Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214

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Chemical Engineering Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ces

Integration of electroplating process design and operation for simultaneous

productivity maximization, energy saving, and freshwater minimization$
Chaowei Liu, Chuanyu Zhao, Qiang Xu n
Dan F. Smith Department of Chemical Engineering, Lamar University, 4400 MLK. Blvd., Beaumont, TX 77710, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Electroplating industry annually produces numerous plated workpieces for U.S. pillar industries.
Received 4 April 2011 However, it is also a major environment polluter in forms of wastewater, sludge, and spent solution.
Received in revised form Thus, waste source reduction for the electroplating industry is a must. In practice, when productivity
16 August 2011
and energy use efficiency are also taken into account, the design and operation of an electroplating
Accepted 14 September 2011
Available online 24 September 2011
process become very complicated and need an in-depth study. In this paper, productivity maximiza-
tion, energy saving, and freshwater/wastewater minimization are simultaneously addressed for the
Keywords: optimal design and operation of electroplating processes, which generates a triple-objective mixed-
Hoist scheduling integer dynamic optimization (MIDO) model. The MIDO model is iteratively solved by a developed
Water network synthesis
methodology to obtain the 3D Pareto frontier of the optimization problem, which provides important
Energy saving
technical supports for the design and operation of electroplating processes. The efficacy has been
Optimization
MINLP demonstrated with a case study on an electroplating process.
Pareto frontier Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction (WRND) is granted as a cost-effective technology to minimize the

Electroplating industry is a critically important and indispen-
sable function of supporting services for the U.S. and worldwide
economy. It annually produces numerous plated workpieces for
many pillar industries, such as automotive, aerospace, electronic,
refinery, and petrochemical industries. However, the electroplat-
ing industry also generates tremendous amounts of hazardous or
toxic waste in the forms of wastewater, sludge, and spent
solution, which includes over 100 toxic chemicals and metals
that are hazardous to human health and the environment (Duke,
1994). As reported, one single electroplating plant annually
produces about 55,000 tons of waste and wastewater and 50
tons of hazardous sludge containing many hazardous heavy
metals and chemicals, such as chromic acid, nickel sulfate, and
zinc cyanide (Kushner and Kushner, 1994). By accounting over
20,000 electroplating shops throughout the U.S., the pollution
generation costs the industry hundreds of millions of dollars per
year for waste treatment and disposal (Load et al., 1996). There-
fore, pollution prevention (P2) for the electroplating industry is
always an urgent need.
The electroplating industry has adopted a variety of P2 technol-
ogies for manufacturing. Among them, water reuse network design
$
For publication in Chemical Engineering Science.
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 409 880 7818; fax: þ1 409 880 2197.
E-mail address: Qiang.xu@lamar.edu (Q. Xu).
freshwater consumption and wastewater generation in systematic
ways. Tremendous studies have been conducted. For instance,
Gunaratnam et al. (2005) developed an automated method for the
design of a total water system, which considers simultaneously the
optimal distribution of water to satisfy process demands and
optimal treatment of effluent streams. Karuppiah and Grossmann
(2006) developed a systematic modeling and solving strategy for
global optimization of water-reuse network synthesis. Erol and
Thöming (2006) proposed an economic and environmental optimal
reuse and recovery network (RRN) based on a simultaneous multi-
objective MINLP model without considering the rinsing dynamics.
Feng et al. (2007, 2008) developed mathematical models to reuse
single-contaminant and multi-contaminant regeneration water.
Lim et al. (2006, 2007) considered economic evaluations of a
freshwater consumption-optimized water network. For WRND
applications in the electroplating industry, previous studies have
shown that the wastewater reduction through WRND averages
more than 20% over the original design, meanwhile maintaining
product quality (Zhou et al., 2001; Yang et al., 1999, 2000).
Besides wastewater minimization issues, how to improve
production efficiency is another big concern for the electroplating
industry. Electroplating lines usually employ hoists during their
manufacturing. Each hoist is automatically programmed to carry
and move jobs among processing units in a production line,
according to a designated hoist schedule. Hoist schedule devel-
opment, or hoist scheduling, is an integral part of design and
operation for a manufacturing process. An optimal hoist schedule

0009-2509/$ - see front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.ces.2011.09.024
 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214
can improve production efficiency and reduce manufacturing cost
significantly. As reported, up to a 20% reduction in mean product
waiting time and about a 50% improvement in standard deviation
of cycle time can be obtained in operation through optimal
scheduling (Kumar, 1994).
Fig. 1 depicts a simplified electroplating process where a hoist
moves above the electroplating line where multi-step cleaning,
rinsing, and plating operations occur in different processing units.
The parts (called jobs) are loaded into a barrel at one end of the
plating line, which is a loading/unloading zone. The processing
time of each job in a specific unit is usually restricted by the
processing recipe. A hoist is employed to raise, move, and lease
each job periodically from one unit to the other in the line. Note
that multiple jobs are simultaneously under processing in a
production line. Thus, the hoist schedule must be optimally
arranged to timely satisfy the processing requests from all the
jobs. If the hoist picks up jobs from the loading zone more
frequently, the production rate is expected to be higher. Hoist
movements can be divided into three types: (i) free move, during
which it does not carry a job; (ii) loaded move, during which the
hoist carries a job; and (iii) idle waiting, during which the hoist
rests over a processing unit without a job. The time duration
between releasing and lifting a job in a unit suggests the job
processing time of that unit.
Cyclic hoist scheduling (CHS) involves solution identifications
for combining three types of hoist movements in a cyclic way, such
that the simple repetition of hoist movement control can produce
many jobs with the same processing recipe. CHS had been proven
as an NP-hard problem (Lei and Wang, 1989). Historically, hoist
schedules were usually developed based on experience. The first
reported effort for computerized scheduling was made by Phillips
and Unger (1976). Later, Shapiro and Nuttle (1988) proposed a
linear-programming (LP) based branch and bound algorithm in
solution identification. Subsequently, Lei and Wang (1994) and
Armstrong et al. (1994) improved their solution methods. Baptiste
et al. (1992) addressed the CHS problem with constraint logic
programming (CLP) as a modeling language. Rodosek and Wallace
(1998) then combined CLP and MIP to generate a hybrid algorithm.
Chen et al. (1995) introduced a new branch and bound algorithm
for an improved production efficiency.
CHS can also offer environmental benefits. Xu and Huang
(2004) pioneered in this area with a graphic assisted scheduling
methodology, which considered fresh water minimization as a
part of the objective function. The application showed it not only
improved the production rate but also reduced the wastewater
generation in an electroplating line. With the same idea, Kuntay
et al. (2006) developed an MINLP model that took productivity
and chemical consumption into consideration. Xu and Liu (2008)
considered a sequential method to integrate CHS and WRND
problems by solving CHS and WRND problems iteratively. Very
recently, Liu et al. (2011) integrated CHS and WRND problems
into one model and solved it through an efficient methodology.
The simultaneous consideration of CHS and WRND involves
multi-objective programming. When the operational dynamics
(i.e., rinsing dynamics) are taken into account, which are usually
modeled by using ordinary differential equations (ODEs) or
differential/algebraic equations (DAEs), and the entire problem
Hoist
Job
Loading/Unloading
1/8 3 2
Fig. 1. A simplified electroplating line.
203
becomes a multi-objective mixed-integer dynamic optimization
(MIDO) problem. Recent advances in MIDO study include applica-
tions in batch process synthesis and development, design of batch
distillation columns, solvent design in batch processes, simulta-
neous design and control, reduction of kinetic mechanisms, and
optimization of hybrid discrete/continuous systems (Abel and
Marquardt, 2000; Flores-Tlacuahuac and Biegler, 2007; Terrazas-
Moreno et al., 2007), and solving algorithms development that are
better for solving larger and more realistic problems (Allgor and
Barton, 1999; Bansal et al., 2003; Chachuat et al., 2005). Some
studies on multi-objective optimization of chemical process
systems also take into account timing issues. For instance,
Busch et al. (2007) presented a multi-objective methodology for
the modeling and dynamic predictive scheduling of operational
strategies for chemical processes. Prata et al. (2008) presented a
combined discretization scheme for an integrated grade transition
and production scheduling problem of a continuous polymeriza-
tion reactor. Gao et al. (2008) proposed a parallel hybrid multi-
objective optimization algorithm to solve the multi-objective
optimization problem of the ethylene furnace production.
Nowadays, the challenges for the electroplating industry are
not only issues of product quality, productivity, and pollution
prevention, but also energy use efficiency. The energy source used
in this industry is electricity and it is mainly used for bath heating
and electroplating operation. As electricity consumption during
electroplating operation heavily depends on the plating time,
which actually is affected by the hoist scheduling, the energy-
saving opportunities can be embedded into CHS decision mak-
ings. In this paper, it is assumed that the energy consumption is
proportionally related to the electroplating time, and the electro-
plating process will continue under constant voltage and current
density as long as the parts are in the plating tank; meanwhile,
the energy cost will not change with respect to time.
In this paper, the elements of productivity improvement,
energy saving, and freshwater/wastewater minimization are
simultaneously addressed in the design and operation of general
electroplating processes. In operation, a linearized CHS model is
employed to minimize the production cycle time so as to improve
the productivity. A plating model measuring the electricity usage
during the electroplating operation addresses the optimal energy
consumption under the specification of plating quality. In process
design, rinse dynamics considered WRND targets the minimum
freshwater usage (i.e., wastewater generation) through optimal
water allocation in various rinse units. The three aspects are
integrated into a triple-objective MIDO model. The reason for
employing an MIDO model is because the rising operation con-
sists of the batch operation of job drag-in/drag-out and the
continuous inflow/outflow of rinse water, the rinse water effluent
concentration will dynamically change during a cyclic operation
period. Conceivably, the contaminant concentration of rinse water
will increase to some extent when a job is just dragged in for
rinsing; then the concentration will gradually reduce in the left
cycle time. Thus, in order to reuse rinse water effluent, the rinse
water concentration dynamics has to be considered. Based on the
structure of the developed multi-objective MIDO model, a decom-
posed solving methodology is also developed in this paper to
obtain the 3D Pareto frontier of the optimization problem, which
74 5 6
204 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214

provides important technical supports for the design and opera- g j,i ¼ t ej þ Dt fj þ þ 1,i þ Dt w L U
j ; otherwise, gj,i ¼0. g and g are upper and
tion of electroplating processes. The efficacy of the development lower bounds, respectively.
has been demonstrated through a case study on an alkali zinc
g L ð1xj,i Þ r ðt ej þ Dt fj þ þ 1,i þ Dtw U
j Þg j,i r g ð1xj,i Þ, i ¼ 2,    , N; j ¼ 1,    , N
electroplating process.
ð6Þ

2. Model description g L xj,i r g j,i rg U xj,i , i ¼ 2,    , N; j ¼ 1,    , N ð7Þ

For clarity, the optimization models for CHS, energy consump- X

N
tsi ¼ g j,i , i ¼ 2,    , N ð8Þ
tion, and rinsing-dynamic considered WRND will be presented,
j¼1
respectively. Then, a decomposed solving strategy is presented to
solve the developed multi-objective optimization model. The ending time of the i-th loaded move (t ei ) is equal to its
starting time plus the traveling time of the loaded move.
2.1. Modeling for CHS
t ei ¼ t si þ Dt li , i ¼ 1,    , N ð9Þ

2.1.1. Objective function of CHS 2.1.4. Job processing-time constraints

The objective of CHS is to minimize the hoist cycle time, which
is equivalent as maximizing the productivity. To obtain a cyclic
hoist schedule, the sequence of loaded moves in a cycle and, the
starting and ending time of each loaded move have to be
determined. Suppose i and j both represent the index of loaded
moves. Then, the optimal control variables include binary vari-
ables (xi,j and yi) that determine the loaded move sequence and
job lifting and releasing sequence, and starting and ending time of
each loaded move (t si and t ei ).
J 1 ¼ mins e T
xi,j , yi ,t i ,ti
2.1.2. Integrality constraints for loaded moves
The binary variable, xi,j, is introduced to determine the
sequence of all loaded moves. xi,j is 1 if the i-th loaded move is
just ahead of the j-th loaded move in a cycle; otherwise, xi,j is 0.
Eqs. (2) and (3) make sure that there is only one loaded move
before or after the i-th loaded move.
X
N
xi,j ¼ 1, j ¼ 1,    , N
i ¼ 1, i a j
The job processing time in unit i is represented as Dtpi. It is the
time interval, during which a job stays in a unit. Eq. (10) gives the
general formula for calculating Dtpi. The developed CHS model
can handle the case that one unit can simultaneously process
multiple jobs. Suppose the simultaneous job-processing capacity
of unit i is Ci. Then after a job enters unit i, this job will complete
its processing in the next (Ci  1) or Ci cycles. As every unit in an
electroplating line will experience a pair of job lifting and
releasing actions, a binary variable, yi, is used to determine
ð1Þ whether or not a job lifting action is ahead of a job releasing
action for unit i in a cycle. If t si is less than t ei1 , yi should be 1,
which means the job lifting in unit i is ahead of the job releasing;
otherwise, yi is 0. Eq. (11) shows the relationship among t si , t ei1 ,
and yi, where T max and T min are preset upper and lower bounds of
the cycle time. Obviously, Dtpi should not exceed the cycle time
multiplied by Ci as shown in Eq. (12). Eq. (13) provides the upper
and lower bounds, Dtpmax i and Dtpmini , for Dtpi.
Dtpi ¼ tsi tei1 þ ðyi þ C i 1ÞT, i ¼ 1,    , N ð10Þ
ð2Þ T max yi r t si t ei1 r T max ð1yi Þ, i ¼ 1,    , N ð11Þ

Dtpi oC i T, i ¼ 1,    , N ð12Þ
X
N
xi,j ¼ 1, i ¼ 1,    , N ð3Þ
j ¼ 1, j a i
Dtpmin
i r Dtpi r Dtpmax
i , i ¼ 1,    , N ð13Þ
Eq. (10) is a nonlinear constraint. It can be linearized and
2.1.3. Constraints for starting and ending time of loaded moves replaced by constraints of Eq. (14) through (16) by introducing a
A complete hoist schedule is a cycle that starts and ends at the variable hi and its upper and lower bounds, such as Tmax and Tmin.
same unit. Any unit can be the starting unit of a cycle. Without If yi is 1, hi ¼T; otherwise, hi ¼0.
losing the generality, the staring unit of the first loaded move is Dtpi ¼ tsi tei1 þ ðC i 1ÞT þ hi , i ¼ 1,    , N ð14Þ
designated as the initial starting unit. Its starting time is set as
zero as shown in Eq. (4). The starting time of other loaded moves, T min ð1yi Þ r Thi rT max ð1yi Þ, i ¼ 1,    , N ð15Þ
t si , is equal to the ending time of the previous loaded move plus
the free move time and hoist waiting time, as shown in Eq. (5). T min yi rhi r T max yi , i ¼ 1,    , N ð16Þ
Here, Dt fj þ þ 1,i represents the free move time from the unit where
the j-th loaded move releases a job to the starting unit of the i-th 2.1.5. Hoist cycle time constraints
loaded move. Note that for the j-th loaded move, a job is lifted Eq. (17) calculates the cycle time. Eq. (18) gives the upper and
from the j-th unit and dropped in the unit specified by a prefixed lower bounds of the cycle time.
processing recipe. However, the dropped unit may not be exactly
X
N
indexed by jþ 1. For generality, it can be indexed by jþþ1. T¼ g i,1 ð17Þ
In Eq. (5), xj,i is used to control whether or not the ending time i¼1
of the j-th loaded move t ej , the free move time Dt fj þ þ 1,i , and
waiting time Dt w s T min r T rT max ð18Þ
j , should be counted for calculating t i .

t s1 ¼ 0 ð4Þ In summary, the general CHS model is an MILP model. It

includes Eqs. (1)–(4), (6)–(9), and (11)–(18).
X
N
t si ¼ ½ðt ej þ Dt fj þ þ 1,i þ Dt w
j Þxj,i , i ¼ 2,    , N ð5Þ 2.2. Modeling for energy consumption minimization
j¼1

Eq. (5) is a nonlinear constraint, which can be linearized by Compared with other processing units, the electroplating unit
Eq. (6) through (8), where variable gi,j is defined as: if xj,I is 1, then is the largest energy consumer in an electroplating line. As shown
 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214 205

in Eq. (19), the objective here is to minimize the energy con-
sumption (E) in the electroplating unit.
J 2 ¼ minE
Dt m
where m represents the index of jobs processed in the electro-
plating unit; Dtm is the electroplating time of the m-th job
processed in the electroplating unit. Assume the index of electro-
plating unit is u. The electroplating unit is a multi-job unit with
the simultaneous job-processing capacity of Cu. As the energy
consumption is calculated as the electricity usage for electroplat-
are processed for one cycle time. As shown in Fig. 2(a), the total
job electroplating time under this scenario is CuTþts  te. (ii) On
the other hand, if the hoist schedule indicates that the pickup
ð19Þ
operation (ts) is after the drop operation (te) for the electroplating
unit, the scenario will be like Fig. 2(b). That means the youngest
job will be dropped first and the oldest job will be picked up later.
Under this situation, there must be Cu jobs in the electroplating
unit in the represented cycle, and the total electroplating time is
(Cu 1)Tþts te (see Fig. 2(b)).
P
Based on the above explanation, mDtm in one cycle can be

ing operation, it is formulated as the integration of electroplating generalized as

(
voltage (U) multiplying current intensity (I) with respect to the X C u T þ t s t e , t s ot e
electroplating time (t), which is shown in Eq. (20). Dt m ¼ ð22Þ
m ðC u 1ÞT þ t t , t s 4t e
s e
Z
E¼ U I dt ð20Þ From the previous CHS modeling, the binary variable y is
defined as: y¼1 when ts ote; y¼0 when ts 4te. With the help of y,
where the current intensity is equal to job surface area (A) Eq. (22) can be reformulated as
multiplying the current density (ia). Normally, U, A, and ia are X
operated as constants. Thus, Eq. (20) can be calculated as Dtm ¼ ts t e þ ðy þ C u 1ÞT ð23Þ
X m
E ¼ U Aia Dtm ð21Þ
m Compared with the Eq. (10), (24) can be concluded. It suggests
that the processing time summation of all the jobs in one cycle is
Due to the batch operation of job drag-in and drag-out, the
actually equal to the residence time of one job (i.e., job processing
number of jobs processed in the electroplating unit varies during
time) in the electroplating unit.
a cycle. There are two scenarios for calculating the summation
X
item in Eq. (21), depending on how many jobs processed in one Dtm ¼ Dtpu ð24Þ
cycle. (i) If the hoist movement is scheduled in such a way that m
the pickup operation (ts) is ahead of drop operation (te) for the
As a result, the objective function of Eq. (19) can be reformu-
electroplating unit, there will be Cu þ1 jobs processed during a
lated as
cycle. As shown in Fig. 2(a), it must be true that the job with the
largest resident time (namely, the oldest job) is picked up; and J2 ¼ min UAia Dtpu ð25Þ
Dtpu
the newly coming job (namely, youngest job) is dropped. Thus,
the lifting time of the oldest job during one cycle is ts; the Certainly, Eq. (25) only gives the objective function of the
releasing time of the youngest job is te; and the other Cu  1 jobs energy consumption minimization model. Its constraints actually

ts
Cycle Time

Cycle Time

te

ts te

Electroplating Unit Electroplating Unit

Job No. Residence Time Job No. Residence Time

1 ts 1 ts
2~Cu T 2~(Cu-1) T
Cu+1 T-te Cu T-te
Total time: CuT+ts-te Total time: (Cu-1)T+ts-te

Lengend:
Residence time of the Residence time of the
JobLifting Jobreleasing
youngest job in a cycle oldest job in a cycle

Fig. 2. Illustration for calculating the total electroplating time in a cycle. (a) job lifting before job releasing and (b) job releasing before job lifting.
206 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214

include all the constraints of the CHS model, which include 2.3.2. Mass balance constraints
Eqs. (2)–(4), (6)–(9), and (11)–(18). Based on the illustration of Fig. 3, Eqs. (30) and (31), respec-
tively, give the mass balance at the inlet and outlet of a rinse unit.
2.3. Modeling for WRND Eq. (32) gives the contaminant mass balance at the inlet of a rinse
unit, where Cf is the contaminant concentration in the fresh
The proposed WRND model is a modification based on recent water; C out
q is the contaminant concentration of W rq, p ; C ak is the
study from Liu et al. (2011). In an electroplating production line, contaminant concentration of W ak,p ; and W wp is the water flow rate
freshwater is consumed in rinse units. To minimize the fresh- directly discharged from the p-th rinse unit to the wastewater
water consumption, rinsing water discharged from other rinse treatment facility. Eq. (33) suggests the contaminant inflow rate
units or some external wastewater streams could be reused. Thus, (i.e., the difference between the drag-in and drag-out rate) is
three types of water sources are functioned as inputs of a rinse exactly equal to the rinse-off rate. Note that the drag-in/drag-out
unit: fresh water, reused water from rinsing units, and reused operations take only d duration.
water from external wastewater represented as W fp , W rq, p , and X
NU X
K
W ak,p , respectively (see Fig. 3). Here, p, q¼1 , y , NR represents W p ¼ W fp þ W rq,p þ W ak,p ð30Þ
the index of a rinse unit; NR is the total number of rinse units in q ¼ 1, q a p k¼1

the network;and k represents the index of external wastewater.

X
NU
Wp ¼ Ww
p þ W rp,q ð31Þ
2.3.1. Rinsing dynamics q ¼ 1, q a p
To guarantee the operational feasibility of the optimization
result, rinse dynamics should be considered. Here, the dynamic X
NU X
K
W p C in f f
p ¼ W pC þ ðW rq,p C out
q Þþ ðW ak,p C ak Þ ð32Þ
rinse model is borrowed from Zhou et al. (2001).
q ¼ 1,, q a p k¼1

dC p W p C in
p DC din din din
p ðHðtt p,s ÞHðtt p,e ÞÞ
dt
¼
Vp
þ
Vp Dp ðC din dout out in
p C p ðt p,e ÞÞd ¼ W p ðC p C p ÞT ð33Þ

ðW p þDðHðtt dout dout

p,s ÞHðtt p,e ÞÞÞC p
 ð26Þ 2.3.3. Other process constraints
Vp
C p ð0Þ ¼ C p ðTÞ ð34Þ
t dout din
p,s ¼ t p,s þ Dt p ð27Þ
max
C p ðt dout
p,e Þ rC p ð35Þ
t din
p,e ¼ t din
p,s þ d ð28Þ
X
NU
t dout dout
p,e ¼ t p,s þ d ð29Þ W ak,p rW max
k ð36Þ
p¼1
where 0rtrT. Wp is the total water inflow/outflow rates (they
are equal because of mass balance) of the p-th rinse unit; Cp is the zfp L rW fp r zfp M ð37Þ
contaminant concentration in the p-th rinse unit, C in p is the
contaminant concentration at the inlet of the p-th rinse unit; D
zrq,p Lr W rq,p r zrq,p M ð38Þ
is the drag-in/drag-out flow rates of a rinse unit, which is
considered as a constant in this work; C din p is the drag-in con-
taminant concentration of the p-th rinse unit; Vp is the capacity of zak,p Lr W ak,p rzak,p M ð39Þ
the p-th rinse unit; t din din
p,s and t p,e are, respectively, the job entering Eq. (34) suggests that the contaminant concentrations at the
time instant and the drag-in ending time instant in the p-th rinse
initial and ending time of a cycle should be the same because the
unit; t dout dout
p,s and t p,e are, respectively, the job leaving time instant operation is cyclic. Eq. (35) suggests the rinsing quality should be
and the drag-out ending time instant in the p-th rinse unit; and
within the specification, i.e., the drag-out contaminant concen-
Dtp is the rinse processing time. H(t a) is a step function, which tration should be under the limit of C max . Constraint (36) suggests
p
will be 1 if t is larger than the threshold a; otherwise, H(t  a) is 0.
the total reused external wastewater should be less than the
Eq. (26) shows that the contaminant concentration is dynami-
available amount. Constraint (37) through (39) provide the lower
cally changing with job drag-in and drag-out operations. Eq. (27)
bound (L) and upper bound (M) for the flow rate of a possible
indicates the time interval between drag-in and drag-out operations
water stream. It suggests that the flow rate of any water line
should be equal to the job processing time in a rinse unit. Eqs. (28)
should be within a range, if this stream does exist. These help
and (29) show the drag-in and drag-out operations will last for some
prevent the solutions with very low flow rates, which are
time. d is designated as a constant in the work.
operationally inapplicable in reality. The binary variables of
zfp , zrq,p , zak,p are introduced. If a binary variable is 0, its corre-
Dragout Dragin sponding flow rate is also 0; otherwise, when it is 1, the flow rate
Wk,a p Cka D Cp (t dout
p, s ) D C pdin is constrained by the bounds.
Wpw C pout
Wpf C f Wp C in
p WpC pout
2.3.4. WRND objective function
As shown in Eq. (40), the objective of WRND is to minimize the
Wp,r q C pout fresh water consumption of the entire water-reuse network. The
manipulating variables include W fp , W rq, p , W ak,p and zfp , zrq,p , zak,p .
Wp,r q C pout
Cp (t) X
NR
J3 ¼ min W fp ð40Þ
W fp , W rq,p , W ak, p p¼1

Fig. 3. Sketch of rinsing unit operation.

zfp , zrq,p , zak,p
 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214 207

The proposed WRND model is an MIDO model, where the
dynamic comes from Eq. (26). To facilitate the model solution
identification, it is converted to an MINLP model with the
orthogonal collocation on finite elements method (Villadsen and
Michelsen, 1978; Finlayson, 1980). The derived MINLP model
after the discretization is shown in the Appendix A.
3. Solving strategy of the multi-objective optimization
problem
The integrated triple-objective optimization problem contains
three sub optimization models dealing with the productivity
maximization, energy saving, and freshwater minimization. Since
these three objectives are mutually influenced, the desirable
solutions are actually the trade-off among these three objectives.
Thus, the in-depth relations for these three objectives should be
disclosed. For this purpose, the Pareto frontier of this triple-
objective optimization problem will be examined. In this paper,
an effective solving strategy for obtaining the Pareto frontier
of the triple-objective optimization problem is developed. Note
that the integrated triple-objective MIDO model is a nonconvex
nonlinear problem, which is difficult to obtain the global optimal
solution. Therefore, the developed solving strategy is to use
iteration methods to identify as many solutions as possible in
an interested CHS cycle-time range; then generate the approxi-
mated Pareto frontier from the available solution set.
3.1. Methodology framework
The general methodology framework is shown in Fig. 4. It starts
with developing mathematical models for CHS, energy consump-
tion, and WRND. Then, the CHS model will be solved only with
multi-start methods to obtain some feasible solutions. Based on
these solutions, an interested CHS cycle-time range can be esti-
mated. Within this range, all integers of cycle time will be
enumerated in the outer iteration. For each fixed cycle time, energy
optimization model combining a cycle-time equality constraint will
be solved for electricity usage minimization. If solution exists, then
the discretized WRND model will be solved thereafter. It is worth
noting that under the same CHS cycle time, multiple solutions may
exist. Under this situation, the inner-loop iteration will be conducted
to find different solutions, where constraints for solution cut
(described in Section 3.2) will be accumulated with each feasible
solution. If the inner-loop iteration has no more solutions, it means
the CHS cycle time needs to be adjusted in the outer-loop iteration.
Iteratively, the solving procedure driven by the outer and inner
iterations will eventually identify a solution set under the interested
CHS cycle-time range. Finally, the Pareto frontier approximation of
this solution set will be generated for three objectives.

Develop Multi-Objective MIDO Model:

CHS Model for Cycle Time Minimization
Energy Model for Electricity Consumption Minimization
WRND Model for Fresh water Usage Minimization

Solve the CHS Model with Multi-start Method to

Estimate the Range of Cycle Time

Cycle Times Yes Generate the Pareto

inthe Range Are All
Frontier Approximation
Evaluated?

No

Select a New Cycle Time from the Range and Fix it as a

Outer Loop

Cycle-time Equality Constraint

Solve the Energy Model Combining the New Cycle-time

Equality Constraint

No Add Constraints
Solution Exists?
for Solution Cut

Yes
Inner Loop

Obtain Job Processing Time in Each Rinsing Unit

Solve the Discretized WRND Model (MINLP Model)

for Fresh water Minimization

Fig. 4. General methodology framework.

208 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214

All the optimization problems are modeled in GAMS (GAMS, voltage (Durney, 1984). The original operation for this electroplat-
1992), where CPLEX and DICOPT are used to solve the MILP ing line features 538 s of CHS cycle time, 42.8 L/min of freshwater
problem and the MINLP problem, respectively; and for MINLP consumption (or wastewater generation), and electricity consump-
problem, CPLEX, and CONOPT are employed to solve the sub-MILP tion of 13.85 kWh per cycle. The basic process parameters and
and NLP problem. (CPLEX, 1995; Drud, 1994; Viswanathan and processing-time information are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
Grossmann, 1990). Based on the developed solving methodology, 100 feasible
solutions have been identified. Fig. 6 shows the distribution of all
3.2. Solution-cut constraints the identified solutions, which includes the solution from the
previous study (Xu and Huang, 2004). It also illustrates the
CHS may have multiple solutions. Sometimes, there might be approximation of the 3D Pareto frontier surface in the solution
multiple solutions with the same cycle time and even the same space, where minimum CHS cycle time, freshwater usage, and
loaded move sequence. For a specific CHS problem, usually there electricity consumption are pursued. The identified solutions are
is limited number of feasible hoist movement grouping marked in blue, and the Pareto frontier points are marked in red
sequences. For each feasible sequence of grouping movement, circles. There are six cycle time scenarios characterized by the
there are usually an infinite set of solutions with different CHS cycle time ranging from 502 to 507 s. Although solutions
processing time (Subaı̈ et al., 2006). In this paper, integer values with larger cycle time do exist, the smallest cycle-time scenarios
are used for each job processing time and hoist traveling time, so from 502 to 507 s are selected in the outer loop as shown in Fig. 4.
that there are multiple but finite solutions for a given sequence The detailed Pareto frontier results, including the three objective
and a given cycle time. To distinguish different CHS solutions, the values and job processing-time information for each unit, are
starting time of every loaded move is used. The constraint is shown in Table 3. For comparison, the solution results from
shown in Eq. (41). It compares the starting time of each loaded previous study (Xu and Huang, 2004) are also included in Table 3.
move with all the previous solutions. If the summation of the The discretized model is nonconvex (see the Appendix A).
absolute difference between the new solution and every former Although the global solver of BARON has been used, the global
one is nonzero, it means the current solution is a new one. optima cannot be guaranteed due to the complexity of the
integrated model, the ‘‘Pareto frontier surface’’ in Fig. 6 is actually
X
N
9t si t sb,i 9 4 0, b ¼ 1,    , NB ð41Þ the best approximation of the real Pareto frontier surface based
i¼1 on the obtained solution set.
where b is the index of identified hoist schedules; NB is the total According to the Pareto frontier surface, as the cycle time
number of CHS solutions that have been identified; t sb,i is the increases, the electricity consumption will increase and the fresh-
starting time of the i-th loaded move identified in the b-th solving water consumption of WRND will decrease. This is understand-
iteration. able because longer cycle time usually results in longer
electroplating time, which will consume more electricity in this
unit. On the other hand, longer cycle time allows more rinse time,
4. Case study which in general allows less rinsing water. Also note that the
solution scattering range under a fixed cycle time is increasing
The developed methodology has been used to solve a real with respect to the cycle time increment. This is because the
electroplating problem (Xu and Huang, 2004). As shown in Fig. 5, larger cycle time allows the hoist to have more options on idle
the electroplating line contains 16 processing units. Since the waiting time and electroplating time, which can generate more
rinsing time in Units 8/10, 14, and 15 and water flows among rinse scenarios and larger differences in freshwater consumption
these units are already fixed, WRND actually only covers rinse among their WRND solutions. These results demonstrate that
units 7, 3, 11, and 5. Meanwhile, the effluent water stream from hoist cycle time, energy consumption, and fresh water usage are
Unit 8/10 is reusable, which can be considered as an external closely related. Even for a fixed cycle time, the electroplating time
wastewater source, with the maximum flow rate of 18.9 L/min. The and WRND should be carefully designed because it does influence
zinc electroplating voltage is 12 V, about the average electroplating the energy and water consumptions.
Yellow chromate
Nitric dip or clear
Drag-in/drag-out

Electroc leaning

Load/unload
Zinc Plating

JS-500 (16)
Rinse (11)

Rinse (14)

Rinse (15)
Rinse (5)

Rinse (7)

Rinse (3)

Soak (2)
Acid (4)
(8)/(10)

(1)/(17)
(12)

(13)
(9)

(6)

Waste water
W11
f
f
W8

f f
Fresh water W7-11 W7

Wf W15f

Job processing sequence in the units:(1)-(2)-(3)-…-(15)-(16)-(17)

Fig. 5. Flowsheet of an electroplating line (Xu and Huang, 2004).

 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214 209

Table 1
Specification for the case study (Xu and Huang, 2004).

Process parameter Symbol Unit Value

Processing capacity of Unit 9 C9 job 8

Processing capacity of other units C2  C16 job 1
Contaminant concentration of fresh water Cf mg/L 2.6
Drag-in contaminant concentration for Unit 3 C din mg/L 7820.5
3
Drag-in contaminant concentration for Unit 5 C din mg/L 54,754.2
5
Drag-in contaminant concentration for Unit 7 C din mg/L 225,391.6
7
Drag-in contaminant concentration for Unit 11 C din mg/L 29,721.7
11
Maximum drag-out concentration for Unit 3 C max
3
mg/L 2377.5
Maximum drag-out concentration for Unit 5 C max
5
mg/L 1849.2
Maximum drag-out concentration for Unit 7 C max
7
mg/L 2113.4
Maximum drag-out concentration for Unit 11 C max
11
mg/L 792.5
Contaminant concentration of external wastewater C ak mg/L 924.6
Volume of rinse Units 3, 5, 7, and 11 V3, V5, V7, V11 L 946.4
Maximum flow rate of external wastewater W a1 L/min 18.9
Flowrate threshold values L L/min 0.8
Duration of drag-in or drag-out operation d sec. 12
Processing time limit for soak cleaning Dtp2 sec. Z 445
Processing time limit for electro-cleaning Dtp6 sec. Z 460
Processing time limit for acid cleaning Dtp4 sec. 380–440
Processing time limit for electroplating Dtp9 sec. Z 3905
Processing time limit for rinse operation Dtp3, Dtp5, Dtp7, Dtp11 sec. Z 30
Hoist traveling time between two adjacent units Dtfj,i sec. 2
Hoist traveling time between Units 8 and 9 Dtf8, 9 sec. 7
Hoist traveling time between Units 1 and 16 Dtf1, 16 sec. 7
Electroplating voltage U V 12
Electroplating current density ia A/m2 100
Average job surface area for electroplating A m2 10

Table 2
Loaded move information for the case study (Xu and Huang, 2004).

Index (i) A B C D E F J
7 J
8 I

Staring unit of the loaded move (ui) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 11

Ending unit of the loaded move (vi) 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 11 17 (or 1)
Hoist travel time of loaded move (Dt li , sec.) 19 17 16 21 16 21 45 48 205

Solution from
previous study
(Xu and Huang, 2004)
13.2
Electricity Usage (kWh)

13.15

13.1

13.05
Approximation of
Pareto frontier surface
42 507
40 506
38 505
Co Fresh 36 504
nsu
mp Water 503 (s )
tion 34 Time
(L/ 502 Cycle
min
)

Fig. 6. Overview of the identified solution distribution and Pareto frontier surface.

The selection of the most desirable solution needs to balance
the three objectives of the total cycle time, the electricity
usage, and the fresh water consumption. As the necessary
economic data is not available from the published case study, a
middle point (e.g. Solution 8 in Table 3) from the Pareto frontier is
selected for solution demonstration. Fig. 7 shows the time-way
graph of Solution 8. Note that there is a five-second waiting
time at Unit 11. The WRND of Solution 8 is shown in Fig. 8. It
shows the freshwater and the external wastewater sources are
allocated to Units 11 and 7, respectively. Meanwhile, the effluent
of Unit 5 is totally reused by Unit 7; a part of the effluent of
Unit 7 is reused by Unit 3. The final wastewater discharges from
210 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214

Table 3
Pareto frontier results for the case study.

Solution Cycle time Fresh water Electricity Chemical processing time (sec.) Rinsing time (sec.)
number (sec.) usage (L/min) consumption
(kWh)
T Wf E Soak Electro- Acid Electro- Unit 3 Unit 7 Unit 5 Unit 11
cleaning plating

1 502 37.9 13.05 445 461 394 3915 44 203 459 62

2 502 41.8 13.04 445 460 413 3912 121 111 34 65
3 503 36.2 13.07 446 462 395 3922 44 204 460 63
4 503 39.0 13.02 446 460 390 3905 145 204 399 80
5 504 33.4 13.11 447 463 416 3933 245 396 33 156
6 504 35.4 13.02 447 463 397 3906 245 120 396 115
7 505 32.6 13.14 448 464 417 3941 245 397 33 156
8a 505 34.3 13.04 448 464 397 3913 246 121 397 116
9 506 32.5 13.16 449 465 418 3949 245 398 33 156
10 506 33.9 13.07 449 465 397 3920 247 122 398 117
11 507 32.4 13.19 450 463 416 3957 248 399 36 159
12 507 33.5 13.09 450 466 397 3927 248 123 399 118
13b 507 36.8 13.19 450 463 416 3957 248 399 36 159

a
Selected for extensive solution demonstration.
b
Solution from previous study (Xu and Huang, 2004).

505

2 17 sec

205 sec

16 sec
3
Time (sec)

45 sec
7

4 21 sec

48 sec 8

16 sec 5

21 sec
6

1 19 sec

0
9 8/10 11 5 4 7 3 6 2 12 13 14 15 16 1/17
Tank index
Job lifting Job releasing Loaded move Free move Waiting time

Fig. 7. Optimal CHS schedule for Solution 8 in Table 3.

both Units 7 and 3. This WRND makes the fresh water consump- production rate of Solution 8 increases by 6%; the electricity usage
tion significantly reduced. Compared with the original solution decreases by 6%; meanwhile, the freshwater consumption
from Xu and Huang (2004) (see Solution 13 in Table 3), the decreases by 20%.
 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214 211

Fig. 9 demonstrates the dynamic feasibility of the four rinse 3 and 5 have the drag-out operation ahead of the drag-in
units under Solution 8, where the shadow area represents the operation, which is the reason why the shadow area positions
rinse mode of a specific unit. It shows that the rinse quality in are different.
each unit satisfies the rinse standard at the time when the To compare the results between using orthogonal collocation
processing job is dragged out. Thus, the rinsing product quality methods and using rigorous simulation, the detailed information
is guaranteed from dynamic operation point of view. The four about four elements and their orthogonal collocation points are
subplots indicate the dynamic responses under different drag-in summarized in Table 4. Note that the starting time of the second
and drag-out time and the contaminant concentrations. Unit
5 has the longest processing time (the shadow area), while
Table 4
Unit 7 has the shortest one. Meanwhile, Units 7 and 11 have Orthogonal collocation on finite elements results for WRND.
the drag-in operation before drag-out during one cycle, and Units
Finite Starting Element Orthogonal collocation points
23.1 L/min
Unit Elements Time Length (mg/L)
W1,a 7 18 .9 L/min
(sec.) (sec.) 1 2 3 4
28.2 L/min
Unit 7 Unit 3
Unit 7 1 175 372 2113.4 2054.7 1877.2 1731.1
2 42 12 1693.6 1763.6 2002.7 2240.4
3 54 109 2309.4 2288.5 2219.8 2154.9
11.2 L/min 4 163 12 2136.9 2134.0 2125.0 2116.0

Unit 3 1 237 247 2377.5 2376.5 2373.3 2370.2

W 11f 34.3 L/min 23.1 L/min 2 484 12 2369.1 2372.0 2381.5 2391.0
Unit 11 Unit 5 3 496 234 2393.9 2392.9 2389.7 2386.5
4 225 12 2385.5 2384.7 2381.5 2378.3

Unit 11 1 257 377 792.5 782.7 752.6 726.7

2 129 12 719.9 731.8 772.2 812.6
Legend : Fresh water 3 141 104 824.2 821.3 811.0 801.0
4 245 12 798.3 797.5 795.4 793.0

Unit 5 1 58 101 1046.9 1043.5 1032.6 1022.3

External reusable Other water 2 159 12 1019.2 1038.7 1105.0 1171.1
waste water streams 3 171 380 1190.4 1172.1 1115.3 1066.5
4 46 12 1053.8 1053.0 1050.3 1047.7
Fig. 8. Optimal water-reuse network design for Solution 8 in Table 3.

2906 2906

Rinse standard
Rinse standard
2113.5 2113.5
Conc. (mg/L)
Conc. (mg/L)

Drag out Drag in

Drag in Drag out

1321 1321

528.5 528.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (sec.) Time (sec.)

2906 2906

2113.5 2113.5
Conc. (mg/L)
Conc. (mg/L)

Rinse standard

Drag out
Drag in Drag out
1321 1321

Rinse standard
Drag in
528.5 528.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (sec.) Time (sec.)

Fig. 9. Rinsing subsystem dynamics for Solution 8 in Table 3.

212 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214

finite element is actually the starting point of drag-in operation, Dtpmin

i , Dtpmax
i lower and upper bounds of the job processing
and the starting time of the fourth finite element is the starting time in unit ui (sec.)
point of drag-out operation. Also note that the dynamic profiles in
Fig. 9 look like piece-wise linear because of its small scale. They Variables
are actually polynomial curves for each of the finite element.
Overall, the case study demonstrated that integrated multi- Cp(t) contaminant concentration of unit p at time t (mg/L)
objective optimization methodology can not only achieve win– C in out
p , Cp inlet/outlet contaminant concentration of the p-th rinse
win situations for both productivity increment and fresh water unit (mg/L)
reduction, but can also guarantee the rinsing product quality. C rq,p contaminant concentration of the reused water flowing
from unit q to unit p (mg/L)
gj,i assistant variable for the linearization of ðt ej þ Dt fj þ þ 1,i þ
5. Concluding remarks
Dt w j Þxj,i
hi assistant variable for the linearization of yiT
The simultaneous consideration of productivity improvement,
J1, J2, J3 objectives for the three models
energy saving, and freshwater/wastewater minimization can offer
t operation time (sec.)
both economic and environmental benefits for electroplating
t dins
p drag-in starting time in the p-th rinse unit (sec.)
industry. This paper couples the three aspects in the design and
t dine
p drag-in ending time in the p-th rinse unit (sec.)
operation for general electroplating processes. A general triple-
t douts
p drag-out starting time in the p-th rinse unit (sec.)
objective MIDO model has been developed. The approximation
t doute
p drag-out ending time in the p-th rinse unit (sec.)
of 3D Pareto frontier of the triple-objective optimization problem
t ei ending time of the i-th loaded move (sec.)
is also obtained through a decomposed solving methodology.
t si starting time of the i-th loaded move
The study provides specific technical supports for the design
T hoist cycle time (sec.)
and operation of electroplating processes with simultaneous
W ak,p flow rate from the k-th external wastewater to the p-th
consideration of productivity maximization, energy saving, and
rinse unit
freshwater minimization.
W fp fresh water flow rate of the p-th rinse unit
Wp total water flow rate at the inlet/outlet of the p-th
Nomenclature rinse unit
W rq, p reused water flow rate from rinse unit q to rinse unit p
Indices Ww p water flow rate from the p-th rinse unit to the waste-
water treatment facility
xi,j binary variable representing the i-th loaded move is just
b¼1, ..., NB index of already identified solutions
ahead of the j-th loaded move in a cycle (xi,j ¼1), or not
i, j¼ 1, ..., N index of the loaded moves
(xi,j ¼ 0).
k¼1, ..., NK index of the external wastewater
yi binary variable representing t si r t ei1 (yi ¼1) or
p, q¼1, .., NR index of the rinse units
t si Zt ei1 (yi ¼0).
m¼1, .., NM index of the jobs in the electroplating unit
zfp , zrq,p , zak,p binary variables that associate with W fp , W rq,p , W ak,p ,
ui ¼ 1, ..., NU index of unit where the i-th loaded move starts
respectively.
Dtw i hoist waiting time after the i-th loaded move (sec.)
Parameters
Dtp job processing time of the p-th rinse unit
Dtpi job processing time in unit ui
A average surface area for an electroplating job (m2) Dtm the electroplating time of the m-th job processed in the
Cui job processing capacity of unit ui electroplating unit
C ak contaminant concentration of the k-th external
wastewater (mg/L)
Cf contaminant concentration of the fresh water (mg/L)
Acknowledgments
C din
p drag-in contaminant concentration of the p-th rinse
unit (mg/L)
C max permitted maximum drag-out concentration (or the This work was supported in part by the Texas Hazardous
p
rinse standard) for the p-th rinse unit (mg/L) Waste Research Center, Research Enhancement Grant and Grad-
Dp drag-in/drag-out flow rate of the p-th rinse unit (L/min) uate Student Scholarship from Lamar University.
E electricity consumption for electroplating unit (kWh)
gL, gU lower and upper bounds of gi,j
ia current density during the electroplating operation (A/m2) Appendix A
I current intensity for the electroplating operation (A)
L, M the lower and upper bound of W fp , W rq,p , W ak,p (L/min) Following the method from Liu et al. (2011), to convert the
s
t b,i starting time of the i-th loaded move identified in the MIDO model of the WRND problem to an MINLP model, the rinse
b-th iterative solution (sec.) dynamic equation described by Eq. (26) is discretized with the
Tmin, Tmax lower and upper bounds of hoist cycle time (sec.) orthogonal collocation on finite elements method. As the rinse
U operational voltage in the electroplating unit (V) dynamic equation in one cycle is non-smooth differential equa-
Vp volume of the p-th rinse unit (L.) tion, which is determined by the job drag-in and drag-out
W maxk upper bound of the k-th external wastewater flow rate operations, the time horizon is divided into four finite elements,
(L/min) corresponding to the four rinsing steps (idle waiting, drag-in,
d duration time of drag-in or drag-out operations (sec.) rinsing, and drag-out operations). Within each finite element,
Dtfi,j hoist traveling time for the free move from unit vi to three equal-distance collocation points are used, which is illu-
unit uj (sec.) strated in Fig. 10. Eq. (42) through (49) give the illustration of the
Dtli hoist traveling time for the i-th loaded move (sec.) finite element points and the length of each finite element, where
 C. Liu et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 68 (2012) 202–214 213

4 Finite Elements
3 Collocation Points

Job Job
Idle Waiting Rinsing
Drag In Drag Out
Cycle Time

Fig. 10. Orthogonal collocation on finite elements method for rinse dynamics (Liu et al., 2011).

p ¼1, y, NR. be evidenced by the eigenvalues of r2 f ðW in out in

p ,W p ,C p ,C p,m,n Þ
simultaneously possess positive and negative values.
ap,1 ¼ tdoute
p ð42Þ

ap,2 ¼ tdins
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