A Finite Element Simulation of the Electroplating Process

E. S. Masuku', A. R. Mileham', H. Hardisv, A.N. Bramley' (I), C. Joha13 and P. Detassis3

1
Department of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Bath, BA27AY, England
'Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, BA27AY, England
3
Glacier Vandervell Bearings Ltd

Abstract
This paper describes the development, comparison and validation of both 2-D and 3-D models of the
electroplating process in which the current density distribution, generated using the Finite Element Method
(FEM), is used together with Faraday's law of electrolysis to determine the local plating depth. Prior to work
on industrial components, a preliminary investigation was undertaken on the electroplating of a square
copper cathode (work piece) with a parallel lead anode of identical shape. The results described here show
good agreement, particularly in 3-D and are considered to validate the model sufficiently for it to be used for
electroplating tooling design.

Keywords
Electroplating, FEM, modelling

1 INTRODUCTION been involved in modelling the Electrochemical Machining

Electroplating is a process that is used widely in the
automotive, aerospace, electronics and general
engineering industries. In these industries, electroplating
is used for corrosion prevention, aesthetic finishes and to
apply wear coatings to various components. It also has
possibilities in rapid prototyping. This paper reports on
preliminary research that is involved with the plating of
wear surfaces in the automotive industry. Here
electroplating is still largely approached as an art and little
research in this area has been published in the last
decade. What research that has been conducted has
concentrated on the physical process and the underlying
chemical reactions. For example Budman [ I ] looks at the
use of zinc alloys to provide superior corrosion protection
while Snyder [2] reports on methods that improve both the
appearance and performance of nickel chromium finishes.
There has also been interesting work on the plating of
composite coatings such as Ni-Sic [3] and general Ni-
ceramic [4] which are seen as having great potential in
reducing friction in aluminium internal combustion
engines.
Some work has been carried out to improve the process
through process modelling. Hammam [5] produced a
physical model to investigate the wear performance of a
tin plated layer on copper based alloys. Mathematical
modelling has been used to describe the plating of
molybdenum so that hydrogen cracking can be avoided
[6] and for the electrodeposition of zinc-nickel alloys
taking into account plating chemistry and surface
reactions. Lee [7] used CFD to optimise the fountain
plating process in the bump plating of semiconductor
wafers. However no recently published work into the use
of numerical techniques to model the electroplating
deposition process, as used in the automotive industry,
could be found.
The use of modelling to gain insight into manufacturing
processes is not new. It has been the subject of much
research and has resulted in many processes being
significantly improved. The authors of this paper have
(ECM) [8-101, Forging and Welding processes. ECM can
be considered as the reverse of the electroplating process
and is used for example by aero engine manufactures to
machine compressor blades. Although the process is
efficient the tooling development time can be excessively
long and is thus a considerable constraint. In an attempt
to improve the tool design, an automated 2-D Finite
Element (FE) simulation of the ECM process was
successfully conceived and developed.
2 ELECTROPLATING THEORY
When a current is passed through an electrolyte between
an anode electrode and a cathode work surface, the
quantity of material deposited or plated on to the work
surface is given by Faraday's Law: -
Q = A l t
q p 96500
Where Q = Volume of material deposited, mm3
A = Atomic Weight of deposited material
q = Valency of deposited material
p = Density of the deposited material, g/mm3
I = Current, amp
t =Time, s
96500 = Faraday's constant, coulomb/g
At any instant, when the anode and work piece are
separated by a distance y, and the constant voltage
between them is V, the current density J, is given by
Ohm's Law: -
J = N
Y
k = Electrolyte's electrical conductivity, seimens/mm.
Equations (1) and (2) can be combined to yield the rate E
at which the anode material is deposited on to the work:-
E = A J (3)
p 96500
E = C' J (Where C'=Constant) (4)
As the distance between the electrodes is large compared to
the plating thickness, local values of J will remain
reasonably constant throughout the plating process.
However J will not have a single value across a surface, as
predicted by I - D theory, but will exhibit a complicated and
varying current density distribution as described later in the
results. If a current density profile across a surface is
available then it could be used in conjunction with Equation
(4), to simulate variations in plating thickness. Current
density profiles in this research, for both the 2-D and 3-D
cases, have been modelled using proprietary FE software.
3 FINITE ELEMENT ELECTROPLATING MODEL
A numerical model of the plating process has been
developed. It employs the Finite Element Method (FEM)
and to avoid lengthy FE development the commercially
available ANSYS (Thermal) FE analysis package has been
used [ I l l . This meant that its powerful mesh manipulation
tools and graphics facilities were immediately available.
Before beginning a run, a geometric model (2-D or 3-D) of
the electrode configuration is constructed by the user. The
geometry of the model is defined by specifying the co-
ordinates of key-points. Lines connecting the key-points
serve to define areas and volumes. Each principal
component in the model (anode, electrolyte and cathode) is
defined by allocating an appropriate value of electrical
conductivity to all FE elements within the contiguous areas
or volumes making up that component. The actual
geometric construction of the FE model, together with
appropriate material specifications etc, is carried out in the
preprocessor phase of the FE Package using the
Graphical User Interface. The completely defined model is
then passed to the solution phase.
Submission of the file containing the complete definition of
the model to the solution phase of the FE package initiates
the plating test run. For given boundary conditions,
operation of the matrix solver yields the potential and current
density distributions throughout the model. All solution data
is then passed to the post-processor where it becomes
available for access and manipulation. In particular the
current densities in the electrolyte elements at the work
surface (4 are extracted.
The simulated depth of plating (D) at any point on the work
surface for a given time (f) may be calculated using
Equation (5): -
D =C'Jf
A spreadsheet is used for this series of calculations
4 VALIDATION EXPERIMENTS
Prior to modelling the industrial components, a preliminary
investigation was undertaken on the electroplating of a
40mm square copper cathode (work piece) with a 40 mm
square lead anode located directly opposite and parallel
to each other in a relatively large tank of electrolyte. The
results of this preliminary work are presented in this
paper. The objectives were to compare the results from a
3-D FE model of the plated work piece with that of a 2-D
FE model of the plating deposited on the work piece's
central axis and to compare these against real plated
depths using as near identical conditions as possible.
Although the electric field between the electrodes is 3-D in
shape, it was considered essential to establish whether a
simple 2-D model could be used for tool design purposes.
Two set-ups were constructed, one with the electrodes 60
mm apart and the other with the electrodes 100 mm apart.
The plating conditions for both FE and actual experiments
were as follows: -
Anode = 40mm x 40mm Lead Electrode
Cathode = 40mm x 40mm Copper Electrode
Inter Electrode Distance = 60mm and 100mm
Electrolyte Conductivity = 0.017 micro-seimenshnm
Voltage = 2V
Plating Time = 210 s
Plating Constant C' = 0.0946
The actual plating was carried out at 20' C. After plating
the copper workpieces were sectioned through their
centres, mounted, polished and the plating thickness
measured using a microscope at various points across
their surfaces. The results of the FE plating simulations
and the actual plating experiments are given in section 5.
5 COMPARISON OF RESULTS
The first set of results is shown on Figure 1 and are for
the two electrodes set 60mm apart. It compares the
results of the 2-D simulation, the 3-D simulation and the
actual plating depths along the centre line of the work
piece. For the actual plating depth several measurements
were taken at each position and these are represented by
M I , M2, M3 and their average. All three results
demonstrate the same general profile with more plate
being deposited at the edges than at the centre. It can be
seen that throughout the section the simulated 3-D plating
thickness is consistently higher than that for 2-D and gives
a better fit with the actual profile. However although there
is good general agreement of the plating depth in the
central region, in both cases there is an increasing
divergence with the actual as the profile moves towards
the edge.
Using Ohm's Law and assuming a I - D current flow, the
current density ( J ) can be calculated from the physical set
up as 0.000567 A/mm2.
Then using Equation (5)
D = 0.000567 x 0.096 x 210 mm = 0.01 143 mm or
D = 11.43 microns
This calculation, in reality, gives an average I - D depth of
plate across the whole surface. A value that is lower than
either the 2-D or 3-D simulation at the central position on
the work piece.
Figure 1: 2-D and 3-D simulated plating depths (60mm).
 Figure 3: 2-D orthogonal curvilinear squares.

Figure 2: 2-D and 3-D simulated plating depths (100mm).

Figure 2 shows the results for the two electrodes set 100
mm apart and again compares the results of the 2-D
simulation, the 3-D simulation and the actual plating using
the same notation. As 2V has again been used and the
distance between the electrodes increased, the current Figure 4: 3-D orthogonal curvilinear cubes (A = dx.dz).
density acting on the surface has reduced. However all They form a system of curvilinear orthogonal squares as
three results again show the same general profile with shown in Figure 3. Because, by definition, current must flow
more plate being deposited at the edges than at the tangentially along a flow line, a pair of adjacent flow lines
centre. At this distance apart, the simulated 3-D plating forms a 2-D flow duct, through which the current flow
thickness is approximately 16% higher than that for 2-D remains constant. In a 2-D model changes in flow tube cross
(compared with an 8% difference for 60 mm) and again sectional area (A,) are restricted to a single direction (v).
gives a better fit with the actual profile in the central
region. The limitation of a 2-D model, that changes must be
restricted to the X-Y plane only, can be removed by
For this case when assuming a I - D current flow, the changing to a 3-D model. Theory suggests that such a 3-D
current density ( J ) can be calculated from the physical set model should be analysed in terms of orthogonal curvilinear
up as 0.00034 A/mm2. cubes (see Figure 4). Because such a 3-D model allows the
Then using Equation (5) flow tubes to expand in two directions (Y and Z), their cross-
section can be greater, their resistance less, and the flow
D = 0.00034 x 0.096 x 210 mm = 0.00675 mm or through them proportionally greater.
D = 6.75 microns As shown in Table 1, preliminary FE results suggest that for
the centre of the cathode, and for the same voltage
For the set of experimental conditions used, as the difference between anode and cathode, the 3-D current
electrodes move apart, the ability of I - D theory to predict density can exceed the 2-D value by up to 20%, depending
the current density and plating thickness at the centre of on the separation distance between the electrodes. This
the electrode reduces. Table 1 gives a comparison of the bears out the above hypothesis.
plating thickness at the centre of the electrode predicted
by the various modelling strategies used in this paper. Because of their relatively high conductivity, each metal
The expected reduction in thickness predicted using I - D electrode is at an essentially uniform voltage; the anode is
theory is 40%. maintained at high voltage, the cathode at low voltage. In
agreement with the electric field theory briefly outlined
Distance Plating Thickness - microns above, within the electrolyte, surfaces of constant voltage
Apart 3-D 2-D I - D Actual together with current flow lines form an orthogonal set, i.e.
each intersection is at right-angles. The field between the
60 mm 14.0 13.0 11.3 12.5 two electrodes is shown diagrammatically in Figure 5.
100 mm 11.0 9.5 6.8 11.0
% Reduction 21% 27% 40% 12% anode cathode

Table 1: Thickness of plating at centre of electrode

6 DISCUSSION
A 2-D model is essentially a slice of unit thickness through
the real 3-D system. The model represented in the X-Y
plane, is assumed to have unit depth in the Z direction. It is
as if the model could be extended to infinity in both the +Z
and -2 directions without change in its shape. It follows that
for a 2-D model to be representative of the real system it is
necessary that the section of the real system does not F L > Flow line
change in the Z direction. In the X-Y plane of a 2-D model it
can be shown that the potential and current flow lines
intersect at right angles. Figure 5: The electric field between the electrodes.
Results from the FE tests showed that close to the
electrodes the flow lines were virtually normal to the
electrode surfaces and consequenuy in this region flow
tubes have constant cross-sectional area (A,). Away from
the surface of the anode, the flow lines diverge, reach a
point of maximum separation at mid-distance between the
electrodes, and then converge to the cathode. Because of
this 3-dimensional effect, the cross-sectional area of a tube
A, will change along its length, producing a commensurate
length wise variation in current density J (//A,). The voltage
gradient (and therefor the current density J) is greatest at
the electrode surface, and least at mid-distance. These
considerations apply even to the flow tube lying on the axis
of symmetry; consequently current flow through it cannot be
determined from an application of the simple I - D form of
Ohm's Law.
For any arbitrary electrode separation distance L, the
voltage does not fall linearly from anode to cathode.
Because flow tubes have their smallest cross-section near
the surface, the voltage gradients and current densities are
greatest in this region. It should be noted that near the
surface, even if the geometry of a flow tube could be
considered to be a simple I - D cylinder, the voltage
difference across such a cylinder is unknown, being a
function of the 3-D field at a distance from the surface. Thus,
for finite values of L, the surface current density cannot be
determined from a simple I - D calculation. FE results from a
test on the 3-D model, for an electrode spacing of 100 mm,
are shown in Figure 6 below. The voltages are measured
along the axis of the model, and depart from linearity in a
characteristic S-shaped manner. The characteristic shape of
the axial voltage distribution shown in Figure 6 is
independent of the particular value of L selected for the FE
test. It should be pointed out that provided the voltage
gradient can be obtained from such a curve, the current
density can be calculated from Ohm's Law.
Decreasing the separation distance L decreases the overall
resistance of a flow tube and increases the current / passing
through it. At the surface, both current density and voltage
gradient are increased as L is reduced. In the limit when L
approaches zero, the field between the electrodes is so
constrained that over most of the surface (away from the
edges) flow lines are straight and normal to the surface.
Potential surfaces lie parallel to the electrode surface. For
this case, the field between the electrodes is I - D with
voltage falling linearly from anode to cathode. Current
density away from the edges can be determined from the 1-
D form of Ohm's Law. These points were confirmed by a
test with an electrode spacing of 20 mm, which showed the
field between the electrodes to be almost entirely I-D, as
described.
Distance from cathode - rnrn
Figure 6: Voltage and current density distribution between
electrodes (negative indicates behind cathode).
Away from the centre of the electrode, particularly toward
the corners, 2-D modelling accuracy reduces significantly.
Because of the limitations of 2-D models, further research
into industrial components is to be based on 3-D models.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The 3-D nature of the current flow between the electrodes
has been shown to reduce the electrical resistance and
increase the current for the same applied potential in the
3-D electroplating model as compared to I - D and 2-D
models. This results in higher 3-D current density values
across the work surface particularly at the corners and
restricts the 2-D model to use in situations that are
towards 2-D in reality. The 3-D electroplating model that
has been developed shows reasonably good agreement
with the profile of the real plated surface and with the
depth of the plate deposited and will be used, in future
research, to model real industrial electroplating set ups.
8. AC KN0W LEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank EPSRC for their support
in carrying out this research.
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