . Taking equation (2) into
Ω may develop cohesive microcracking 2
corresponding to a localized deformation denoted as account, equation (7) may be rewritten in terms of the
δ Scr . Within the framework of the model presented fictitious pressure as:
herein, cracking is supposed to be distributed allover
the domain Ω, allowing the definition of an (
pg = D g − επ −ε g ) =D g
(
− ε −ε g );
(averaged) cracking strain as: Aπ (8)
D g = Dg
Ac
δ Scr (4)
ε Scr =
h If we consider, as a first order approximation, that
ε g varies linearly with the extent of the reaction, the
where h is the length of Ω. following equation may be written:

The elastic deformation of the skeleton in Ω is ε g = kξ (9)

denoted δ . The total deformation of the skeleton,
Se
where k is a constant and 0 ≤ ξ ≤ 1 measures the
extent of the chemical reaction. We use the formula
proposed by Ulm et al [4] to model the kinetics of the
chemical reaction:
1 − exp(− t τ c )
ξ (t ) =
1 + exp(− t τ c + τ L τ c )
If the compliance DS represents the concrete skeleton
elasticity, the relationship between stress and elastic
strain in the skeleton can be written as:
σ S = D S ε Se (13)
(10)
or, in terms of the fictitious stress defined by (2):

As
Here, τ c is the characteristic time and τ L is the σ S = D S ε Se ; D S = D S (14)
Ac
latency time, whose signification is explained by the
graphics depicted in Figure 3.
The elastic behavior of the skeleton is bounded by the
fictitious tensile strength of the skeleton:
ξ 1
f ctS = f ctS ( AS AC ) (15)

where f ctS is the tensile strength of the skeleton.

After attaining f ctS the model considers that the
0
skeleton develops cohesive microcracking
0 τL τL+2τc t500 corresponding to a strain softening constitutive
relation.
Figure 3 – Kinetics of ASR
These microcracks can develop into a macrocrack if
The values of τc and τl that define the kinetics of the an energy G fS = ∫ σ S dδ Scr is supplied to the
reaction can be calculated as functions of the
skeleton. Therefore, a specific (pseudo) cracking
temperature, using the equations (11) and (12) taken
from reference [4]. energy g Sf , can be defined as:

τ c (θ ) = τ c (θ 0 ) exp[U c (1 θ − θ 0 )] (11) Gf
g Sf = ∫ σ S dε Scr = (16)
h
τ l (θ ) = τ l (θ 0 ) exp[U l (1 θ − θ 0 )] (12)
If linear softening is assumed, the constitutive
where, θ is the temperature of the point, θ0 is a relation for the cohesive element is the one shown in
reference temperature, τ c (θ 0 ) and τ l (θ 0 ) are the Figure 4.
values of the characteristic time and of the latency
time for the reaction at constant temperature θ0 . Uc σs
and Ul are constants, having a meaning similar to f ctS
activation energies, and its values, as suggested in
[4], are: Uc = 5400 ± 500 K and Ul = 9400 ± 500 K.
g Sf
Actually, if just one pore were considered, this pore
ε Scr
should be filled by a certain volume of gel before the
gel starts pressuring the skeleton inducing swelling
and subsequently cracking. In this way, the swelling Figure 4 – Constitutive relation for the cohesive
curve reported to the reaction extent would contain a element
first portion corresponding to an ε g (ξ ) = 0 straight
line. In fact, this is not verified in the free expansion The model configured by equations (1) to (16) is
test, since the observed macroscopic strain integrates sketched in Figure 5 and Figure 6. With the 1D think
the effects of the swelling in all the pores that have a model at hand it is possible to explore the tests that
wide range of diameters. Hence, the curve ε x t has allows the assessment of the parameters necessary to
the shape of a sigmoid curve as well as the ASR modeling. This will be done in the following
macroscopic relation between ε g and ξ . subsections.
 σ ε σ S = D S ε S ; σ = D C ε ; σ S = Σ and
ε < S
f ctS / D S (17)
S S
εS =ε
f ,gct f

ε Se
Dg
Ds σ ε
ε S< f ctS / D S
ε g
f , g Sf
S
ct

ε Se
Dg
Ds=Dc
pg σs

ε g=0
Figure 5 – 1D model - uncracked state

σ ε
ε S> f ctS / D S pg=0 σ s=σ

ε Scr f ctS , g Sf
Figure 7 - Test for the determination of Young’s
ε Se
Dg modulus
Ds
We also consider a sound specimen for the
εg determination of the tensile strength and of the
fracture energy for the same reasons explained above.
Hence, it would be difficult to interpret cracking
pg σs thresholds and load-displacements curves obtained
from specimens already cracked by ASR. Therefore,
using the same reasoning as above (see Figure 8), we
Figure 6 – 1D model - cracked state can state that:

2.1 Experimental determination of f ctS = f ct and g Sf = g f (18)

Young’s modulus, tensile strength and
cracking energy. where f ct and g f are, respectively, the tensile
strength and the specific cracking energy for a sound
Even though if the test for determining the Young’s specimen.
modulus may be realized on an ASR reactive
specimen, we consider a sound specimen for the σ ε
determination of this parameter. The reason is that a ε S> f ctS / D S
reactive specimen is, in most cases, damaged by f , g Sf
S
ε Scr ct
micro, or even macro, cracking induced by ASR
ε Se
swelling, and the modulus obtained by the test is no D g

longer elastic. According to the model presented Ds=Dc

above, the test may be represented by the scheme
shown in Figure 7, where p g is zero, i.e., there is no ε g=0
reaction in course.

In this way, the fictitious stress in the skeleton, σ S , pg=0 σ s=σ

equals the macroscopic stress σ, and the modulus
D S equals D C , i.e., it is the same as the Young’s Figure 8 - Test for the determination of fracture
modulus obtained from a standard test in a sound parameters
concrete specimen, since:
2.2 Assessment of ASR characteristics: 3 GENERALIZATION: 3D SMEARED
the free expansion test CRACK NUMERICAL MODELING

Numerical modeling of cracking is considered within

The free expansion test has often been used to help
the framework of the classical fixed orthogonal
determining the reaction characteristics. This test
smeared crack model [20][21]. The basic assumption
consists on reading the macroscopic deformations ε fe
of the proposed model is the decomposition of total
for a reactive specimen submitted to controlled
deformation for the cracked material in a crack
temperature and humidity. Since the reaction is
deformation and in a deformation of the uncracked
thermo-activated, and does not evolve in a dry
material between the cracks. Substituting the scalar
environment, it is desirable to maintain the specimen quantities in equations (3), (5), (8) and (14) by its
in a saturated atmosphere with a constant temperature vectorial counterparts, the incremental constitutive
greater than 38oC to propitiate a faster evolution of
equations can be written as:
the reaction. As verified by Larive [6], all the
specimens crack at the beginning of the swelling (19)
process. Therefore, the free expansion test seems to σ& = σ& S − p& g 1
correspond to the model presented in Figure 9a
before cracking, and Figure 9b after cracking. ε& = ε& S = ε& Se + ε& Scr (20)

σ=0
p& g = K g − ε& V − ε& g ,V ( ) (21)
ε =ε fe σ=0 ε=ε fe
ε S< f ctS / D S ε S> f ctS / D S
S
f ,g S
σ& S = D S ε& Se (22)
ct f
ε Scr f ctS , g Sf
ε Se
ε Se
Dg Dg where: σ, σ S , 1, ε, εS, εSe, εScr and εg are 6-
Ds Ds dimension vectors, referred to a global reference
system (x, y, z ) , defined as:
εg εg

{
σ = {σ xx , σ yy , σ zz ,τ xy ,τ yz ,τ xz } σ S = σ xxS ,σ yyS ,σ zzS ,τ xyS ,τ yzS ,τ xzS
T
}
T

p g
σ s
pg σs
1 = {1,1,1,0,0,0} ε = {ε xx , ε yy , ε zz , γ xy , γ yz , γ xz }T
T

a) Elastic phase b) Cracked phase {

ε S = ε xxS , ε yyS , ε zzS , γ xyS , γ yzS , γ xzS }
T

Figure 9 - Free expansion test

{
ε Se = ε xxSe , ε yySe , ε zzSe , γ xySe , γ yzSe , γ xzSe }
T (23)
Here, it can be verified that, if the specimen is
cracked, the macroscopic strain ε cannot be directly {
ε Scr = ε xxScr , ε yyScr , ε zzScr , γ xyScr , γ yzScr , γ xzScr }
T

reported, neither to the imposed deformation ε g , nor

ε g ,V
to the extent of the chemical reaction ξ. The skeleton εg = {1,1,1,0,0,0}T
3
is cracked, and the measured displacements include
crack opening displacements and other non-linearities representing, respectively, the macroscopic stresses,
of the cracking process. the fictitious stresses in the skeleton, the unitary
vector, the macroscopic strains, the strains in the
In the present work, the macroscopic strain in a free- skeleton, the elastic component of the crack strains in
expansion test is not directly associated to ξ. On the the skeleton, the crack opening component of the
contrary, we try to found a curve reporting the crack strains in the skeleton, and the imposed strain
reaction extent to time by means of an inverse due to gel swelling; a dot over the variable indicates
analysis, where the specimen submitted to the free
time derivative; ε V = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz is the volumetric
expansion test corresponds to the model shown in
Figure 9. Therefore, within the framework of this macroscopic strain; K g = φK g is the bulk modulus
procedure, cracking may act and the reaction extent is
of the gel multiplied by the porosity; and D S is the
found in such a way that the macroscopic strain
observed in the experiment is recovered by the FEM elastic compliance of the skeleton, defined as:
modeling of the experiment.
 λ S + 2µ S λS λS 0 0 0 σˆ S = σˆ Scr = N T σ S (30)
 
 λ S
λ + 2µ
S S
λS 0 0 0
 λS λS λ S + 2µ S 0 0 0 (24) Let the incremental constitutive relation for the crack
DS =  
 0 0 0 µ S
0 0 (in the cracked direction) be given by the following
 0 0 0 0 µS 0 equation:
 
 0 0 0 0 0 µ 
S

& & ˆ Scr ε&ˆ Scr (31)

σˆ S = σˆ Scr = D
where λ = K − 2G 3 e µ = G
S S
are the S S S

(fictitious) Lamé coefficients for the skeleton. As ˆ Scr being the tangent matrix that reports stress
with D
explained above, it can be considered that K S = K C
to cracking strain, in the local coordinate system of
and G S = G C , what means that the bulk modulus
the crack, which includes the properties of the crack
and the shear modulus of the skeleton are
in modes I, II, III and mixed-mode. Neglecting
respectively equal to the bulk modulus and the shear
coupling effects between shear strains and normal
modulus of the sound specimen. These modulus are
stresses, the matrix D ˆ Scr can be written as follows:
defined as:

DC DC  Dˆ Scr
K S = KC = ; G S
= G C
= 0 0 
(
3 1 − 2ν C )
2 1 +ν C ( ) (25)
ˆ Scr
 nn 
D = 0 Dˆ nsScr 0  (32)
 
C
where D and ν C are, respectively, the elasticity  0 0 Dˆ ntScr 

modulus and the Poisson’s ratio for the sound
specimen.
where Dˆ nnScr is the strain-softening modulus that can
Cracking is initiated when the maximum principal be written as (see Figure 4):
stress in the skeleton attains the tensile strength of the
sound specimen:
( )
fS
Dˆ nnScr = ct S
2
(33)
(26) 2g f
σ IS > σ IIS > σ IIIS = f ctS = f ct

The stress and strain vectors in the crack direction (in The modules Dˆ nsScr and Dˆ ntScr may value
the skeleton) are referenced as  σ̂ S , ε̂ S , ε̂ Se and ε̂ Scr .
Dˆ nsScr = Dˆ ntScr = ∞ for total retention,
If only the components that have a physical meaning
are taken, these vectors can be expressed, in the Dˆ nsScr = Dˆ ntScr = β G S ; β < 1 for partial retention, and
(n, s, t ) local coordinate system of cracking, as:
Dˆ Scr = Dˆ Scr = 0 for null retention of shear after
ns nt

cracking.
{
σˆ S = σ nnS ,τ nsS ,τ ntS } ; εˆ = {ε
T S S
nn };
, γ nsS , γ ntS
T

(27)
{
εˆ Se = ε nnSe , γ nsSe , γ ntSe } ; εˆ = {ε
T Scr Scr
nn , γ nsScr ,γ } Scr T
nt
In a simple manner, cracks are allowed to close and
reopen completely, depending on the loading
conditions. As one can see in Figure 10, the
where the terms with a subscript nn correspond to
unloading is parallel to the elastic loading.
mode I crack opening and the terms with subscripts
ns and nt correspond, respectively, to modes II and
σs
III crack opening. In view of the initial hypothesis of
strain decomposition, it can be written: f ctS

εˆ S = εˆ Se + εˆ Scr (28)
εS
ε Scr = Nεˆ Scr (29)

where N is a transformation matrix that corresponds Figure 10 - Crack closing/reopening

to the orientation of the crack (details are given in
[22]). Similarly, it can also be written for the stresses: Using (20), (22) and (29), one can write:
 ( ) (
σ& S = D S ε& S − ε& Scr = D S ε& S − Nεˆ& Scr ) (34) The adopted axisymmetric mesh used in the analysis
is shown in Figure 11 It comprises 506 nodes and
2160 tetrahedral elements.
Finally, pre multiplying both sides of (34) by NT, and
using (30) and (31), the overall stress-strain relation
for the global coordinate system can be deduced,
which yields:

σ& S = D S , Scr ε& S

(35)
 ˆ Scr + N T D S N  N T D S 
-1
D S , Scr =  D S − D S N D  
   

The model can be generalized to multi-directional

smeared crack allowing the development of several
cracks that simultaneously occur at the same point.
Details of the generalization can be found in [20] and
[22]. Figure 11 – Finite element mesh

4 IMPLEMENTATION
The model was implemented in a reference program
developed in FORTRAN for non-linear analysis of
three dimensional problems via Finite Element
Method through four nodes tetrahedral elements. The
resulting non-linear equations system is solved by
means of a Newton-Raphson iterative-incremental
technique. The initial stiffness matrix is used as an
approximation for the discrete Jacobian. The solution
of the linearized system employs the Pre-Conditioned
The adjusted values for the parameters that define the
evolution of ASR were: τc = 50 days, τl =30 days and
k = 0.15%. The curves of evolution of the free
expansion, corresponding to these parameters are
shown in Figure 12, indicating very good correlation
between experimental and numerical results.
0.5
0.4
Volumetric Deformation (%)

Conjugated Gradients Method, which was

implemented under an Element-By-Element 0.3

technique avoiding global stiffness matrix assembling

0.2
and factorization.
T c = 50.0 T l = 30.0 k = 0.150%
0.1
5 MODEL VALIDATION Experimental

The model was validated with Larive’s experimental
data [6]. Larive performed a comprehensive
experimental study of ASR, performing tests on
concrete specimens subjected to various conditions of
loading, humidity and temperature. In what concerns
the applied stress, besides the free expansion tests
(σ=0) the samples were loaded with compressive
longitudinal stresses of 5MPa and 10MPa (we do not
analyze the stress level of 20 MPa because it induces
initial cracking of the sample [6]).
The parameters τc, τl and k (see equations (9), (10),
and Figure 3) that define the evolution of ASR, were
determined through an inverse analysis, with
consideration of the evolution of the volumetric
expansion for the cracked sample.
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (days)
Figure 12 – Experimental and numerical results
for free expansion tests.
The ASR parameters determined by inverse analysis
were then used to perform the simulations for the
specimens subjected to compressive stress in the
longitudinal direction. As it was observed for the
experiments, the simulations presented stress-induced
anisotropy. This phenomenon corresponds to crack
inhibition in the direction perpendicular to loading
since the applied compressive stresses are greater
than the concrete tensile strength. In this way, the
deformation develops essentially in the transversal
direction since cracking facilitates the expansion of
the gel in this direction.
Figure 13 presents the volumetric deformation for the
three levels of stresses: free expansion, 5MPa and
10MPa. The simulation reproduced Larive’s tests
results [6] in what concerns the constancy of
volumetric deformation displaying cracking in one
predominant direction, parallel to loading direction.
0.45
Volumetric Deformation (%)
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 deduced from the records of experimental measures
0 100 200
Time (days)
Figure 13 – Volumetric deformations for free
expansion and for stresses of 5MPa and 10MPa
6 APPLICATION TO A REAL DAM
We analyzed a concrete wall of the gravity dam of
Furnas hydroelectric power plant. It is a 1.216 MW
plant located in the state of Minas Gerais in the
southeast region of Brazil. The construction began in
1958 and operation began in 1963. In 1976 the dam
presented signs of alkali-aggregate reaction such as:
cracking at the top of the spillway columns, blocks of
anchorage of the forced conduits, surface of the jump
ski, powerhouse, misalignment of the crowning
between central wall and adjacent blocks.
The structure analyzed is the left central wall
(indicated in Figure 14).
Figure 14 – Furnas hydroelectric power plant
It is a block of massive concrete, 35 meters height,
located between the intake dam and the spillway. Its
width varies from 5.80m upstream to 12.00m
downstream. A drainage gallery, having the direction
of the longitudinal axis of the dam, is located inside
the block, about 3 meters above the foundation rock.
For the analysis of the wall we used the following
properties for the materials: DC = 14.79 GPa, ν C =
0.23, f ct = 2.35 MPa, K g = 14.79 GPa; specific heat
= 1.067 J/kg·K; density = 2380 kg/m3; thermal
conductivity = 4.72 W/m·K; permeability = 4·10-13
m/s.
Free Expansion
5 MPa
The determination of the thermal and humidity fields
10 MPa
Experimental was based on simplified averaged assumptions,
300 400 500
in the field. In this way, we considered constant
ambient temperature of 23°C and constant reservoir
level of 25m. We considered that the temperature of
the reservoir water in contact with the upstream face
of the dam varies from 18°C to 22°C with the profile
shown in Figure 15. Temperature and humidity fields
were computed using the FEM code DIANA 8.1. The
FEM mesh has 6533 nodes and 27038 tetrahedral
elements. It is displayed together with the results
presented in Figure 16.
0
5
Water Depth (m)
10
15
20
25
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Temperature (°C)
Figure 15 – Temperature profile on the stream face.
For the determination of the reaction kinetics
(equations (10)(11)(12) and Figure 3) we used the
following values: τ c (θ 0 ) = 30 years; τ l (θ 0 ) = 100
years; θ 0 = 293 K ; Uc = 4900 K and Ul = 9400 K.
The asymptotic deformation (equation (9)) was taken
as k = 0.20% . Humidity is taken into account by
considering that for the regions above the zero-
humidity limit, the reaction extent is taken as 0.05·ξ
as suggested in [4][6] for sealed specimens.
Figure 16 and Figure 17 displays, respectively, the
temperature and the humidity fields in steady state for
the averaged ambient conditions. In Figure 18 the gel
pressure fields (equations (8) and (21)) are displayed.
 10
8

Displacement (mm)
6
4
2
0
-2 0 10 20 30 40
-4
Time (years)

Numerical Analysis Displacements Measured

Figure 19 – Displacement node on the top of dam

Figure 16 – Steady state temperature fields 7 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The main features of the thermo-chemo-mechanical

model presented in this paper are its capacity to
simulate the stress anisotropy of ASR swelling and to
take into account the thermo-activation and the
humidity dependency of the reaction. The model was
able to simulate laboratory tests on cylindrical
specimens with controlled temperature, humidity and
stresses levels. It was also applied to a real dam
affected by ASR and the results indicated the
potentialities of the numerical method here presented.
However, for a more precise analysis of the real dam,
that would permit to foresee its behavior, it would be
worthy to perform ASR laboratory tests on core
samples taken from several regions of the dam,
Figure 17 – Steady state humidity fields
allowing an accurate estimation of the parameters
that define ASR evolution.

8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledges the financial

support of the Brazilian Agency for Electrical Power
(ANEEL) and of FURNAS Centrais Elétricas S.A.
The support of the Brazilian Agencies CAPES and
CNPq for grants and scholarships that benefited the
first, second, third and fourth authors are also
gratefully acknowledged.

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Figure 19 shows the vertical displacement of node concrete dams affected by alkali-silika reaction: state-
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dam. In this way, the numerical curve was vertically
shifted so that the displacement is zero for Time = 16
years.
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