Cabatuan National Comprehensive High School

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

english for academic and professional purposes
First Semester, S.Y. 2023-2024

NATURE OF ACADEMIC TEXTS

Academic texts are typically formal. They include information from credible sources which are, in turn, properly cited.
They also include a list of references used in developing the academic paper.
Academic texts include concepts and theories that are related to the speci�ic discipline they explore. They usually exhibit
all the properties of a well-written text (i.e., organization, unity, coherence, and cohesion, as well as strict adherence to rules of
language use and mechanics.)

 DIFFERENCE OF ACADEMIC AND NON-ACADEMIC TEXTS

Difference in… Academic Texts
Written for and used by college
Author
instructors and students
Use preciseness and formal words;
Use impersonal and objective type
Language used
when writing
Author’s name will be present;
References and Authors
There is a list of references.
Long period of time to be done;
Span of Time and Purposes For learning purposes only
Non-Academic Texts
Can be written by anyone
Use informal and casual words;
Can be personal, emotional,
impressionistic, subjective in
nature
Author may not be provided;
No reference list
Quickly to be published;
Written for mass public and for
entertainment

 EXAMPLES OF ACADEMIC TEXTS

1. Articles - Published in scholarly journals, this type of text offers results of research and development that can either
impact the academic community or provide relevance to nation-building.
2. Conference Papers - These are papers presented in scholastic conferences and may be revised as articles for possible
publication in scholarly journals.
3. Reviews - These provide evaluation or reviews of works published in scholarly journals.
4. Theses/Dissertations - These are personal researches written by a candidate for a college or university degree.

 ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
Academic language is the language needed by students to do the work in schools. It includes, for example, discipline-
speci�ic vocabulary, grammar and punctuation, and applications of rhetorical conventions and devices that are typical for a
content area (e.g., essays, lab reports, discussions of a controversial issue.)
 ASPECTS OF PROFESSIONAL AND ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
1. Formality 2. Objectiveness 3. Explicitness 4. Caution

1. FORMALITY re�lects your digni�ied stance in writing as a member of the academic community. This means that since
your audience are fellow members of the academic community, the language you use requires precision to make it a
“legitimate” piece of academic writing.

Formality can be achieved through the following ways:

a. Choosing expanded modal forms over contracted forms

It is recommended to use expanded terms, not contractions. Contractions are mostly used to simplify common
modal-negation and pronoun-verb combinations. Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs). It is
generally considered too informal for academic writing. In this context, always write out the full words instead such as
using cannot instead of can’t, do not instead of don’t.
Generally speaking, avoid contractions in formal writing, such as business letters, essays, technical papers, and
research papers or in any professional writing that is meant for an audience of your peers. Contractions lessen the
impact of your words and may lead to your ideas/research not being taken seriously.

b. Choosing one verb form over two-word verbs

Choose one verb form over two-word verbs such as damage instead of mess up.

c. Choosing expanded terms over their abbreviated equivalents

Choose expanded terms over their abbreviated equivalents such as as soon as possible instead of ASAP.

d. Avoiding colloquial/trite/idiomatic expressions

Colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases, or even slang in a piece of writing. Also avoid
conversational language such as cliches and idioms. Example, a colloquial phrase easier said than done should be
changed to formal alternative word “more dif�icult to practice.”
 Trite is a word that is overused and consequently of little import, lacking originality or freshness. It is
considered boring, not fresh, or original. It is also lacking in effectiveness because of constant use or excessive repetition.
Examples of colloquial and trite phrases:
 kind of like, crystal clear, as a matter of fact, in this day and age, believe it or not, better late than never

2. OBJECTIVITY
Academic writing requires special knowledge and use of more complex language and objectivity. This means that the
writing must be impersonal and maintains a certain level of social distance.
Objectivity can be achieved through the following ways:
a. Avoiding the use of personal pronouns such as you, I, and we.
A personal pronoun is a short word we use as a simple substitute for the proper name of a person. Each of the
English personal pronouns shows us the grammatical person, gender, number, and case of the noun it replaces. I, you,
he, she, it, we they, me, him, her, us, and them are all personal pronouns.
Poor Example: You need to conduct the experiment.
Improved Example: The researchers need to conduct the experiment.

b. Avoiding rhetorical questions as it marks “closeness” with the reader, and constantly seeks his/her
attention.
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected. Such questions are inappropriate for
academic writing. Make your point clear and up front.
Poor Example: How can these problems be solved?
Improved Example: Certain measures must be discovered to solve the problems.

c. Avoiding emotive language that shows biases and lessens objectivity.

Emotive language is a word or phrase meant to evoke an emotional response to a subject. This kind of language
often aims to persuade the reader to share the writer’s point of view, using language chosen speci�ically to stimulate an
emotional reaction.
For example, the word 'hot,' which, like 'cool,' lexically denotes a level of thermal energy. However, this same
term can take on a wide variety of connotations - from measures of attractiveness to identifying something as stolen,
popular, or even pushed to its limit. Also, hearing words like “savagery” or “tyranny” are likely to pull us in because we
react to them so quickly due to their emotional baggage, as well as the fact that we don't hear them that often in common
conversation.
Poor Example: The investigators were very shocked to see the outcome of the tests.
Improved Example: The investigators did not expect the results.

3. EXPLICITNESS
Academic writing demands the use of signposts that make authors’ message explicit and allow readers to trace the
relationships in the parts of a study.
 However  This resulted in  In addition
 This is due to the  Similarly  For example

a. If you intend to show a change in your line of argument, make it clear by using However.
It is apparent that the government hopes to provide assistance to the poor. However, giving dole outs to
the “poorest of the poor” does not work in the long term.

b. By using This is due to the, the cause-and-effect relationship of ideas become explicit.
A number of MERALCO consumers trooped to the City Hall to claim a PhP 500 cash incentive. This is due
to the Supreme Court ruling that overcharges must be returned to the end users whose electric consumption
for the April-May period was below 100 kw/hr.

c. The cause-and-effect relationship of ideas also become explicit when using This resulted in.
With the Supreme Court ordering MERALCO to return overcharges to the end users, government of�ices
have been tapped to operate as claim centers. This resulted in a number of MERALCO consumers trooping to
the City Hall to claim the PhP 500 cash incentive.

d. When two ideas seem the same, express each one clearly and connect them using Similarly.
The study showed that eighty percent of the 200 participants involved in the study were dissatis�ied with
the operations of MERALCO. Similarly, the data revealed that majority of the participants were not aware of
the charges imposed on them by MERALCO.

e. If you intend to give extra information in your sentence, make it clear by writing In addition.
MERALCO has been operating as a business conglomerate involving foreign stakeholders and independent
power producers or IPP. In addition, MERALCO owns major IPPs operating in the region.

f. If you are giving examples, do so explicitly by writing For example.

The MERALCO issue has led to disputes between opposition and administration senators. For example,
those who have been labeled as against the president considered the issue as the administration’s way of
avoiding the NBN-ZTE scandal.
4. CAUTION
An important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called “hedging”
or “vague language.” Academic writing requires care since knowledge is built from proven theories and
concepts. Therefore, caution is needed to avoid sweeping generalization.
In academic writing, caution needs to be observed in the following parts of your paper:
 When a hypothesis needs to be tested
 Drawing conclusions or predictions from your �indings that may generalize certain matters or may not
be conclusive
 Referencing other’s work to build your own paper

Consider the following example:

Government of�icials are corrupt.
The statement is not completely true and the rhetorical impact of the statement may be misleading.
The statement can be improved through the use of devices such as modal verbs, adverbs, or verbs.
Improved versions:
(modal verb)- Some government of�icials may be corrupt.
(adverb) - Corruption is commonly linked to some key government of�icials.
(verb) - A number of government of�icials tend to be linked with cases of corruption.

Since academic writing draws on previous writings done related to your topic (in the case of research
writing), it is important that creating knowledge is expressed through means that do not lead to sweeping
generalizations that may directly attack other writer’s point of view.
If your results show something different from another author’s ideas, there are possible ways in writing
these points:

1. The results contradict Meyer’s �indings.

2. The results appear to be different from Meyer’s �indings.

While both sentences essentially mean the same thing, sentence 1 expresses an explicit difference
between your �indings and of Meyer’s.
On the other hand, sentence 2 shows that you are distancing yourself from your work (basing
conclusions on what is observed) and comparing it to previous works done by other researchers relating your
contributions to other ideas in the discipline.

Below are some forms that you may use in observing caution in writing.
a. Hedging Verbs
 tend, suggest, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, indicate, seem, look like
Example:
The �indings of the survey suggest that students who use social networking in their academic work
tend to be more updated on recent developments in their respective subjects.

b. Modal Verbs
 will, would, must, may, might, can, could
Example:
The observations of students’ use of social networking sites may lead to the different behaviors that
manifest in real-life communication.

c. Adverbs of Frequency
 usually, generally, often, frequently, sometimes, rarely
Example:
The essays that were given scores were usually high.

TEXT STRUCTURE

Text structure refers to how a piece of text is built. Writers use different structures to build their
ideas. Each text structure communicates ideas in a different way. To easily understand an academic text, you
need to know the signal words or transitional words that could help you to identify the information you
needed.
A transition is a change from one idea to another in writing or speaking and can be achieved using
transition terms or phrases. These are often placed at the beginning of sentences, independent clauses, and
paragraphs and thus establish a speci�ic relationship between ideas or groups of ideas.

COMMON TEXT STRUCTURES AND TRANSITION WORDS

Text Structures
1. Sequence 2. Compare and Contrast 3. Cause and Effect 4. Description 5. Problem and Solution
1. SEQUENCE- Authors use chronological order to explain how things happen in order. Chronological order is
also called sequence or time order.
Transition words include �irst, next, later, then, and �inally as well as dates and time. You will often see
chronological order in directions.

For example:
Have you ever made macaroni and cheese? It’s simple! First, boil some water and make some macaroni.
Then, make your cheese sauce. After the cheese sauce is ready, mix it with the macaroni. Bake the entire thing
in the oven. Finally, it’s time to eat!

Information
Have you ever made macaroni and cheese? It’s simple!
First, boil some water and make some macaroni.
Then, make your cheese sauce.
After the cheese sauce is ready, mix it with the macaroni. Bake the entire thing in the oven.
Finally, it’s time to eat!

2. COMPARE AND CONTRAST- This text structure shows how two or more ideas or items are similar or
different. The text may use a clustered approach, with details about one topic followed by details about the
other or alternating approach, with the author going back betweenthe two topics.
Transition words may include like, similar, unlike, on the other hand, also, and too.

For example:
The cardinal and the cedar waxwing are two common birds. Both have crests on their heads. Both are
common at birdfeeders. But the birds have some differences. The male cardinal is bright red while the waxwing
is brown. The cedar waxwing often migrates from place to place. On the other hand, the cardinal stays in one
place year after year.

Information:
The cardinal and the cedar waxwing are two common birds.
Both have crests on their heads.
Both are common at birdfeeders.
But the birds have some differences. The male cardinal is bright red while the waxwing is brown. The
cedar waxwing often migrates from place to place.
On the other hand, the cardinal stays in one place year after year.
Comparison: Both have crests on their heads. Both are common at birdfeeders.
Contrast: The male cardinal is bright red while the waxwing is brown. The cedar waxwing often migrates
from place to place. On the other hand, the cardinal stays in one place year after year.

3. CAUSE AND EFFECT- This text structure shows how one or more causes led to one or more effects. This
structure also has a strong time component since causes come before effects.
Transition words such as cause, effect, as a result, consequently, and because are used.

For example:
The night’s snowstorm had many effects. People were out shoveling snow from their sidewalks. The
power lines were draped with ice. Snowplows drove down every street. Children were the happiest of all. The
unexpected snow caused classes to be cancelled!
Information:
The night’s snowstorm had many effects. People were out shoveling snow from their sidewalks.
The power lines were draped with ice. Snowplows drove down every street. Children were the
happiest of all. The unexpected snow caused classes to be cancelled!
Cause: The night’s snowstorm had many effects.
Effect: The unexpected snow caused classes to be cancelled!

4. DESCRIPTION- This text structure shows what an item or place is like. Some texts will categorize typical
main idea and detail paragraphs as description. Some texts will also refer to these paragraphs asstatement and
support.
Transition words include spatial words, such as next to, on top of, beside, and so forth.

For example:
The pond was a beautiful place to visit. The falling leaves, all different colors, decorated the surface of
the water. At the edges of the pond, small wildflowers grew. The golden forest glowed faintly in the distance.

Information:
The pond was a beautiful place to visit. The falling leaves, all different colors, decorated the surface
of the water. At the edges of the pond, small wild�lowers grew. The golden forest glowed faintly in
the distance.

Main Idea: The pond was a beautiful place to visit.

Supporting Ideas: The falling leaves, all different colors, decorated the surface of the water. At the edges of
 the pond, small wildflowers grew. The golden forest glowed faintly in the distance.

5. PROBLEM AND SOLUTION- This text structure explains a problem and shows one or more solutions.
Transition words may include problem, solution, solve, effect, hopeful, and so forth.

Example:
The Chesapeake Bay faces an uncertain future. Issues such as pesticides, too many nutrients, and
habitat loss all threaten the Bay’s water quality and animal life. However, scientists are hopeful that the future
may be brighter. If everyone in the Chesapeake Bay watershed works together, solutions may be found.

Information:
The Chesapeake Bay faces an uncertain future. Issues such as pesticides, too many
nutrients, and habitat loss all threaten the Bay’s water quality and animal life. However,
scientists are hopeful that the future may be brighter. If everyone in the Chesapeake Bay watershed
works together, solutions may be found.
Problem: Issues such as pesticides, too many nutrients, and habitat loss all threaten the Bay’s water quality
and animal life.
Solution: If everyone in the Chesapeake Bay watershed works together, solutions may be found.

THESIS STATEMENT
A thesis statement…

 is the overall idea or argument of your work.

 is also known as the main idea that presents or describes the point of a text.
 is a general statement that presents essential parts that leads the reader to the right direction.
 should be focused and succinct, meaning it provides supporting points that strengthen the main claim.
 must be framed as a declarative sentence and should use direct, speci�ic language.
 makes all parts of your work stick together.
 refers to one or two sentences in the introduction of a text that the writer uses to “set the stage” for the
reader.
 provides the focus for the writing that follows and lets the reader know what the essay or text is about.
 is what the writers use to focus their ideas and express the main point of their writing.
 In your academic writing, you are often expected to provide a thesis statement in the paper,
presentation, online post or other composition assignment. It is usually presented in the abstract or
executive summary or found at the last part of the introduction.
 In many writing contexts, especially instructive, academic, and professional contexts, a thesis or thesis
statement is very important and helpful to guide the written message. Thus, a good quality thesis
statement is crucial for good quality writing because intentional composition should equal clear and
focused communication.
 Your wise thesis statement is a directional signpost. It provides clarity, focus, and direction to the
writing for the reader. The more focused, clearer, and pointed the writing is, the better the reader will
understand exactly what you desire to say.
 Ideally, the thesis statement should have at least three ideas that will be developed in succeeding
sections of the work.
Example: Effective dissemination of information and ef�icient resource management are
indicators of effective local governance.

A thesis statement isn’t… A thesis statement…

 a title  expresses a clear opinion about a limited topic
 an announcement of the subject  discusses one major idea
 a fact  discusses the major idea
 contains topic sentences

Strategies in Locating the Thesis Statement

 Read the title of the text and make inferences on its purpose.
 If the text has no abstract, read the �irst few paragraphs as the thesis statement is usually located there.
 In other cases, you may also check the conclusion where authors sum up and review their main points.

A topic sentence…

 presents or describes the point of the paragraph (main idea of the paragraph).
 can be located in the beginning, middle, or last part of a paragraph. The other sentences in the
paragraph are called details. Details describe or explain the main idea.
THESIS STATEMENT VS. TOPIC SENTENCE

Thesis Statement Topic Sentence

The thesis statement is the main idea of an essay or a
text.
The thesis statement contains at least three
supporting points which are developed in succeeding
paragraphs.
A thesis statement is usually a declarative sentence
that presents essential parts supporting the main
point.
The topic sentence serves as the main idea of a
paragraph.
The topic sentence usually has just one supporting
point.
The topic sentence can either be declarative or
interrogative depending on the author’s writing style.

Thesis Statement in a Research Abstract

Previous studies revealed that meaning-focused instruction (MFI) and form-focused instruction (FFI) are
two of the most effective approaches in developing the overall language skills of second language learners,
separately. However, no experimental studies have been conducted to prove their effectiveness when integrated.
This study, therefore, aims to fill in this gap by investigating the effects of combining MFI and FFI in developing the
speaking, writing, and grammar skills of selected secondary ESL students in public high schools in the Philippines.
The participants involved in this study are 480 third year high school students. These students were divided into
four groups: Group A (n=120) received both the MFI and FFI, Group B (n=120) received MFI only, Group C (n=120)
received FFI only, and Group D (n=120) received the standard English program for secondary ESL students. Findings
revealed that students from Group A, B, and C significantly improved in their speaking, writing, and grammar skills
but not Group D. Based on ANOVA, findings further showed that students from Group A have outperformed
students from Group B, C, D. From these findings, it is concluded that combining MFI and FFI is an effective way in
significantly improving the language skills of students. Future directions and implications for teaching are also
discussed.

SUMMARIZING

What is Summarizing?
A SUMMARY is a short retelling of information using your own words. Consequently, summarizing is a
brief restatement of a text’s main points.
Learning how to summarize improves your memory for what you read because it allows the
information to stay in the mind longer. Summaries are signi�icantly shorter than the original and take a broad
overview of the source material. Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source.
Summarizing is generally done after reading. However, it can be done as well while reading a text.

What is Not Summarizing?

You are NOT summarizing when you…
• write down everything;
• write down ideas from the text word-for-word;
• write down incoherent and irrelevant ideas;
• write down ideas that are not stated in the text;
• write down a summary that has the same length or is longer than the original text;
• add any opinion or remarks in the summary.

Tips in Summarizing
1. Read the text very carefully until you are familiar with it.
2. Find key ideas. Ask yourself these questions:
What is the Main Idea/Thesis Statement/Topic Sentence?
What are the crucial details necessary for supporting the ideas?
3. Use your own words to write the summary by putting together the main idea and necessary details.
4. Summarize in chronological order.

Reference Citation- a summarizing technique using two methods:

1. Author Citation in the body of the sentence
Example: Cojuanco (2016) reported that the Philippines has a population of 103.3 million
composed of senior citizens, mid-life adults, children, and the youth as the biggest fraction.
2. Author Citation in parentheses
Example: The Philippines has a population of 103.3 million composed of senior citizens, mid-life
adults, children, and the youth as the biggest fraction (Cojuanco, 2016).

Reference Citation Formats

1. Idea Heading Format
2. Author Heading Format
3. Date Heading Format
 1. Idea Heading Format
In this format, the summarized idea comes BEFORE the citation.
Example: Schools are places for children to learn about life, themselves, other people, as well as academic
information (Leyden, 1985).
2. Author Heading Format
In this format, the summarized idea comes AFTER the citation. The author’s name is connected by
an appropriate reporting verb.
Example: Leyden (1985) stated that schools are places for children to learn about life, themselves, other people,
as well as academic information.
3. Date Heading Format
In this format, the summarized idea comes AFTER the date when the material was published.
Example: The 1985 qualitative study of Leyden concluded that schools are places for children to learn about
life, themselves, other people, as well as academic information.

Sample Passage

Children spend a very large proportion of their daily lives in school. They go there to learn, not only in
a narrow academic sense, but in the widest possible interpretation of the word- about themselves, about being
a person within a group of others, about the community in which they live, and about the world around them.
Schools provide the setting in which such learning takes place.
Leyden, S. (1985). Helping the child of exceptional ability. London: Croom Helm, p.38.
Sample Summary 1:
Author citation in the body of the sentence:

As Leyden (1985) points out, schools are places for children to learn about life, themselves, other
people, as well as academic information.

Sample Summary 2:
Author citation in parentheses:

Schools are places for children to learn about life, themselves, other people, as well as academic
information (Leyden, 1985).

Comparison and Contrast of Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Quoting

SUMMARIZING PARAPHRASING DIRECT QUOTING

Does not match the source
word for word
Involves putting the main
idea/s into your own words
but including only the main
points
Presents a broad overview, so
is usually much shorter than
the original text
Does not match the source word for Matches the source word for word
word
Involves putting a passage from a Is usually a short part of the text
source into your own words
Changes the words or phrasing of a Cited part appears between
passage, but retains and fully quotation marks
communicates the original meaning

Must be attributed to the Must be attributed to the original Must be attributed to the original
original source source source

WHEN TO USE SUMMARIZING, PARAPHRASING, AND DIRECT QUOTING

Summarize a text that has long
selections
Summarize when you want to:
a. avoid or minimize
direct quotation; or
b. use the main idea of
the text and write it in
your own words.
Paraphrase a short text with one or
two sentences or a paragraph with a
maximum of �ive sentences.
Paraphrase when you want to:
a. simplify a certain text;
b. avoid or minimize direct
quoting; or
c. rewrite the author’s words
by not changing the message
or use your own words to
state the author’s ideas.
Quote a text that conveys powerful
message or will show less impact if
it is paraphrased or summarized
(e.g. Constitution, government
documents, philosophies,
monographs, or other scholarly
materials).
Quote directly when you want to:
a. begin your discussion with
the author’s stand; or
b. highlight the author’s
expertise in your claim,
argument, or discussion.