Review

Received: 22 June 2021 Revised: 3 August 2021 Accepted article published: 6 August 2021 Published online in Wiley Online Library:

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jctb.6880

Electrocoagulation as a revived wastewater

treatment method-practical approaches: a
review
Eirini Magnisali,a,b* Qun Yanc,d and Dimitris V Vayenasa,e

Abstract
This review paper aims to demonstrate electrocoagulation (EC) as a revived technology and introduce recent steps of advanced
configurations, along with hybrid approaches for the efficient electrochemical treatment of multi-sourced wastewaters. A brief
theoretical background is also provided. Moreover, the practical applications of the process are presented, while no previous
research has ever attempted to do so. Through online-based data research, it was found that there are 75 manufacturers of
EC systems internationally. Industrial case studies reveal actual process conditions and economical data. America holds 33%
of global EC systems' manufacturing share and it is considered the leader in EC innovative designs with a percentage of almost
59%. In America and Europe, composite schemes are nearly equivalent to EC autonomous systems, with respective percentages
of 41% and 47%. The performance of a two-stage process combining electro-coagulation (EC) and electro-oxidation (EO) has
been proven to be the most successful combination in industrial wastewater treatment, representing 54% of hybrid systems
available globally. Most of the commercialized EC systems are of small-medium sizes, accounting for 88% of all systems avail-
able worldwide. The latest trends on new reactor and electrode configurations are also presented. EC has great potential for
further improvement as there is strong academic background to support water treatment companies for industrial scale ups.
Cylindrical type reactors tend to dominate due to the ease of their use and maintenance; meanwhile, hybrid systems of EC with
EO, membranes and/or adsorption will continue to expand on the market due to the mature level of these technologies and
their ease of adaptation.
© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Supporting information may be found in the online version of this article.

Keywords: electrocoagulation; industrial applications; advanced designs; hybrid processes

INTRODUCTION number of EC publications available from 2005 to 2020 is 7.903,

In view of recent technological developments and their corre-
sponding industrial activity, the pollutants contained in waters
have become more complex to treat. Thus, water treatment tech-
niques have been a sensitive topic of research to remediate the
emergent environmental abuse.1
Numerous approaches, such as chemical and electrochemical
methods, physical procedures, and several biological techniques,
have been evaluated for the treatment of wastewaters. These
include advanced oxidation processes (AOP), membrane filtration
systems and adsorption, as well as electrochemical remediation
technologies. The latter have gained widespread support due to
their limited chemical requirements and relative comfort of
operation.2
Each of these water treatment approaches has comparative
weaknesses, which in turn, cause problems for smooth industrial
applications. In this context, electrocoagulation (EC) appears to
be an advantageous electrochemical process for water treatment,
compared to conventional ones, based on evidence for its effec-
tive reduction of various pollutants. Although its been known
for more than a century,3 only in the past 15 years has this tech-
nology been extensively studied and practiced to reveal its assets
within environmental sustainability and water security.4 The
which corresponds to 46% of all publications regarding the pro-
cess since 1922, and 20% of which refers to the last 5 years, reveal-
ing an upwards trend. 73% of the technology's applications cover
the fields of medicine, environmental science, and engineering/
chemical engineering (https://www.scopus.com). The technology
has been used in the United States and Europe, especially for the
treatment of heavy metals in industrial effluents.
* Correspondence to: E.D. Magnisali, Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Patras, Rio, GR-26504 Patras, Greece. E-mail:
irenemagnisali@yahoo.com
a Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
b Research & Development Department, Watera Hellas, Athens, Greece
c School of Environmental and Civil Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi,
China
d Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water
Treatment, Suzhou, China
e Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences (ICE-HT), Patras, Greece
1

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 www.soci.org ED Magnisali, Q Yan, DV Vayenas

Mollah et al.5 reported the technology's assets and some of the

limitations that have been observed through experimental set-
ups, which have already been extensively appraised in the litera- Reactor
Geometry/
Initial Influent Electric
Electrode
material/ Shape Conductivity
Concentration Current
ture. In brief, its advantages include its simple operation, it results Configuration Arrangement
in colorless and odor-free treated water, less sludge is produced, it
is easier to dry out, it has larger and more stable flocs, along with
the potential for removal of small colloidal particles, it needs little Temperature Passivation
Hydro- Effect
to no chemicals, and has low maintenance requirements. The dynamics
method is characterized by a high efficiency for treating multiple Mass
Transfer, Ohmic
contaminants. Some limitations recorded concern the regular Mixing Resistance
replacement of ‘sacrificial’ electrodes, the possibility of passive
Mass
layers on the cathode — considerable efforts have been made Transfer,
Operational
Time
Bubble Gas
Generation
Bubble Gas
Generation
Mixing
lately for eliminating this effect on lab scale, while there are suc-
cess stories for totally eliminating passivation in the industry Operational
(https://watervisioninc.com/), — and the electricity cost, which Time

varies wildly around the globe.5 Operational Faradaic Passivation

Time Impedance
Effect
Even though several publications have covered the EC process pH Value

in recent years, no review work has treated the industrial applica-

tions. The number of industrial operations around the world can-
not be disregarded as the global use of this process indicates
exponential growth prospects. The methodology followed for this
review paper was a web-based research method for electrocoa-
gulation industrial data collection.
The aim of this paper is to present a general review of the existing
applications of electrocoagulation in industrial scale globally, to
demonstrate the process's future perspectives (in order to catalyze
innovation and growth), to inquire regarding the factors preventing
the process's recognition and to enhance collaboration between
industry and academia. The electrocoagulation sludge treatment
and the cost facts of the process are also reviewed.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND
ADVANCEMENTS
Mechanism of electrocoagulation (EC)
Per its definition, electrocoagulation is an electrochemical process
where coagulant species are generated ‘in situ’ through electro-
chemical oxidation of submerged metallic anodes in a medium
for remediation. It is considered an advanced technology that
combines coagulation, flotation, and electrochemistry principles.6
The produced ions react to form metal hydroxides, which in
turn, interact with the dissolved pollutants by agglomeration
and form stable flocs. Examples of industrial applications have
shown that the dewatering of metal oxides is faster at a rate of
76%, it enables up to 83% reduction in sludge volume, and an
88% decrease in costs when compared to chemical coagulation
(http://powellwater.com/metal-recovery/). Also the flocs formed
benefit the fast adsorption of soluble organic compounds due
to their large surface areas and lower water content. In addition,
they are more resistant to shearing and are easier to filter when
compared to chemical coagulation flocs (http://www.
ftwatersolutions.com/electrocoagulation/).
Parameters affecting EC process
The effectiveness of the EC process has been verified in simulta-
neously removing various contaminants from a wide range of
water and wastewater applications. However, optimum condi-
tions are required in order to achieve high efficiencies, which
depend on diverse variables, as shown in Fig. 1. These include:
current density, treatment time, pH, mixing, type of wastewater
and initial concentration, type and electrolyte concentration, bub-
ble gas generation, operating temperature, coagulant species,
2
Coagulant Species Generation
EC Efficiency
Figure 1. Parameters affecting EC process.
electrode material, type and arrangement, and the reactor geom-
etries. The interaction between the variables imposes the lack of
similarities in a fundamental process design. All parameters
of the EC process have been extensively analyzed in the literature,
so they will be excluded from this paper. However, it is worth not-
ing the impact of electrode and cell configurations, as well as the
novel designs that have emerged lately.
Electrode sophisticated designs
In electrocoagulation process, the electrode materials and their
geometries have a significant effect on the treatment efficiency.
Iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) are the electrode materials most com-
monly preferred because of their low price, availability in the mar-
ket, and effectiveness in the removal of a variety of pollutants.
Other materials have also been applied successfully, such as carbon
steel,7 graphite,8 copper,9,10 titanium,9 magnesium alloy,11 steel
wool,12 and zinc.13 Considerable investigations have been con-
ducted recently on different anode materials, including the design
of a zerovalent iron powder and RuO2-IrO2/Ti plat composite elec-
trode for the successful removal of both ammonia and phosphate
from wastewater in a combined system of Electrooxidation-
Electrocoagulation with high efficiency and a shorter reaction time
compared to the biological process.14
Practices for the elimination of passivation, which still holds in
most industrial applications, include the interaction of chemicals
as corrosion inhibitors,15 though these may result in a sludge
containing chemical agents that would require further costly treat-
ment. Another strategy for decreasing passivation includes the use
of Cl− ions as the electrolyte in the effluent treated, which can facil-
itate the release of anode ions, resulting in current efficiency in the
EC system. Polarity reversal, is also used for de-passivating the anode
surface, resulting in a decrease on cell resistance.17 Recently, scien-
tists have investigated the combination of chloride addition and
ultrasonication,18 several electrode designs for passivation

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Electrocoagulation as a revived wastewater treatment method-practical approaches
reduction (such as rotating or perforated electrodes),16,19 the use of
carboxymethyl chitosan as corrosion inhibitor,15 and even the coat-
ing of polypyrrole (PPy) onto anode to largely prevent the corrosion
phenomenon.20
The necessity for new electrode geometries that are more
adaptable and more energy efficient to enhance conductivity
and contribute to energy reduction21 has forced state-of-the art
electrode configurations to emerge, as indicated in Fig. 2.
Researchers have proposed a variety of anode and cathode
geometries, such as cylindrical (rods) and helical wires,7,22 rotating
electrodes,23,24 parallel rotating discs (Fig. 2(d)),25 perforated elec-
trodes of various shapes, i.e., cylindrical (Fig. 2(c)), discoids,16,26,27
ball shaped anodes,28 mesh wire (Fig. 2(e)), plates positioned at
angles,29 etc. Noticeable efforts have been made by some
researchers to collaborate with industries in order to produce
advanced designs for their study. Such illustrations are a commer-
cial EC package manufactured by Water Tectonics Inc, USA,30 for
water softening, while another apparatus provided by E2Mextrix
Inc, Canada for the treatment of landfill leachate, was studied by
Oumar et al.11 The traditional rectangular shaped electrodes,
although successful in treatment in many case studies, are charac-
terized by weaknesses, such as space requirements and difficul-
ties of substitution when consumed — especially in applications
of large treatment plants, due to their weight — that contribute
to the lack of appreciation of the EC process.21
Al-Shannag et al.26 investigated the treatment of a secondary
clarifier municipal wastewater influent, using perforated cylindri-
cal electrodes and resulting in removal efficiencies of 83.82% for
NH3-N, 89.1% for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and 99.45%
for PO4-P at applied DC voltage gradient 6 V cm−1, in a treatment
with aeration. Another effort was made by Delgadillo et al.31
(Fig. 2(b)), who proposed the usage of a helical wire as a sacrificial
anode and a central polished carbon steel rod as cathode instead
of rectangular sheets. The slow rotation applied in the anode con-
tributed to additional chaotic mixing inside the cell and, hence, to
the process efficiency. Also, the passivation effect occurring on
the electron's surface was improved or eliminated.31 Naje et al.32
confirmed the previous results by using a rotating anode in a dif-
ferent configuration for the treatment of landfill leachate. The
rotating anode consisted of a vertical aluminium rod with
Figure 2. Indicative state-of-the-art EC electrode configurations.
J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021 © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).
www.soci.org
impellers, assembled with a cathode of rings, where each ring
encapsulated one impeller. The anode rotation reduced the
anode passivity, but the speed needed to be adjusted to a mini-
mum optimum to avoid the formation of small particle flocs,
which are hard to collect.32 Hamdan and El-Naas22 proposed a
rod as the sacrificial anode along with a helical cathode for the
treatment of brackish groundwater to reduce the concentrations
of Cr (VI) within drinking water limits and they had promising
results. Goren and Kobya33 used an iron ball anode and a cylindri-
cal titanium cathode in an aerated EC reactor, resulting in 98.6%
arsenic removal at a quite competitive operating cost of about
0.08 € m−3 at the following optimum conditions: 1.0, 26.0, 651.5,
2.0, 9.9 mg L−1, and 10.5 min for phosphate, silicate, bicarbonate,
fluoride, boron, and operating time, respectively. Α developed
arrangement of perforated discoid electrodes vertically installed
inside a tubular reactor with a horizontal offset by an angle of
22.5° from one another, for creation of high mixing efficiency
and aeration, indicated that the arrangement is a cost-effective
alternative to the traditional one (Fig. 2(a)).27 Perforated plates
have also been tested, showing better mass transfer results in
comparison to the solid plates because they enhance liquid flow
while they are operated at high pressures.34
Reactor geometries and novel designs
One of the most challenging features of an efficient electrocoagula-
tion process is the design of the reactor because it affects fluid mix-
ing, floc formation, and flotation/settling sequence; thus, it has a
great impact on the liquid flow and on the overall performance of
the EC process. EC reactors have been constructed in various cell
geometries, with the dominant ones being conventional tanks.
These are rectangular shaped cells with submerged parallel solid
rectangular electrodes. The tank can be open on top or constructed
as a filter press cell.12 However, the rectangular shape has revealed
several issues during treatment. For example, in short horizontal
plate reactors, fluid leaks are usually detected, while in long ones,
difficulties in electrodes replacement appear. Mixing is also a main
weakness of this cell geometry. Up flow reactors have been proven
to be more efficient in pollutant removals due to the higher number
of metal hydroxides generated.34 Hakizimana et al.35 refers to the
relationship between the electrode area Α and the reactor working
3
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 www.soci.org
volume V as a ratio A/V being the key scale-up parameter for devel-
oping a lab scale design into a full-scale plant, reporting that the typ-
ical values for electrode A/V ratio fall between 15 and 45 m2 m−3,
where higher ratio values result in better treatment times and opti-
mum current densities.
Due to the deficiencies of the rectangular type cells, there are sev-
eral studies with respect to advanced EC cells combined to new elec-
trode designs. Figure 3 displays indicative cell patterns. Most of them
find the cylindrical type cells more convenient for fluid intermixing.
Other advanced design cells include bi-compartment cells where
the anode and cathode compartments are separated by an anionic
exchange membrane,36 cartridge type cells (Fig. 3(a)),12 hopper bot-
tom cells (Fig. 3(b)),24 cuboid type cells,25 rotating cylinder cells,29
and others. The abovementioned cell designs are usually combined
with advanced electrode designs. In Table 1, research studies of such
modern reactor and electrode EC arrangements are presented, along
with their advantages and limitations.
PROGRESSIVE STEPS ON EC TREATMENT
Electrocoagulation is a process that may be applied to treat vari-
ous types of wastewaters, such as electroplating, oil and gas, food
and beverage, pharmaceutical, municipal, and landfill leachates.
Consequently, it is impossible for a single EC configuration, with
particulate cells, electrode design, and set parameters, to be
applied effectively in all required fields; thus, the achievement
would be to develop a combined EC treatment with other tech-
nologies that is easily adaptable and easy to operate.
In this context, researchers have applied multiple integrated
schemes to develop designs in the perspective of a practical scale
up. Al-Qodah et al.43 reviewed combined electrocoagulation pro-
cesses and stated that the removal efficiencies could be enhanced
by up to 20%. Modern efforts for hybrid systems introduce the
integration of electrocoagulation-electrooxidation for the effec-
tive removal of humic acid and estrogenic compounds from
water, resulting in a significant reduction in electrical energy com-
pared with EO alone44 or in the removal of polyfluoroalkyl sub-
stances from groundwater in a cost-effective way.45 A promising
combination is the electrocoagulation-electrodialysis integration
for treating tannery wastewaters, which revealed very good
removal efficiencies, a reduced volume of effluent discharged,
Figure 3. Indicative advanced EC reactor designs.
4
wileyonlinelibrary.com/jctb © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).
ED Magnisali, Q Yan, DV Vayenas
and a reduction in the use of feed water.46 The mix of ultrasonica-
tion and electrocoagulation has also been explored. In a study on
phosphorus removal, chloride addition and ultrasonication were
used, along with electrocoagulation, and the results indicated
that the integrated process effectively reduced the passivation
layer at the anode, and hence, increased the energy efficiency.18
A similar combination was used by Oza et al.47 for arsenic reduc-
tion, offering an additional 8.1% removal in comparison to the
EC process alone. Several studies include the integrated sequence
of electrocoagulation-membrane type process. The EC system
was successfully combined with forward osmosis (FO) and mem-
brane distillation (MD) for treating hydraulic fracturing produced
water with significantly reduced membrane fouling and a stable
performance.48 Similar results were found by associating EC with
nanofiltration or direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD),
for reusing carwash wastewater and for treating high salinity pro-
duced waters, respectively. In both studies, the use of EC prior to
the membrane process aided in fouling mitigation.48,49 An anoxic/
oxic membrane bioreactor assisted by electrocoagulation tech-
nique has also been reported, but with opposite results in respect
to the membrane fouling, though with better removal perfor-
mance.50 All EC-membrane arrangements, although they present
multiple advantages, show considerably high operational costs
due to the additional membrane technology; therefore, they are
not recommended for small capacity treatment plants. Other
combined EC-process schemes include: EC and cyanobacteria-
based cultivation for brewery wastewater, which combines effi-
ciency and sustainability,51 EC coupled to electrowinning for the
recovery of copper from electroplating effluents,52 and an ozona-
tion assisted electrocoagulation system for the effective reduction
of cyanide from steel industry wastewater with low operational
cost.53 Ziouvelou et al.54 investigated the removal of nitrates
using the ecofriendly hybrid EC-adsorption in a zeolite column
system, reaching 100% removal efficiencies. Table 2 presents
the most recent lab scale configurations for hybrid EC systems,
along with the results achieved.
It should be noted that this process has not been widely applied
for drinking water treatment due to several factors that must be
considered, such as the sacrificial electrodes being in compliance
with the WHO guidelines72 or the possibility that the treated efflu-
ents could still present high concentrations of metal ions that
would need further treatment,70,73 leading to hybrid schemes74,75
being needed to meet the standards for drinking water set by
legal entities.76 Currently, there are a few small capacity plants
for the defluorination of potable water described by Castañeda
et al.72 in India and Africa; meanwhile, there are several studies
on the field devoted to the removal of turbidity, organic
matter,77 nitrate,78,79 pathogens,80 etc. In terms of cost, EC is con-
sidered a medium economic process for water treatment81 and
could be effective for some contaminants but not for others.76
As anticipated, the process has not been practiced in decon-
centrated projects due to the lack of trained operators, of
economy-of-scale, and of energy sources. However, recent
studies on self-powered EC systems driven by wind energy82
or solar energy83 underline the potential of the technology
for decentralized treatment.
PRACTICAL APPROACHES
Industrial EC technology providers universally
EC is a method that has been used in industry for a few decades.
The industrial sector has successfully advanced in the adequate
J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021
 Table 1. EC advanced academic configurations

Electrodes design Electrodes Material

Influent Cell design (anode/cathode) (anode/cathode) Removal rate Results References

Textile Cylindrical Helical wire/Rod Carbon steel/Carbon Color: 90% The hybrid process (EC- ultrasonic 7
steel irradiation) more efficient compared
to EC alone. Passivation reduction
observed.
Petrochemical Cylindrical Raschig ring/Horizontal Al/Al Phenol: 100% The design proved higher separation 2,37

J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021

plate efficiency and lower energy
consumption compared to other
designs.
Electroplating Cylindrical Helical wire/Rod Carbon steel/Carbon n/a Rotating anode enhanced system's 31
steel efficiency.
Municipal Cylindrical Perforated cylindrical Fe/Fe mesh Nitrates: 94% The design allows good current 26
distribution in the wastewater
solution.
Dairy Bi-compartment n/a Al-Pt/Fe-Ti Phosphate: 98%/92% The design proved effective on 36
electrical consumption reduction
compared to non-divided cell.
Brackish groundwater Cylindrical Rod/Helical Fe/Fe Copper: 74% The design proved cost effective 22
compared to continuous stirred tank.
Synthetic Cylindrical Perforated discoids Al/Al Nitrates: 97%, Iron: 99% The design proved cost-effective 27
compared to traditional model.
Textile dye Cylindrical 3D steel wool/Rod Fe/Fe Remazol Red RB 133: 99% The design permits easy anode 12
replacement.
Dairy Rectangular Plates of angle of 7° Al/Al COD: 80% Phosphate: The design allows easy handling, 38
(horizontal plane) 98%, SS: 100%, electrical stability and low operational
Electrocoagulation as a revived wastewater treatment method-practical approaches

© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Turbidity: 100% cost.
Synthetic textile Cylindrical 3D rotating cylindrical Al/Al COD: 96% Color: 100% The design enhances mixing, higher 24
with 40% perforations removal efficiencies and lower energy
/Rod consumption.
Synthetic Cylindrical Ball/Cylindrical Al/Ti DOC: 91% UV254: 97%, The design very effective on humic acid 28
perforated Color: 100% removal.
Domestic Rectangular Mesh/Graphite plate and Graphite/Air - Al Phosphate: 98% The design proved energy efficient 8
air compared to traditional treatment.
Tap Water Rectangular Horizontal plates Fe/Fe n/a The design allowed significant voltage 39
www.soci.org

perforated reduction and current efficiency

increase.
Synthetic Cuboid Parallel rotating discs Fe/Fe Cadmium: 98% The design very effective on Cd2+ 25
removal.

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5
 www.soci.org ED Magnisali, Q Yan, DV Vayenas

handling of the wastewater produced, covering the necessity for

References
flexible and rational adaptations. Industrial and municipal plants
cover multiple capacities, while applications range in various
industrial effluents. In containerized units, the process train
32

40

41

29

16

42
includes EC arrangement and settling, typically followed by fur-
ther filtration. Usually, the process sludge is filter pressed and then
dehydrated. There are also developments in the field with cutting-

The design enhanced pollutant removal

The design very effective on pollutant

electrodes. Passivation elimination

The design proved energy effective.

edge process designs. The main treatment approaches, along
The design proved energy and cost

compared to conventional metal

The geometrical design enhanced

conventional model with static

The design effective on pollutant

Cathode passivation observed.

with their differences, case studies, and recent advances, will be
analyzed next. Figure 4 indicates the distribution of the EC manu-
efficient compared to the

facturers in a global map.

Results

process efficiency.
Analysis of EC producers globally
plate electrode.
Through this online-based data research, it was found that there
are 75 manufacturers of electrocoagulation systems globally that
observed.

removal.

removal.
are currently active (see Appendix). The collecting data tactics fol-
lowed were: (i) research on literature sources, including observa-
tion on online published producers' reports, websites, and their
systems' applicable case studies, and (ii) implementation of sec-
ondary data analysis to structure and precisely formulate the data
98%, Total Suspended

collection plan. The industrial applications presented were evalu-

Turbidity: 96%, COD:
Color: 99%, BOD: 96%,

ated through the first and second methodological steps, based on

TOC: 97%, TPH: 98%,
Solids (TSS): 97%
Removal rate

data concerning the advanced commercial designs of the EC sys-

F: 92%, As: 82%

tems, the availability of systems' capacities, and cost data, as well

O&G: 95%
Cr(VI): 100%

Cr(VI): 100%

as the sludge management plan followed. Moreover, useful con-

clusions have emerged during research on the tendencies of EC
designs applied in different continents and countries. Figure 5
n/a

shows the percentage distribution of EC manufacturers

worldwide.
America holds 33% of the global manufacturing share of EC sys-
Electrodes Material
(anode/cathode)

tems and is considered the leader in EC innovative designs. The

3D porous NiO/NF

EC technology is not considered new, but companies have

composites

applied best engineering practices to electrolytic water treatment

and, in the last 20 years, many promising EC configurations have
emerged. Out of the 25 producers of EC systems both in the
Fe/Fe

Fe/Fe
Al/Al

Al/Al

Al/Al

USA and Canada, 15 of them are patent awarded. In the USA, just
over 29% of the manufacturers still use traditional EC systems of
the typical tank design with plate electrodes usually made of Al
Vertical rod with rotating

at an angle of 60°/Rod
surface of the reactor

or Fe. The respective percentage of traditional configurations for

Electrodes design
(anode/cathode)

Canada is only 11%.

Plate placed on the
3D porous NiO/NF

Perforated hollow
impellers/Rings

Europe shares 22% of the global industrial EC systems produc-

composites

ing market. Most of the manufacturers are based in the UK, which
Parallel plates

cylindrical
Rod/Helical

accounts for about 32% of Europe's share. Out of the 16 EC pro-

ducers in Europe, seven of them have patented systems, repre-
senting over 43% of Europe's systems. Traditional configurations
take up about half of the share of the European commercial units,
accounting for just over 56% of the total available designs.
Asia is the most active area with respect to electrocoagulation
manufacturers and takes up 43% of the world EC production mar-
Cell design

multistack

ket. Most of these representatives come from India — about 65%

Rectangular
Filter-press

Cylindrical

Cylindrical
Cylindrical

Cylindrical

of Asia share — while other producer countries include China, Sin-

gapore, UAE, Israel, and Thailand, where the typical design domi-
nates at a percentage of almost 80%.
Australia and Africa share only 1% each of the world
manufacturing EC systems and traditional design monopolizes
Table 1. Continued

these regions, though there are companies from other continents

that keep subsidiary offices there.
Produced water
Groundwater

Figure 6 presents data on the number of advanced and tradi-

tional configurations applied industrially, as well as the patented
Synthetic

Synthetic

Tannery
Influent

Textile

arrangements in the world EC production market. It is noted that

traditional configurations are considered the rectangular type
cells with plate electrodes merged within. It is also underlined
6

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Electrocoagulation as a revived wastewater treatment method-practical approaches www.soci.org

Table 2. Latest advancements of EC integrated schemes

Hybrid process Wastewater Results References

EC - Adsorption
EC - Electrodialysis
EC - Electrooxidation
Microbial Fuel Cells - EC
EC - Ultrasonication –
Cloride addition
EC – Membrane
distillation
EC - Forward osmosis -
Membrane Distillation
(MD)
Microbial Fuel Cells - EC
EC - Electrowinning
EC - Adsorption
Microbial Fuel Cells - EC
EC- Fenton - Activated
carbon adsorption
EC –Metal/air fuel cell
Metal/air fuel cell-EC
Ultrasound – EC -
Electrooxidation
EC - Cyanobacteria-based
cultivation
EC - Nanofiltration
EC – Electrochemical
treatment
EC - Electrooxidation
EC - Electrocatalysis
Electrodisinfection-EC
Clinoptilolite augmented
EC-SBR
Anoxic/oxic Membrane
bioreactor - EC
EC–Membrane filtration
Ozonation - EC
EC - Electrooxidation
Ultrasonication - EC
Textile wastewater
Tannery wastewater
Soluble coffee effluent
Wastewater containing
heavy metals
Synthetic wastewater
High salinity wastewater
High salinity wastewater
Municipal wastewater
Electroplating
wastewater
Nitrate-contaminated
groundwater
Shipboard bilge water
Textile wastewater
Arsenic (As)
contaminated
wastewater
Organics and heavy
metal ions contained
in wastewaters
Oxyfluorfen polluted
wastes
Brewery wastewater
Carwash wastewater
Synthetic wastewater
Mixed industrial
wastewater
Synthetic wastewater
Urban wastewater
Landfill leachate
Azo-dye containing
wastewater
Synthetic wastewater
Steel industry
wastewater
Contaminated
groundwater
Arsenic polluted
groundwater
Integrated process is efficient in removing of color and COD at 55
lower current densities and operating time, than
conventional EC process
Integrated process is effective in removal of heavy metals and 46
COD
Integrated process is more efficient than EC or EO alone 56
Integrated process promising for toxic metal precipitation 57
Integrated process removed passivation layers and enhanced 18
phosphate removal
Integrated process is effective in reducing suspended solids 58
and organic content
EC enhanced membrane antifouling. Two MD membranes can 48
provide a viable solution
Integrated process significantly reduced operational cost 59
compared to EC as standalone solution
Integrated process effectively treated wastewater with 52
possibility of metal recovery
Integrated process efficiently removed nitrate from 54
groundwaters
Integrated process sufficient for shipboard energy reduction 60
and contaminants removal
Integrated process is more efficient than EC standalone 61
Integrated process very cost effective for Arsenic removal 62
Integrated process showed lower energy consumption and 63
higher removal efficiency compared to EC as standalone
process
Integrated process showed higher efficiency performance 64
Integrated process is effective at pollutant removal. Both 51
efficient and sustainable
Succesful integrated process 49
Integrated process is efficient removal of nitrates and 65
phosphates-enhanced the final quality effluent
Integrated process significantly enhanced COD and color 66
elimination
Integrated process is very promising in removal rates of E. coli 67
(K12), TSS, heavy metals, and color
Integrated process very effective in disinfection and 68
turbidityremoval
Integrated process workable for ammonia and color removal 69
Both anoxic and anaerobic dye removal rates increased 50
Optimal antifouling behaviour 70
Integrated process is efficient in removing of Cyanide, COD, 53
BOD, and chloride below WHO surface limit
Integrated process efficient for nitrate removal from 71
groundwater
Integrated process is proficient and effective 47
7

J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021 © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI). wileyonlinelibrary.com/jctb

Figure 4. EC producers worldwide.
that, in America and Europe, the patented systems account for
about 20% and 9%, respectively, corresponding to the offered
units worldwide.
Figure 5. World share of EC manufacturers.
8
wileyonlinelibrary.com/jctb
www.soci.org ED Magnisali, Q Yan, DV Vayenas
Figure 7 indicates the offered industrial EC cell designs world-
wide. Several efforts have been made by producers to advance
the traditional process by changing the shape of the tank cell,
by using the classical cell with advanced electrode design, or by
introducing a distinctive configuration. Even if the reactor design
that overshadows the other configurations is still the rectangular
one, it is a promising step that the cylindrical type cells — either in
large sizes or in cartridge type — have gained real attention,
representing a 25% of the commercial designs available globally.
In Fig. 8, the 75 global EC producers found through this research
are represented, with respect to the systems capacities they pro-
vide to the world market. Most of the industrial EC configurations
World distribution of EC designs & patents
America Europe Asia Australia Africa
Traditional designs Advanced designs Patents
Figure 6. Distribution of EC designs and patents worldwide.
© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI). J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021
Electrocoagulation as a revived wastewater treatment method-practical approaches
Reactor commercial design worldwide share
4%
11%
1 14%
14%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Figure 7. Industrial types of EC reactor cells internationally.
are of up to 500 m3 h−1 flowrates, representing 88% of all systems
found available commercially. The remaining 12%, which holds
for larger systems, splits between America 8% and Asia 4%.
In Europe, Australia, and Africa, smaller capacity systems (up to
50 m3 h−1) dominate, accounting for almost 69%, 100%, and
100%, respectively, of their market shares.
The consequent outcome is the use of EC hybrid systems for
advantageous wastewater treatment. The data presented in
Fig. 9 concerns about 93% of the EC manufacturing sector find-
ings. Information output revealed that 36% of the industrial
offered EC systems in the world are combined with other technol-
ogies, mostly in containerized or skidded units, and are fully auto-
mated for effective wastewater remediation. The percentage is
considered prominent for the technology's future perspectives.
It has been found that, in America and (even more) in Europe,
composite schemes are nearly equivalent to EC autonomous sys-
tems, with respective percentages 41% and 47%. In Asia, EC sim-
ple configurations overtake, by almost 3-fold, the blended
processes with a percentage of 74%, while in Africa and
Australia, the 100% percentage addresses only to the headquar-
ters of EC manufacturers established.
Moreover, Fig. 10 exposes research findings regarding the most
adaptable process arrangements of the manufacturing sector.
Apparently, the performance of a two-stage process combining
electro-coagulation and electro-oxidation has been proven to be
successful in industrial wastewater treatment; thus, 54% of the
EC producer systems' capacities
up to 50 m^3 /h from 51 m^3/h up to 500 m^3/h
Figure 8. Global producer of EC systems' capacity.
J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021 © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).
www.soci.org
combined processes represent that commercial scheme. It is
worth noting that the EC-EO scheme is mostly appraised in
Canada, representing more than 33% of the total number of
offered systems and 75% of the integrated systems available by
Canadian producers. Sometimes, the technology combination
comprises a third process, such as Electroperoxi-coagulation
[Seán Ottewell, (https://www.chemicalprocessing.com/articles/
2016/technology-buoys-water-treatment/)].
Other technologies combined with EC involve mostly filtration
and adsorption, representing a 23% ratio, while the EC-membrane
57%
mixture indicates 15% representation of the total available hybrid
designs worldwide.
60%
Industrial applications of EC process
It has been discussed in the literature that, even if there are possi-
bilities for EC scale ups, there are few to no possible capacity
industrial applications;9,17,84 electrocoagulation has great poten-
tial and, as adequate parameters have been defined along with
technological improvements in process controlling, noticeably
advanced EC autonomous and hybrid commercial systems have
established. There are no review papers, up to date, that have pre-
sented industrial EC unit applications.
For example, Water Tectonics Inc., Washington, offers a pat-
ented EC system of cartridge type reactor and rod-shaped elec-
trodes. A success case study refers to stormwater treatment in a
metal recycling facility in Oregon, where the process train
includes electrocoagulation, pH adjustment, settling, and media
filtration for the removal of chromium, copper, iron, lead, manga-
nese, and zinc from stormwater with respective removal efficien-
cies of 88%, 91%, 98%, 98%, 91%, and 95% (https://www.
watertectonics.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Case-Study-
Industrial-Oregon-Metal-Recycling.pdf). Another EC case study is
offered by F&T Water Solutions LLC, for the remediation of pro-
duced water in Colorado Springs with removal efficiencies of
TSS 97%, Ca 97%, Mg 99%, Fe 99%, and hardness 97%, respec-
tively (http://www.ftwatersolutions.com/electrocoagulation/
electro-precipitation-of-produced-flowback-water). Table 3 dem-
onstrates such case studies of the commercialized EC systems,
including factual process data (performed by several technology
providers worldwide) covering applications in various industries,
such as mining, food, municipalitym plants, etc.
more than 501 m^3/h
9
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 www.soci.org
EC autonomous & hybrid systems share
America
Europe
Asia
Australia
Africa
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
EC systems EC hybrid systems
Figure 9. Autonomous and hybrid EC system configurations industrially
available.
EC SLUDGE TREATMENT
EC has been able to, both in lab scale and industrial scale treat-
ments, produce minimized quantities of sludge of a better quality.
The flocs show better settleability due to their larger size. The
sludge has a lower water content and is easier for dewatering
and filtration compared to that obtained from conventional
chemical coagulation (CC).21,85 Flow rate plays an essential role
in sludge production because lower flow rates mean larger
amounts of sludge are produced, where fast separation is pro-
vided by settling.22 Harif et al.86 conducted experiments using
both CC and EC to compare the flocculation mechanisms and
the floc characteristics achieved. EC sludge contains metal ions
and metal salts due to electrode dissociation, while the ζ potential
is expected to be closer to zero due to higher ionic strength and
domination of Van der Waals forces. The volume of EC sludge is
expected to be lower than that of CC sludge, but it depends on
the applied current density, the electrode material used, the treat-
ment time, and the pH.87 Even though EC has limited chemical
cost requirements (or none ehatsoever) compared to CC, it might
require higher maintenance or further sludge handling costs.73 In
Table 4, differences with regards to flocs and sludge characteris-
tics are presented.
In a lab scale study, the comparison of biological, chemical, and
EC treatment on municipal wastewater showed that the biological
required more time than CC and EC processes to achieve similar
removal efficiencies for COD and TSS, though there was less
sludge produced than in the other processes.89 However, in
another comparative study of CC and EC for mitigating reactive
black dye and COD, the optimum volume of sludge was produced
when FeCl3 was used as a coagulant in the case of CC, while EC
sludge was lower by 40%.90 Finally, research on the sludge pro-
duced during the biological treatment and EC process of soya
Types of commercialized hubrid EC technologies
10
Figure 10. Commercialized hybrid EC systems world share.
wileyonlinelibrary.com/jctb © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).
ED Magnisali, Q Yan, DV Vayenas
oil refinery processing wastewater revealed a 28% reduction in
favor of the electrochemical process, while the final chemical syn-
thesis would allow usage as a fertilizer.91
Industrial applications confirm significantly lower quantities of
sludge being produced in their processes. RT Safebalast Pvt. Ltd,
India, endorse their system for sludge production that is 40% less
than that in chemical coagulation. The sludge produced had a
significantly lower chemical content compared to chemical coagula-
100%
tion, making it is suitable for land-filling and resulting in reduced
sludge treatment costs (https://www.rtpure.com/electrochemical-
sewage-treatment-presentation). A case study for limited EC sludge
being produced is available from Ecolotron Inc, USA in a system
installed to treat wastewater containing heavy metals, reducing the
initial amount of sludge by over 89%. The replaced technology,
which followed typical chemical methodology and filtering using a
filter press, resulted in approximately 16 m3 of sludge per treatment.
The sludge produced after using the EC system was nonhazardous
for disposal (https://fb1hs226akbt49il164evm15-wpengine.netdna-
ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Northrup-Grumman.pdf).
E2Metrix Inc, Canada, guarantee that an embodiment of their inven-
tion provides ‘a pre-thickened industrial liquid sludge, municipal liq-
uid sludge, and food processing liquid sludge with 1% initial dryness
to more than 8% final dryness without adding polymer therein, as
raw sludges have a dry content of 1–2% and they should be pre-
thickened with polymers before being dehydrated’.35
Depending on the wastewater being treated, the EC sludge
composition might be similar to that of the chemical coagulation
sludge when alum or ferric chloride are used. Hence, in such cases,
EC sludge handling is expected to be similar to those in chemical
coagulation or in activated sludge treatment methods.92 Thus, EC
may be quite advantageous in replacing traditional treatments in
some cases, in terms of sludge production, though it is the overall
design of the systems that will confirm practicability.
FINANCIAL FACTS
Operation and treatment costs have been estimated in several
studies to highlight EC efficiency. Lab experiments for the
removal of Cr (VI) from groundwater have shown that a new EC
column design (ECC) was found to be more economical com-
pared to the traditional stirred tank (EC).22 In ECC, the electrical
costs were 0.025 € m−3, while in stirred tank, they approached
up to 0.079 € m−3. Scientists claim that the economic advantage
of the ECC is due to the small distance between the electrodes;
plus, the use of a rod as a sacrificial electrode instead of the rect-
angular sheet resulted in lower operating voltages.22
Clean Environmental Solutions LLC, Canada, have commercially
developed the same configuration, where they obtained an elec-
trical consumption of 0.0042 € m−3, which is drastically smaller
than the experimental estimated value; thus, scale up configura-
tions have reduced treatment costs (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=QL_5cN9PWFM).
Powel Water Systems Inc., USA, provide evidence of the electro-
coagulation process predominance over chemical coagulation.
They support the recovery of capital costs in less than 1 year,
accrediting that, in treating 22.7 m3 h−1 (113 563.2 m3 year−1) sys-
tem with requirements to reduce Ni from 25 to <2.38 mg L−1 and
Cr from 210 to <1.71 mg L−1, resulted in operating cost savings of
307 219.34 € year−1. EC cost estimated at 0.37 € m−3 in conjunc-
tion with 3.06 € m−3 of chemical coagulation (http://
powellwater.com/electrocoagulation-vs-chemical-coagulation/).
J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021
 Table 3. Industrial EC applications: success studies

Industrial Case Typical Treatment

Studies Contaminant Quantity Electrodes Removal Efficiency train Economical data Company Country

Construction TSS, TPH, PAHs, cPAH, 22.7 m3 h−1 Cylindrical shape Met Construction EC- pH Adjustment- Water Tectonics USA
wastewater VOCs, Heavy Metals (rods) Stormwater General Settling- Media Inc.
Permit standards &/or Carbon
Filtration
Stormwater & 90.9 m3 h−1 Met Washington EC- pH Adjustment- Water Tectonics USA

J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021

groundwater Department of Ecology Settling- Media Inc.
requirements &/or Carbon
Filtration
Metal Recycling Heavy Metals 68.1 m3 h−1 Cr 88%, Cu 91%, Fe 98%, EC- pH Adjustment- Water Tectonics USA
/Stormwater Pb 98%, Mn 91%, Zn Settling- Media Inc.
95% &/or Carbon
Filtration
Mine Processing Heavy metals 249.8 m3 h−1 EC- pH Adjustment- Water Tectonics USA
Water Settling- Media Inc.
&/or Carbon
Filtration
Boeing Plant 2 PCBs, PAHs, Dioxins, ≈23.850 m3 in Cd 100%, Cr (VI) 100%, Cu EC- pH Adjustment- Water Tectonics USA
Furans, Metals & total 91%, Pb 100%, Hg Settling- Media Inc.
Phthalates 99%, Ag 99%, Zn 94%, &/or Carbon
PCBs 100%, Turbidity Filtration
<5NTU
Stormwater/Port 90.85 m3 h−1 Met Washington EC- pH Adjustment- Water Tectonics USA
of Tacoma Department of Ecology Settling- Media Inc.
requirements &/or Carbon
Electrocoagulation as a revived wastewater treatment method-practical approaches

© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Filtration
Ceramics 22.7 m3 h−1 Met surface discharge EC- pH Adjustment- Water Tectonics USA
processing standards Settling- Media Inc.
wastewater &/or Carbon
Filtration
Metal plate Zn 22.7 m3 h−1 Zn 100% EC- pH Adjustment- Water Tectonics USA
Galvanizing Settling- Media Inc.
wastewater &/or Carbon
Filtration
www.soci.org

Public Coal Heavy Metals 272.6 m3 h−1 Down to ppb levels Advanced Oxidation- Water Tectonics USA
wastewater EC - DAF, UF - Inc.
Activated Carbon

wileyonlinelibrary.com/jctb
11
 12

Table 3. Continued

Industrial Case Typical Treatment

Studies Contaminant Quantity Electrodes Removal Efficiency train Economical data Company Country

Produced/ TSS, metals, hardness 2.3 m3 h−1 Fe anode, Al TSS 97%, Ca 97%, Mg Typical operating F&T water USA
Flowback cathode 99%, Fe 99% hardness cost Solutions LLC
Water/ 97% <0.43 € m−3
Colorado
Springs

wileyonlinelibrary.com/jctb
Electroplating Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni 1.3 m3 h−1 Zn 95%, Cu 100%, Cr EC-Clarifier- From 0.18 € to BakerCorp Inc- USA
plant (pilot trials) 100%, Ni 79% Filterpress 0.86 € m−3 of Kaselco EC
wastewater wastewater
case 1
Electroplating Cu, Ni, Cr, Cd, Zn 1.3 m3 h−1 Cu 100%, Ni 98%, Cr 99%, From 0.18 € to BakerCorp Inc- USA
plant (pilot trials) Cd 97%, Zn 100% 0.86 € m−3 of Kaselco EC
wastewater wastewater
case 2
Food industry BOD, COD, O&G 1.3 m3 h−1 BOD5 84%, COD 83%, From 0.18 € to BakerCorp Inc- USA
wastewater (pilot trials) O&G 81% 0.86 € m−3 of Kaselco EC
wastewater
www.soci.org

Mine processing Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Zn, 1.3 m3 h−1 Cd 64%, Cu 100%, Ni From 0.18 € to BakerCorp Inc- USA
wastewater (pilot trials) 84%, Zn 100% 0.86 € m−3 of Kaselco EC
wastewater
Septage BOD, TSS, Ph O&G Safe liquid disposal Ledcor group USA
wastewater
Groundwater Total Ammonia, TSS, 8.5 m3 h−1 semi-cylindrical Al NH3 N 72%, TSS > 90%, EC -Lamellar OPEX (Anodes) – E2Metrix Inc Canada
Phenolic Compounds, Alloy & Mg alloy Phenolic 80–90%, Decanter - Bag 0.72 € m−3
C10-C50 anodes/rod C10-C50 > 95%, PAH Filtration -
Hydrocarbons, PAH, cathode Activated carbon -

© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

60–80% BOD5 > 80%,
BOD5 - Particulate, F 83%, Heavy Metals Activated Alumina
Fluoride, Heavy Metals, >95%, Mn 100%, As -Microfiltration
Mn, As, Ba 73%, Ba 91%
Landfill leachate Total Ammonia Nitrogen, 28.5 m3 h−1 Semi-cylindrical Mg NH3 N 98%, Zn 80–90%, SBR - Aeration Pond - OPEX (Anodes & E2Metrix Inc Canada
Zn, BOD5 alloy anodes/rod BOD5 > 95% EC System - Electricity)
cathode Decantation - UV 0.43 € m−3
Municipal Total Phosphorus, semi-cylindrical Mg TP > 99%, NH3 N 95%, E2Metrix Inc Canada
wastewater Ammonia Nitrogen, alloy anodes BOD5 95%, TSS > 99%
BOD5, TSS and/or Al Alloy
anodes/rod
cathode
Chromic acid Cr 0.5 m3 h−1 Rod Anode & Cr 100% 0.97 € day−1 in Clean Canada
rinse Helical cathode: electrical Environmental
wastewater Fe or Al consumption Solutions LLC

J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021

ED Magnisali, Q Yan, DV Vayenas
 Table 3. Continued

Industrial Case Typical Treatment

Studies Contaminant Quantity Electrodes Removal Efficiency train Economical data Company Country

Dairy processing COD, TSS, TDS COD 100%, TSS 100% Simson Canada
wastewater TDS 100% environmental
Corporation
Tannery Cr, COD, TSS 40 m3 h−1 Cr 92%, COD 91%, TSS EC - decanter & if Dynameau Ltd UK
wastewater 98% needed RO

J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021

Acrylic paint Colloidal particles, SS Al plates Up to 98% EC - decanter & if Dynameau Ltd UK
contaminated needed RO
wastewater
Industrial 10 m3 h−1 Steel or Aluminium Modern Water plc UK
wastewater
Bacon processing COD, TSS 10 m3 h−1 COD 72%, TSS 78% Annual savings of Kolina Ltd UK
wastewater 157 142.00 € in
effluent
charges
Sauce COD, TSS, FOG 10 m3 h−1 COD 78%, TSS 88%, FOG Annual savings of Kolina Ltd UK
Manufacturer 93% 133 862.00 €
wastewater
Crisps COD, TSS 10 m3 h−1 COD 76%, TSS 84% Kolina Ltd UK
Manufacturer
wastewater
Railways bogies 2 m3 h−1 Fe, Al Cd 99%, Cr 95%, Cu 98%, EC/filterpress Morselt The
wastewater/ Pb 99%, Zn 99% Watertechne Netherlands
Belgium BV
Cardboard Cu, COD, Dyes 3 m3 h−1 Fe, Al EC/filterpress Morselt The
Electrocoagulation as a revived wastewater treatment method-practical approaches

Cu < 0.05 mg L−1, COD

© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Inudstry 60%, Dyes 100% Watertechne Netherlands
wastewater BV
Food industry TSS, oil suspension, Up to COD 90–95%, Oil >98%, Procontrol, S.L. Spain
wastewater organic matter 180 m3 h−1 As 63%, P 99%, Zn
100%
www.soci.org

wileyonlinelibrary.com/jctb
13
 www.soci.org ED Magnisali, Q Yan, DV Vayenas

Table 4. Electrocoagulation versus chemical coagulation: floc formation and sludge characteristics

Electrocoagulation (EC) Chemical Coagulation (CC) References

Larger final floc sizes Smaller final floc diameters at same time 86
Faster floc growth rates Floc sizes similar to those reached in EC attained at a 86
slower rate
High collision frequency at early stages, due to Smaller collision profile 86
higher metal hydroxide M(OH) mass
production
Flocs form by a Diffusion Limited Cluster Flocs form by a Reaction Limited Cluster Aggregation 86
Aggregation (DLCA) type of reaction (RLCA) type
z potential approaches the iso-electric point more positive z potential, due to stronger repulsive 86
indicating a diminished electrostatic barrier
repulsive barrier
Higher current produces both faster growth No linear correlation between growth and coagulant 86
rate and larger final floc sizes dose observed
Ability to produce flocs over a wider range of Flocs' production over a limited range of pH 86
pH values relevant to water treatment
Larger proportion of metal hydroxides Smaller proportion of metal hydroxides 41
Lower quantity of sludge produced, due to the Larger quantity of sludge produced due to large 21
lack of additive agents quantity of chemicals for coagulation-flocculation
The sludge formed by iron electrodes might be n/a 21
heavier and produce a more compact layer
Flocs formed by using Al and Fe n/a 88
Electrodes are relatively dense and can be
dewatered easily
SVI value depends on the applied current, The sludge generated depends on the coagulant 87
operational time, initial pH, and electrode composition, the dose of used coagulant, and the
material pH

E2Metrix Inc, Canada, provide economic data for treating exces-
sive zinc in leachate discharge of a wastewater treatment plant
(WWTP), at a design capacity 24 m3 h−1 in yearly continuous oper-
ation. For this project, the company cooperated with academia to
help with this challenging case study. The plant was commis-
sioned on June 2019 and has been in operation ever since, while
the CAPEX estimated at 532 120.00 € and the OPEX (anodes and
electricity) at 0.43 € m−3, the overall project payback was less than
10 months and the annual savings of over 819 900.00 € were asso-
ciated with offsite leachate treatment (https://e2metrix.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/07/EN-2020-05_REF_Landfill-Leachate%
E2%80%93RGMRM.pdf).
Kolina Ltd, UK, present successful case studies, in terms of annual
cost savings, using their EC treatment system. In a bacon proces-
sing plant, Kolina's system achieves an average 72% COD reduction
and 78% TSS reduction, where the trade effluent discharge costs
have reduced by 51% giving an annual savings of 157 180.00 €
(https://www.kolina.co.uk/casestudy/cranswick-gourmet-bacon/).
Electrode-life is an important parameter directly affecting the
operating cost of the EC process. At high current densities,
the electrode-life is reduced. Bakercorp International Inc, USA,
affirms practical facts for the plate life on their EC system, claiming
that higher current than normal is needed for an effective perfor-
mance, in case of high concentrated wastewater or in case buffer-
ing agents are present. Electrode-life may be extended when oils
or low concentrations of organic chemicals are present. The com-
pany has estimated a steel consumption at 350 h replacement
intervals at 155.2 g m−3 for up to 5.7 m3 h−1 reactors and
51.3 g m−3for 56.8 to 340.7 m3 h−1 reactors. Typical energy
14
consumption for the Bakercorp systems is about 0.7 kwh m−3.
Typical costs for industrial streams lie between 0.18 to
0.86 € m−3 of wastewater. The company pronounces that treat-
ment costs can be drastically reduced, particularly on dilute
streams, while solutions with metals above 150 ppm may entail
higher costs (https://ur.bakercorp.com/en-us/products/filtration/
kaselco-systems/kaselco-resource-library/#). Mckay Creek Tech-
nologies Ltd, Canada, likewise shares information on rare anode
replacement, as their patented EC reactor treats 1 million liters of
wastewater per anode in typical industrially contaminated or ships
oily bilge water at 1.3–2 L s−1 (www.mckaycreek.com). Avivid Water
Technology LLC replace the exhausted anodes approximately once
every 30 days in their EC unit. They provide a patented rotating EC
system using aluminum and iron electrodes, with the claim that
the system has achieved anode antifouling and reduced operating
expenses in sludge disposal by 30–70%, in chemical consumption
by 70–100%, and in biocide consumption by 100% (www.
avividwater.com).
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Electrocoagulation has gained attention the past two decades
both from the scientific and the industrial sectors due to the
emerging need for environmentally friendly wastewater remedia-
tion. Therefore, new electrode geometries and reactor models
have emerged for more competent treatment. A proper design
of the EC cell would facilitate the hydrodynamics and inconve-
nience electrode fouling.29 Cylindrical reactors show a tendency

for replacing the rectangular ones, with reference to Table 1 and

wileyonlinelibrary.com/jctb © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI). J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021
Electrocoagulation as a revived wastewater treatment method-practical approaches
Fig. 5, respectively, of this review. This was an expected outcome
due to the architectural advantages of percolation. It is antici-
pated that. in the future, the adaptation of industrial cartridge
type EC reactors (and their corresponding ease of maintenance,
handling, and electrode replacement) will point at a process that
becomes more cost-efficient over time. With respect to the elec-
trode layout, round shapes (such as rods, discs, hollow cylindrical,
or helical) will be mostly preferred, as they enhance mixing and
are maintenance competent, and hence, cost-effective. Sacrificial
electrodes in pieces that are completely consumed will also be
practiced because they totally eliminate passivation effect. In con-
clusion, the accomplishment of implementing a successful config-
uration depends on critical operating parameters and the mindful
design of an EC system.
The integration of electrocoagulation in hybrid systems is an inev-
itable route at full scale treatments, as they could easily result in low
footprint requirements, environmental sustainability, low cost, and
strong potential of constant operation without needing extensive
control. The companies that will invest time and money into a full-
scale process will anticipate a ‘clear treatment result’, meaning com-
petition in the market and a quick payback on investment. The indus-
trial sector has already adopted avant-garde EC designs for efficient
treatment of the recently complex wastewaters, supporting electro-
coagulation as a confident technique. Integrated technological
schemes already share a rate of 36% internationally. This number is
remarkable, considering that it has been accomplished only within
the past two decades of competing with the hundred-year-old EC
design, meaning that the technology has already been advanced
to the next generation EC. Moreover, the perspective is inspiring, as
EC hybrid schemes have been practiced in relatively large municipal
and industrial plants at a 12%, contributing to corresponding eco-
nomic and environmental growth. It is expected that such case stud-
ies will be multiplied globally, as focus on sewage treatment is
growing, especially in Asia-Pacific region, followed by North America,
Europe, and Latin America. These regions reveal increased interest
due to a lack of availability to clean water, an increasing population,
the increasing investment in the water and wastewater treatment
sectors, a growing request for advanced residential water
treatment, and the increasing investment in research and develop-
ment. If the above are combined with the fact that coagulants
and flocculants commanded the largest share of the overall
water and wastewater treatment chemicals market in 2019 (https://
www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/06/18/2050151/0/en/
Water-and-Wastewater-Treatment-Market-Worth-211-3-Billion-by-
2025-Growing-at-a-CAGR-of-6-5-from-2019-Global-Market-
Opportunity-Analysis-and-Industry-Forecasts-by-Meticulous-Researc.
html) and the growing mindset for replacing chemicals with more
environmental friendly practices, it is prudent to anticipate that
hybrid systems like EC-electrooxidation, EC-membrane, and EC-
adsorption will continue to expand in the market, as they are mature
technologies and their adaptation will be accomplished comfortably.
Autonomous EC systems will remain, mostly for domestic and
small industrial applications. Such operations currently exist in
the Asian market.
Other efforts being investigated in lab scale, some of which will
aim at energy sufficiency (such as EC-microbial fuel cells57 or solar
powered electrocoagulation)93 and others that will provide even
more automatic control processes (like EC combined with artificial
neural networks),94 will progress.
As a general conclusion, electrocoagulation is already a revived
water treatment technology with great potential. There is a strong
academic background to support water treatment companies to
J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2021 © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).
www.soci.org
invest in commercialized advanced schemes, since the industrial
sector will inevitably adopt integrated EC configurations.
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Supporting information may be found in the online version of this
article.
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Kumar M, Occurrence and fate of emerging contaminants in water
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2017.12.009
2 Barrera-Díaz CE, Lugo-Lugo V and Bilyeu B, A review of chemical, elec-
trochemical and biological methods for aqueous Cr(VI) reduction.
J Hazard Mater 223–224:1–12 (2012).
3 Fayad N, The application of electrocoagulation process for wastewater
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