Understanding Basic

Hydraulics

7PC Training Systems 750 Lake Cook Road Buffalo Grove, Illinois 60089 U.S.A 847/808-4000
Table of Contents

Lesson One Principles of Hydraulics 3

Lesson Two Hydraulic Fluids 17

Lesson Three Strainers and Filters 33

Lesson Four Reservoirs and Accumulators 49

Lesson Five Hydraulic Pumps 65

Lesson Six Piping, Tubing, and Fittings 81

Lesson Seven Directional Control Valves 97

Lesson Eight Pressure Control Valves 113

Lesson Nine Cylinders 129

Lesson Ten Hydraulic Motors 145

© Copyright 1996, 1998 by TPC Training Systems, a division o1 Telemedia, Inc.

All rights reserved, including those of translation.

Printed and videotaped courseware are subject to the copyright laws of the United States. You are not autho
rized to make any copies of this material. If you do, then you are subject to the penalties provided under the
copyright law, which include statutory damages up to $50,000 for each infringement of copyrighted material, and
also recovery of reasonable attorneys' fees. Further, you could be subject to criminal prosecution pursuant to 18
U.S.C. § 2319.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lesson One

Principles of
Hydraulics

cCO:

TPC Training Systems

Lesson

Principles of Hydraulics

TOPICS

Fluid Power and Hydraulics Pascal's Law

Force, Weight, and Mass Transmission of Fluid Power
Pressure Fluid Flow in Pipes
Work, Power, and Energy Bernoulli's Principle
Incompressibility and Nondiffuslon The Effect of Heat on Liquids
Hydrostatic Pressure Hydraulic Power Systems

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain the difference between atmospheric and • Describe the difference between laminar and turbu
gauge pressure. lent flow.
• Demonstrate how power is calculated. • Name the main components of a hydraulic system.
• Explain Pascal's Law.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Force 1.04 a push or pull exerted on an object to Pressure 1.08 the amount of force exerted on an
change its position or direction of movement object divided by the area over which the force is
Weight 1.05 a downward force that results from exerted
the gravitational pull on an object Work 1.11 the result of a body being moved
Mass 1.06 the amount of matter in an object through a distance by a force
Specific gravity 1.07 a measure of the density of a Power 1.13 the amount of work done in a given
liquid amount of time

This maleria] is proleclM by U. S. Copyrighl law. Copying by any opleal, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
This Unit covers the general operating characteristics and principles of
hydraulic systems and hydraulic system components, included in this Unit are
construction features of the different components and accessories used with
hydraulic systems. Knowledge of how the equipment is constructed, and how it
works, is extremely important to you as a maintenance craftsman.

This Lesson describes the basic operating principles of a hydraulic system,

including fluid flow, power determination, hydraulic transfer, and
pressure/movement characteristics. Understanding fluid flow and pressure will
help you understand some of the problems that arise in a hydraulic system and
enable you to take corrective steps.

Fluid Power and Hydraulics
1.01 Modern industrial equipment makes use of
many fluid power systems. Fluid power systems per
form work by transmitting force through a fluid. The
fluid can be either a liquid, such as oil or water, or a
gas such as compressed air, nitrogen, or carbon diox
ide. A fluid power system that uses gas as the transmit
ting fluid is called a pneumatic system. A system that
uses liquid as the transmitting fluid is called a
hydraulic system. The word "hydraulic" is derived
from the Greek words "hydro" (meaning water) and
"aulis" (meaning pipe). Originally, the term hydraulic
referred only to the flow of water in pipes. Today it is
taken to mean the flow of any liquid in a system.
1.02 Some common examples of hydraulic systems
include automobile braking and power steering systems,
hydraulic elevators,and hydraulic lifts in gasoline stations.
Hydraulic systems also are used on dump trucks, road
graders,and eaith-moving and excavating equipment.
1.03 There also are many uses for hydraulic sys
tems in industrial plants. Hydraulic power is particular
ly suitable for operating jacks,lifts, hoists, presses,riv
eting machines,torque converters, tool-feeding mecha
nisms, and test equipment. As these examples show,
hydraulic systems vary widely. However,they all oper
ate using the same basic principles. Before proceeding
with the components and operation of hydraulic sys
tems, this Lesson will review some laws of force and
motion, and explain how they are utilized in conjunc
tion with hydraulic principles.
stop moving, change speed, or change direction. In a
hydraulic system,force must be present at all times in
order for the system to function. As shown in Fig. 1-
1, a pump exerts a force on a stream of hydraulic
fluid. This force must be sufficient both to overcome
the fluid's resistance to flow and to do the work of the
system. The more work the system must do,the more
force is required. Force is measured in pounds (lb) in
the English system, and in newtons(N) in the metric
system.
1.05 An object has weight as a result of the gravita
tional pull exerted on it. Weight is always a downward
force. In a hydraulic system,the fluid in the reservoir,
in the lines, or in any of the components has weight.
This is true whether the fluid is standing still or in
motion.
1.06 All objects or substances also have mass.
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an
object and its resistance to change in motion. The
mass of an object determines its weight on the earth.
Fig. 1-1. Force in a hydraulic system

Force, Weight, and Mass

1.04 A force is a push or a pull that is exerted on

an object. Force can cause an object to start moving.
Thi»male«.Bprottc«ltvU.S.Cowrigmbw. Cowingb,an,opUenl o.««he,
6 Lesson One
Fig. 1-2. Determining pressure
100(b
= 12.5 psi
Force
1001b
or in any other gravitational field.(On the earth's sur
face, a 1-lb mass weighs one pound on a spring scale.
But on the moon's surface, because of the weaker pull
of gravity, a 1-lb mass would weigh only about 2.5
oz.) The mass of an object also determines how much
force is required to cause a change in its motion.
Mass is measured in pounds (lb) in the English sys
tem,and in kilograms(kg)in the metric system.
1.07 The density (mass per unit of volume) of a
liquid is described in terms of specific gravity. The
specific gravity of any liquid is its weight compared
to the weight of an equal volume of water at the same
temperature. The specific gravity of water is 1.0.
Petroleum oil has a specific gravity of 0.78 at 120"?
(49 C). Certain hydraulic fluids have a specific gravi
ty of a fluid usually is not functionally important, it
can be used to help determine the type of hydraulic
fluid that is present in a system.
Pressure
1.08 Pressure is the amount of force exerted on an
object or a substance divided by the area over which
the force is exerted. Pressure is measured and speci
fied in pounds per square inch (psi) in the English
system, and in newtons per square meter (N/m2) in
the metric system. As shown in Fig. 1-2, if a 100-lb
force is applied to an area of 8 in^, the resulting pres
sure is 12,5 psi. Force is calculated by multiplying the
pressure times the area,
1.09 When working with hydraulic systems, you
must be concerned with two kinds of pressure—
atmospheric and hydraulic. Atmospheric pressure (at
Th«m«o«doprotoe.odbyU.S.CopjrriB«bw, Copying by «ny opted, eleetnirte. or o«ho,moan,
14.7 psi) is at work at all times on fluid reservoirs
that are vented to the atmosphere. Hydraulic pressure
is created by the pump and acts on all internal pas
sages on the discharge side. On the intake side a
"negative" pressure exists. This is referred to as a
partial vacuum^ and is expressed in inches of mercury
below atmospheric pressure.
1.10 The pressure gauges used in hydraulic sys
tems measure only pressure that is higher than the
atmospheric pressure that surrounds them. Therefore,
an unconnected pressure gauge has a reading of 0
psig (zero pounds per square inch gauge). A reading
of 100 on a hydraulic pressure gauge indicates a fluid
pressure of 100 psig. To obtain total pressure, atmos
pheric pressure (14.7 psi) is added to the gauge pres
sure. The total pressure is 114.7 psia (pounds per
square inch absolute). In hydraulics, the distinction
between psig and psia is usually unimportant, so the
term psi is commonly used in place of psig.
Work, Power,and Energy
1.11 Work takes place when a body or object is
moved through a distance by a force. The amount of
work accomplished is expressed in foot-pounds (ft-lb)
or inch-pounds (in.-lb) in the English system, and in
newton-meters(N-m)in the metric system:
force (lb) x distance (ft)= work (ft-lb)
1.12 In a hydraulic system, force is exerted by
fluid pressure acting on the flow area. Work done by a
hydraulic cylinder is calculated as follows. Hydraulic
force is expressed in pounds:
pressure (psi) x piston area(in2)= force Qb)
Therefore, since force in pounds is multiplied by dis
tance in inches, the answer is computed in inch-
pounds, and must be divided by 12 to convert it to
foot-pounds:
force (lb) x piston travel (in.)=
hydraulic work (in.-lb) 12= ft-lb
A comparison between mechanical and hydraulic
work is shown in Fig. 1-3.
1.13 Power is defined as the amount of work (ft-
lb) done in a given amount of time (usually minutes.
 Principlos of Hydraulics 7

Fig. 1-3. Comparison between hydraulic and mechanical work

^ Force X Distance = Work Force X Distance = Work

psi X area ' '

psi
r;:;
Area of piston-

Mechanical work Hydraulic work

sometimes seconds). Thus, power is calculated in • potential energy—produced when the pis
foot-pounds per minute (ft-lb/min): ton has raised an object from one level to a
higher level
power(P)= work (ft-lb)^ time (min or s)
= ft-lb/min or ft-ib/s • heat energy—produced by friction in the
pump motor, pump, piston, and hydraulic
1.14 For the amount of power to be meaningful, it fluid
must be compared with some unit of measure. The
common unit of measure for power is the The Programmed Exercises on the next page will
horsepower, which is expressed as follows: one tell you how well you understand the material you
horsepower (1 hp) = 33,000 ft-lb/min or 550 ft-lb/s. have just read. Before starting the exercises,
In order to determine a pump's horsepower, you must remove the REVEAL KEY from your Trainee's
calculate the horsepower required on the cylinder end. Guide. Read the Instructions printed on the
One kilowatt(1 kW)= 1.341 hp. Reveal Key. Follow these Instructions as you
work through the Programmed Exercises.
1.15 To do work or use power, energy must be
expended. The Law of Conservation of Energy states
that energy cannot be created or destroyed—it can
only be transformed. Energy usually is measured in
kilowatt hours(kWh).

1.16 As you know, not all energy is used to per

form work. A certain amount of energy is expended,
when doing work, to overcome friction. This energy
is not lost, but changed into heat energy.

1.17 The types of energy used in hydraulic sys

tems include the following:
• electrical energy-needed to operate the
pump motor

• hydraulic energy—produced by the pump

• kinetic energy —produced when the

hydraulic fluid moves a piston

This mateiiol is pratected by U.8. Copyrighl bw. Copying by any optical, olsctionie, or ethsr moons is illogal without potmitsion.
8 Programmed Exercises

1 -1. The fluid in a fluid power system can be 1.1. LIQUID, GAS
either a(n) or a(n) .
Ref: 1.01

1 -2. A push or pull applied against an object 1-2. FORCE

to move it is called a(n) .
Ref: 1.04

1 -3. Gravitational force gives an object 1-3. WEIGHT

Ref: 1.05

1 -4. The density of a liquid is expressed in 1-4. SPECIFIC GRAVITY

terms of .
Ref: 1.07

1 -5. The specific gravity of a liquid is deter 1-5. WATER

mined by comparing the weight of the
fluid to the weight of an equal volume Ref: 1.07
of • at the same temperature.

1-6. The amount of work done when an 1-6. FOOT-POUNDS

object is moved through a distance by
a force is expressed in units of Ref: 1.11

1 -7. The amount of work done in a given 1-7. POWER

period of time is called .
Ref: 1.13

1 -8. Name the four types of energy pro 1-8. HYDRAULIC, KINETIC, POTENTIAL,
duced in a hydraulic system. HEAT

Ref: 1.17

This malorial is protocted by U.S. Copyright low. Copying by any optical, slectronic. or other means is illegal without permissian.
 Principles of Hydraulics 9

incompressibility and Nondiffusion Fig. 1-5. Pascal's Law

1.18 One of the problems encountered in a

hydraulic system is that of storing the liquid. Unlike
air, which is readily compressible and is capable of
being stored in large quantities in relatively small
containers, a liquid cannot be compressed. It is not
possible to store a large amount of hydraulic fluid in a
small tank because liquids, for all practical purposes,
are incompressible. Solid block
of wood

1.19 Diffusion can be described as the rapid inter

mingling of molecules of one gas or liquid with
another. This process should not be confused with
evaporation, which is the changing of a liquid to a
gas. Because of its slow evaporation rate at atmos
pheric pres.sure, hydraulic fluid can be placed in an
open container or poured from one container into
another without diffusing. This is nondiffusion. Gases,
however, cannot be placed in open containers,
because they would diffuse rapidly into the surround
ing air. Therefore, gases are always stored in closed
containers.
Hydrostatic Pressure
1.20 Figure 1-4 shows a number of differently
shaped, connected, open containers. Note that the liq
uid level is the same in each container, regardless of
the shape or size of the container. This occurs because
pressure is developed, within a liquid, by the weight
of the liquid above. If the liquid level in any one con
tainer were to be momentarily higher than that in any
of the other containers, the higher pressure at the bot
tom of this container would cause some liquid to flow
into the container having the lower liquid level. Also,
the pressure of the liquid at any level (such as Line A)
is the same in each of the containers. Pressure
increases because of the weight of the liquid. The far
ther down from the surface, the more pressure is cre-
ated. This illustrates that the weight, not the volume,
of liquid contained in a vessel determines the pressure
at the bottom of the vessel.
Pascal's Law
1.21 The previous paragraphs explains what hap
pens to liquid in open containers. Pascal's Law states
that when pressure is exerted on a confined liquid, the
pressure is transmitted equally in all directions
through a liquid, as shown in Fig. 1-5. If the hammer
strikes the solid block of wood, the force is transmit
ted in a straight line. But if the hammer strikes a liq
uid, force is transmitted in all directions. Similarly,
the pressure exerted on the liquid in Fig. 1-6 on the
next page is distributed equally by the liquid through
out the system. Note that the hydraulic pressure in the
tubing and containers is the same in all directions.
Transmission of Fluid Power
1.22 Using a hydraulic fluid to accomplish work
requires the application of all of the principles cov-

Fig. 1-4. Hydrostatic pressure

This material is proioctea ey U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, elcctronii:, or other
10 Lesson One

Fig. 1-6. Transmission of fluid pressure

mitted through the fluid to piston 2. Although ignored
here,remember that some frictional losses are present
in any operating system.

1.24 A similar arrangement of two pistons con

nected by a tube is shown in Fig. 1-8. However, the
pistons are placed in a vertical position and are of dif
ferent sizes. If a force of 100 lb is applied to the 10-
in2 area of piston 1, a hydraulic pressure of 10 psi
(100 lb -T-10 in2) is built up under piston 1,in the con
necting tubing, and under the 50-in2 area of piston 2.
The 10 psi therefore exerts a total force of 500 lb (10
psi X 50 in2) on piston 2. This increase in power is
called hydraulic leverage, and occurs in all similar
applications.

1.25 If the applied force is reversed and the 500 lb

ered so far. As shown in Fig. 1-7A,a force of 10 lb
applied to piston 1 is transmitted through the liquid in
the cylinder to piston 2.Pascal's Law states that pres
sure developed in a confined fluid is equal at every
point. Therefore,the internal fluid pressure developed
by piston 1 acts on piston 2.If the area of each piston
is the same,the force developed on piston 2 is the
same as the force applied by piston 1,discounting
friction losses. This principle is the basis for all
hydraulic power transmission systems.
1.23 The single cylinder in Fig. 1-7A has been
replaced by two separate cylinders in Fig. 1-7B. Both
are of the sdme diameter and are connected by a
hydraulic line. The conditions present in Fig. 1-7B are
not changed,because the hydraulic system has not
been changed.The force applied to piston 1 is trans
in Fig. 1-8 is applied against piston 2, the output
force on piston 1 is reduced to 100 lb. The calcula
tions remain the same:
• 500 lb -r 50 in2 = 10 psi
• 10 psi X 10 in2 = 100 lb
1.26 These examples demonstrate how force can
be increased or decreased in a hydraulic system by
leverage. There is another principle of leverage that
you must remember. That is, for every increase in
force in a two-piston system, there is a corresponding
decrease in movement.If piston 1 in Fig. 1-8 moves 5
in., it displaces 50 cubic inches (in^) of fluid (5 in. x
10 in2 = 50 in3). The 50 in^ of hydraulic fluid are
transmitted through the system to piston 2. The 50 in^

Fig.1-7. Transmission offorce Fig.1-8. Unequal piston areas

Piston 1 Piston 2
10in2(100lb) 50 in2(500 lb)

10 psi 10 psi

This mstcricl is piatodsd by U.S. Copyright law. Copyirtg by ony optical, etectronlc. or othor moans is iliogal without pormission.
 Principles of Hydraulics 11

of fluid fill the SO-in^ area of piston 2, causing it to

Fig. 1-9. Streamline flow
move one inch (50 in^ ^ 50 in^ = 1 in.).

1.27 The arrangement of piston.s shown in Fig. 1-8

provides a ratio of 5 to 1 for any force applied on pis
ton 1. At the .same time the amount of movement of
piston 2 is Vs the movement of piston 1. The speed of
piston 2 is also 'As the speed of piston 1. No matter
what the ratio, if you want to multiply the hydraulic
force of the system, you will reduce the amount and
speed of movement. On the other hand, if the force is
applied to the larger piston, you increase the amount
and speed of movement, but you reduce the force
exerted by the system.

Fluid Flow in Pipes

1.28 Streamline, or laminar, flow is the ideal type Fig. 1-10. Turbulent flow
of fluid flow in a hydraulic power system because all
of the particles of a fluid move in parallel lines, as
shown in Fig. 1-9A. During the flow, the layer of ^

fluid next to the surface of the pipe moves the slowest

because of friction between the fluid and pipe. Each
inner layer of fluid slides along on the next layer of — TV
fluid with less and less friction until the fluid layer
y(
near the center of the flow passage move the fastest. Streamline Turbulent >

Figure 1-9B shows that the velocity of flow near the

center of the pipe is greatest. ¥r
1.29 Turbulent flow conditions usually occur
because the fluid passage is too small for the required
flow velocity or because the viscosity of the hydraulic
fluid is low. Also, rough or irregularly formed fluid
passages, sudden enlargements or reductions in the
diameter of the fluid passages, and sudden changes in Fig. 1-11. A gradual piping constriction
the direction of flow (as pictured in Fig. 1-10) all con
tribute to turbulence and should be avoided.

1.30 Turbulent flow heats up the hydraulic fluid

more than laminar flow does, wastes power by requir
ing more fluid pressure, and tends to wear out
hydraulic equipment more rapidly. In addition, turbu
lent flow can release the air that is suspended in the
hydraulic oil, thus forming large air bubbles or pock
ets in the lines and components. This is called cavita-
tion. Caviiation is undesirable because air bubbles 1.31 When fluid must pass through a passage of
make the hydraulic system sluggish and less respon reduced size, the restriction should be as gradual as
sive. Large air pockets in a hydraulic system also possible, as shown in Fig. 1-11. As the fluid passes
cause wear and can render the system completely through the constriction, the flow increases in
inoperative. velocity.

This mator^i ts protected by U S Copyright ttw. Copytng by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without perm«son.
12 Lesson One

Fig. 1-12. A basic hydraulic system ings to leak because of the lowered oil viscosity. Heat
also causes the oil to deteriorate. Unnecessary heating
of the oil in a hydraulic system must be avoided. If it
I I Low-pressure fluid cannot be avoided, cooling should be provided.
Reservoir
Hf High-pressure fluid
Hydraulic Power Systems
-Check valve

1.35 Now that you have studied some preliminary

Two-positionJ I Pressure line information, lake a look at a typical hydraulic power
valve
system. A hydraulic power system is a closed piping
circuit in which a liquid under controlled pressure is
Return line used to do work. The basic hydraulic system shown in
Fig. 1-12 is composed of the following elements;
Prston rod

• a reservoir to store the hydraulic fluid

Double-acting cylinder

• a pump to provide fluid pressure to the sys-

Bernoulli's Principle • a control valve to direct the flow of fluid

1.32 Hydraulic fluid in a system pos.sesses two • an actuating unit, such as a cylinder
types of energy—kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy
is present when the fluid is in motion. The faster the • a suitable hydraulicfluid
fluid moves, the more kinetic energy is used. Poten
tial energy is a result of the fluid pressure. The total • piping or tubing to circulate the fluid through
energy of the fluid is the sum of the kinetic and poten the system.
tial energy. Bernoulli's principle states that the total
energy of the fluid always remains constant. There 1.36 The basic hydraulic power system often if
fore, when the fluid flow in a system increases, the made more complex by the addition of several other
pressure must decrease. You may note that when fluid components, as shown in Fig. 1-13. These additional
starts to flow through a hydraulic system, the pressure components enable the system to accomplish a
drops slightly. When the flow stops, the pressure rises greater range of work, and they permit the system to
again. The pressure gauges shown in Fig. 1-11 indi function with greater reliability. The following com
cate this balance more clearly. ponents make up an actual hydraulic power system:

The Effect of Heat on Liquids • a reservoir to store the hydraulic fluid

1.33 As you know, liquids expand when they are • a pump to provide fluid pressure to the sys
heated. Hydraulic oil is no different. When placed in a tem
completely closed vessel and heated, it will exert great
pressure on the vessel. Because liquids cannot be com • a filter to remove dust, chips, and other for
pressed, a very small rise in temperature (and expan eign particles from the fluid
sion) can exert enormous pressure on cylinders, accu
mulators, and closed reservoirs. These internal pres • a pressure-regulating valve, which keeps the
sures can also cause much internal system damage. fluid pressure in the main part of the system
at the proper level
1.34 Heat also causes hydraulic oil to thin out.
Sometimes the oil may thin out enough to reduce the • an accumulator, which acts as a cushion and
maximum pressure which the pump in a system can prevents large variations in fluid pressure
develop. In many cases, heat causes seals and pack- from occurring in the system
This material is protected by U. S Copynght law Copying by any opticei. electronic, or other means is illegal withoul permission
 Principles of Hydrauiics 13

Fig.1-13. A basic hydraulic system with accessories

Return line

Air fluid

J Pressure line

1. Reservoir 5. Accumulator 9. Relief valve

2. Pump 6. Check valves 10. Control valve
3. Filter 7. Hand pump 11. Actuating unit
4. Pressure- 8. Pressure gauge (cylinder and rod)
regulating valve

check valves, which permit fluid flow only in • a control valve to change the flow of fluid
the desired directions from one end of the actuator to the other, and
to reverse the motion of the piston
a hand pump for operating the system manu
ally if necessary • an actuating unit, such as a cylinder, which
does some kind of useful work when acted
a pressure gauge, which indicates the amount upon by hydraulic fluid under pressure
of fluid pressure in the system
• a suitable hydraulicfluid.
a relief valve, which prevents the system pres
sure from rising too high if the pressure-regu Most of these components are discussed in detail in
lating valve fails the following Lessons of this Unit.

piping or tubing to circulate the fluid through

the system

This matenal is pratcoed by U. S. Copytiglit low. Copying by any opbeol, electronic,or ether moans is illegal witheta permission.
14 Programmed Exercises

1 -9. The rapid Intermingling of molecules of 1-9. DIFFUSION

one gas or liquid with another is called
Ref:1.19

1 -10. Pascal's Law states that when pressure 1-10. EQUALLY

is exerted on a confined liquid, the pres
sure is transmitted in all Ref: 1.21
directions throughout the liquid.

1-11. Force can be increased or decreased in 1-11. LEVERAGE

a hydraulic system by means of
hydraulic Ref: 1.24-1.26

1 -12. If two pistons have a force ration of 4 to 1-12. 1/4

1, the amount of movement of piston 2
is the movement of oiston 1. Ref; 1.27

1 -13. The ideal fluid flow in a hydraulic power 1-13. LAMINAR

system is called flow.
Ref: 1.28

1-14. Turbulent flow wastes power by gener- 1-14. HEAT

atino excess in the fluid.
Ref: 1.30

1 -15. In a hydraulic power system, fluid flow 1-15. CONTROL VALVE

is directed by a(n)
□Ref: 1.35

1 -16. The component used to maintain sys 1-16. PRESSURE-REGULATING VALVE

tem pressure in a hydraulic system is
the Ref: 1.36

This cnatofial b pretsctod by U. S. Copyrigtit bw. Copying by any opbeal. aloetianie. or othor moans b illegal iwittxiul permbsion.
 Self-Check Quiz 15

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

1-1. Force is measured in units of in the 1-6. The theory that states that pressure in a con
metric system. fined liquid is distributed equally throughout
the fluid is
□ a. kilograms
□ b. pounds □ a. Bernoulli's Principle
□ c. newton-meters □ b. Newton's Law
□ d. newtons □ c. Pascal's Law
□ d. Turing's Theorem
1-2. The mass of an object is
1-7. If the force ratio between two different
□ a. the same as its weight hydraulic pistons is a reducing ratio, the pis
□ b. always a downward force ton velocity
□ c. a measure of the amount of matter in it
□ d. the result of the gravitational pull □ a. increases
exerted on it □ b. decreases
□ c. remains unchanged
1-3. The density of a fluid is expressed in terms of □ d. is squared

□ a. specific gravity 1-8.

□ b. weight be
□ c. psi
□ d. viscosity □ a. laminar
□ b. restricted
1-4. The number of pounds of force applied to an □ c. turbulent
area is measured in □ d. fast

□ a. psia 1 -9. Which of the following does NOT cause tur

□ b. psig bulent flow in hydraulic systems?
□ c. psi
□ d. inches of mercury □ a. High fluid velocity
□ b. Irregular passages
1-5. When calculating the work done by a □ c. Rough pipes
hydraulic cylinder, you must know the □ d. Large-diameter pipes
hydraulic pressure and the piston's
1 -10. Bernoulli's Principle states that the total ener
□ a. rod diameter gy of a hydraulic fluid is
□ b. area and stroke
□ c. stroke and speed □ a. kinetic minus potential energy
□ d. diameter and speed □ b. always constant
□ c. the square of the kinetic energy
□ d. the square of the potential energy

This material is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
16 Lesson One

SUMMARY

Most industrial plants have various types of Force, weight, and pressure work together In a
hydraulic systems. In order to keep the systems hydraulic system to do the work. The amount of
in your plant operating properly and efficiently, work produced in the system depends on the
you must understand the basics of hydraulics-the force exerted, how iong It Is exerted, and the dis
laws of force and motlon-and be familiar with the tance the force moves the piston.
basic hydraulic system components and their
operation. The system operates more efficiently when the
fluid flow is laminar, or smooth. Instead of turbu
The basic hydraulic system Includes a reservoir lent. Turbulent flow wastes power and causes
to hold the fluid, a pump to provide pressure to rapid wear of hydraulic components. Heat Is
the system,and an actuating unit, usually a cylin another problem In hydraulic systems. The oil in
der. The system also Includes the hydraulic fluid the system should be kept cool for best perfor
and the piping or tubing used to circulate the fluid mance. Heat can cause the hydraulic fluid to
through the system. Most hydraulic systems also break down,and components to wear.
include a variety of valves and gauges.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

1-1. d. Newtons. Ref:1.04 1-6. c. Pascal's Law. Ref: 1.21,1.22

1 -2. 0. A measure of the amount of matter in it. 1-7. a. Increases. Ref: 1.27
Ref: 1.06
1-8. a. Laminar. Ref: 1.28
1-3. a. Specific gravity. Ref: 1.07
1-9. d. Large-diameter pipes. Ref: 1.29
1-4. 0. psi. Ref: 1.08
1-10. b. Always constant. Ref: 1.32
1-5. b. Area and stroke. Ref: 1.12

This matarial is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optieal, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HVDRAUUCS

Lesson Two

Hydraulic Fluids

ir.

'y.

cO:

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Hydraulic Fluids

TOPICS

Functions of Hydraulic Fluids Chemical Properties

Physical Properties System Contamination
Viscosity Water
Viscosity Index Dissolved Air
Viscosity and Pressure Foaming
Pour Point Corrosion and Rusting
Fluid Selection Types of Hydraulic Fluids
Component Protection

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• List the most important properties of hydrauilc fluids. • Describe the effect of fluid temperature on viscosity.
• Explain how viscosity is measured. • Name the causes of corrosion and fluid oxidation.
• Explain the meaning of the viscosity index. • identify various types of hydraulic fluids.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Viscosity 2.04 the thickness, or resistance to Film strength 2.19 the property of a fluid that per
flow, of a fluid mits it to maintain a film under heavy load
Viscosity index 2.09 a measure of the extent to Demulsification 2.31 the breakdown of emul
which the viscosity of a fluid changes with sions
changes in temperature Vapor pressure 2.32 the pressure formed when
Pourpoint 2.13 the lowest temperature at which water comes in contact with hot fluid or metal and
a hydraulic fluid will flow starts to boil

This material is prolerted by U S Copyright law Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permisson.
 19

Without fluid, a hydraulic system will not function at all. With the wrong fluid the
system may or may not function, depending on the type of fluid that Is used. If
the system does function with the wrong type of fluid. It Is doubtful whether It
will operate for any length of time, or with any degree of accuracy, or without
problems.

Although you may not have to select the fluid used In a hydraulic system, you
will be responsible for filling the system and maintaining It In the proper working
order after It Is In operation. During routine Inspections It Is your responsibility
to ensure that the fluid stays at a level that Is acceptable to the system. This
Lesson presents Information that will enable you to detect hydraulic fluid prob
lems before they become critical.

Functions of Hydraulic Fluids
2.01 Hydraulic fluids are engineered to work well in
many fluid power applications. In most plants, one
hydraulic fluid can be used in several systems. However,
when operating difficulties occur in industrial hydraulic
systems, the main cause is usually the use of the wrong
fluid—or the right fluid under improper conditions.
2.02 The chief function of hydraulic fluid is to
transmit power effectively from one point in the system
to another. In order to do this, the fluid must flow read
ily and be virtually incompressible. Another function of
hydraulic fluid is to lubricate the contacting surfaces of
the mechanical working parts of the system. Because
components such as vanes, gears, pistons, and valve
spools are manufactured to very close tolerances, the
hydraulic fluid must reduce the friction between con
tacting surfaces of the components. It does this with a
thin film of hydraulic fluid,as shown in Fig.2-1.
Physical Properties
fluid describes its thickness or resistance to flow, and
is a measure of the fluid's internal friction. The vis
cosity must remain within specified limits over the
entire operating temperature range of the system.
2.05 Viscosity also affects a fluid's ability to
lubricate two contacting surfaces. A high-viscosity
fluid prevents metal-to-metal contact between mov
ing surfaces under load better than a low-viscosity
fluid. However, a high-viscosity fluid is not neces
sarily a good lubricant, because it may not flow easi
ly or adhere to the contacting surfaces. Flow require
ments are discussed in greater detail later in this
Lesson.
2.06 There are several ways of specifying fluid
viscosity. The most common is the Saybolt Univer
sal Second, usually abbreviated SUS or SSU. The
SSU of a hydraulic fluid is determined by first heat
ing 60 cubic centimeters of fluid to a uniform tem
perature in a Saybolt viscometer, as shown in Fig.

2.03 The physical properties of a hydraulic fluid

determine how well it transmits power. The chemical Fig.2-1. Lubricating a control valve
properties determine how long the fluid will function
before it must be replaced. You must understand all of Lubricated surface
the properties that affect the performance and service
life of a hydraulic fluid when selecting a fluid. Con
sideration must be given to both the properties of
available hydraulic fluids and to the specifications
and recommendations of the equipment manufacturer.

Viscosity

2.04 The single most important physical property

of a hydraulic fluid is its viscosity. The viscosity of a

This motoriitl Is protoetod by U.S. Copyright low. Copying by any optical, olaetionic, or other moans is illogal without permission.
20 Lesson Two
Fig. 2-2. A Saybolt universal viscometer
Container
Saybolt
flask
2-2. The fluid is then permitted to run out through a
small tube in the bottom of the viscometer. The
length of time (in seconds) that it takes for the fluid
to run out is its viscosity in SSU. For example, fluid
which takes 215 seconds to run out has a viscosity
of 215 SSU. This viscosity is higher than the vis
cosity of a fluid that has a viscosity of 150 SSU
(150 seconds). The higher the number, the higher
the viscosity. The viscosity of hydraulic fluids is
usually measured at both 100 and 210°F (38 and
99''C). Most hydraulic fluids operate at tempera
tures within this range.
Table 2-1. Viscosity grade number
hit malerial is proiocled by U S Copyiight law. Copying by any optiCBl, electronic, or other means is illegal wrihout pormiasion.
2.07 The standard viscosity grades recommended
by the American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM) are given in Table 2-1. They provide fluid
suppliers, fluid users, and equipment manufacturers
with a uniform basis for selecting and specifying
the viscosity of industrial hydraulic fluids. Each
ASTM viscosity grade is numbered according to its
nominal (as close to exact as possible) fluid viscosi
ty at 100°F (SSX). expressed in Saybolt Universal
Seconds (or SSU). The viscosity range of each
ASTM grade extends to plus/minus 10% of the
nominal viscosity
2.08 ASTM grades of 150, 215 and 315 are the
grades most commonly specified by pump and
equipment manufacturers. These grades are readily
available from most hydraulic fluid suppliers.
Grades 150 and 215 are often recommended for
service (ambient or surrounding air) temperatures
below 40°F (5''C) and equipment-operating (or
fluid) temperatures below ISOT (82''C). Grades
215 and 315 are often recommended for service
temperatures above 180°F (82°C). Grades 465, 700
and 1000, although not as common, also are speci
fied to some extent. However, viscosities lower
than 45 SSU or higher than 4000 SSU are rare,
except in special applications.
Viscosity Index
2.09 The viscosity of most hydraulic fluids
decreases approximately 75% when the temperature
rises from 100 to 210^(38 to 99°C), and it increases
approximately 700% when the temperature drops
from 100 to 0°F (38 to 18°C). The viscosity of some
fluids varies more than others, as shown in Fig. 2-3.
Because the rate at which the viscosity of a fluid
changes with variations in temperature is important
in most systems, various means have been devised to
rate it. The term that expresses the extent to which
the viscosity of a fluid changes with changes in tem
perature is called the viscos^ry index (VI).
2.10 The viscosity index of a hydraulic fluid is a
description of another of its physical properties. It
is determined by comparing the change in the vis
cosity of a sample fluid with the change in the vis
cosity of two reference oils at 100 and 210°F. A
fluid with a high VI has a smaller change in viscosi
ty when its temperature changes than a fluid with
low VI.
 Hydraulic Fluids 21

Fig.2-3. Viscosity index chart

50,000 1 1 ; 1
i 1 : 1 i ; 1
1
20,000 I
10.000
1
1
i
1
5000
1
N i 1 ■ 1 1 I 1 1 1

2000
V i tOn^ ^V l\l t : 1
\ w X X ) 1 = 1 1 : ! ' 1 1 ;
1 ■ : : i
1000 !\ j
ix 1 ^^ 1
1 : ;
; 1 1 1
750 V : ■ 1 i ■ j [
500 \ \ ' ' 1 1 i 1 [
1 1 ! !
i
1 1 ' ' 1 : !

i
(0
CO
200
150
XI
1 ! X
\ 1
t j 1 1
!

1 1 1 h- 1 ^ : i 1
120
1 1 ■ ; I
100 .i , i 1 \
1 i ! 1 1 ' ■ 1
; 1 : i
1 ^
! 1 i I XXsX ^ \x I ■ 1
60 i 1 1 1 i
1 1 1 Oil D
50
1 1 1 1 one
1
1

>Sx OilB
40
I
X \ OilF
i 1 ' Meaisurinc nil P
i 1
1 P<3ints ' i Xj
1
35
1 i i 1 1 1 lOtIA
1 1 1 ! 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 ! : 1 !
20^ 50''F 100'F 150°F 200°F 250T SOOT
-7°C 10°C ss^c 66°C ga-c i2rc i4rc
Temperature

2.11 At one time,a VI of0(zero) was assigned to
the reference oil that showed the greatest change in
viscosity, and a VI of 100 was assigned to the refer
ence oil that showed the smallest change in viscosi
ty. But now, as the result of modem refining meth
ods, the use of additives, and the availability of syn
thetic organic compounds, hydraulic fluids are being
produced in Vis as high as 160 and as low as minus
several hundred. While the VI of low-viscosity flu
ids is quite stable, fluids that contain Vl-improvers
usually do not possess stable or permanent viscosi
ty/temperature characteristics. Because of the large
variety of improvers available, it is difficult to rate
their performance. However, it is important that a
hydraulic fluid have as small a change as possible in
its viscosity when its temperature changes.
sure. In general, increased pressure on petroleum oil
fluids has a greater effect on the viscosity at high
pressures than at low pressures. Increased pressure
also affects high-viscosity and napthene fluids more
than low-viscosity and paraffin fluids. An increase in
the VI of an oil also takes place with an increase in
pressure. The effect of pressure on the viscosities of
two oils is shown in Fig. 2-4 on the next page. Both
oils have a nominal viscosity of 300 SSU at lOO'F
and atmospheric pressure. An increase in the pressure
to 10,000 psi results in a four-fold increase in the vis
cosity (from 300 to 1200) of the paraffin-based oil,
and a five-fold increase in the viscosity (from 300 to
1500)of the napthene-based oil.
Pour Point

Viscosity and Pressure 2.13 Another physical property of a hydraulic fluid

is its pour pointy which is the lowest temperature at
2.12 An important characteristic of a hydraulic which it will flow. The pour point should be lower
fluid is its change in viscosity when subjected to pres than the operating temperature of the hydraulic sys-

Thb tnoterial is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
22 Lesson Two

Fig.2-4. Effect of pressure on viscosity

50,000

20,000

10,000

lAtmospherlc
pressure

lOOT 150T 210°F

os-c ee'C
Temperature

tern in which the fluid is to be used. The pour point is
significant only if the system must operate in low
temperatures.
Fluid Selection
2.14 The selection of a hydraulic fluid on the
basis of viscosity is always a compromise.(The
chemical properties usually are caused by additives,
and they have little effect on the fluid. This is dis
cussed later in this Lesson.) When a system starts
up,its temperature equals the temperature of the sur
rounding air. Consequently, its fluid viscosity may
be very high if the system is subjected to low ambi
ent temperatures, or very low if it is subjected to
high ambient temperatures. Low surrounding tem
peratures require a suitable means of heating the
fluid, while high temperatures require a suitable
means of cooling the fluid. As the system warms up,
the fluid viscosity decreases (it becomes thinner). If
the same fluid were used in both summer and winter.
the viscosities of the fluid would become extremely
low as the temperature increased. That is why it is
common practice to use low-viscosity fluids during
the winter, or when operating temperatures are com
paratively low,and to use high-viscosity fluids in the
summer or when running temperatures are higher.
Changing the fluid periodically in this manner is
probably more economical than either providing
complicated heating and cooling methods or using
expensive fluids that have a higher viscosity index.
If the hydraulic system is inside a plant, temperature
change is seldom a problem.
2.15 Usually, a complete adaptability of the fluid
viscosity to the system is not required. Fluids nor
mally heat up as they move through a hydraulic sys
tem. As long as fluids are selected for the operating
temperatures at which they are efficient, they will
be satisfactory for operating during start-up. Com
ponent manufacturers design each piece of equip
ment to perform well over a reasonable range of

This matofial is protscted by U. S. Copyright low. CopyingbyBnyoptical,<rtactnmie, or ether moons is iSsgol without psrmissioa
 Hydraulic Fluids 23

operating conditions. For this reason, pumps, which • increased fluid temperatures and shortened
are probably more critical than other components, fluid service life.
are designed to perform efficiently at the fluid tem
peratures and viscosities that usually exist in the 2.17 When the viscosity of a fluid is too high, it
hydraulic reservoir. Valves and actuators then can also affects the operating efficiency of the system.
be adapted to function better under the somewhat Many of the effects of high fluid viscosity are similar
different conditions (higher temperatures and lower to those of low viscosity. Some of them are:
fluid viscosities) that exist within the system. Even
though the components can accept some variations • increased pressure drop in each component
in fluid viscosity, you cannot fill a system with a because of greater flow resistance, and
hydraulic fluid that is not the recommended type increased total system pressure drop
and expect it to work.
• increased drag in the system and poorer sys
2.16 As the viscosity of the fluid changes during tem response
system operation, it affects the hydraulic system in
general. When the viscosity of a fluid is too low, it • sluggish system operation, especially at low
usually decreases the overall efficiency of a operating temperatures
hydraulic system in one or more of the following
ways: • decreased system efficiency (more energy
used for less output)
• increased leakage within valves and actua
tors, resulting in less accurate control and • greater vacuum at the pump intake, causing
some power losses cavitation and reducing pump efficiency

• external leakage developing at gaskets, increased energy consumption due to increase

mechanical connections,and seals in flow resistance throughout the system and
reduced pump efficiency
• increased pump slippage, resulting in loss of
pressure and lower volumetric efficiency higher fluid temperatures and shortened ser
vice life
• increased wear on moving parts, especially
control valves and actuators higher system noise level.

This material is pratoctod by U. S.CopyrigM law. Copying by any optical, electionic. or other means is inegaJ withotS permission.
24 Programmed Exercises

2-1. The main function of a hydraulic fluid is 2-1. TRANSMIT POWER

to through the system.
Ref: 2.02

2-2. Another function of hydraulic fluid Is to 2-2. FRICTION

reduce the between two con
tacting machine surfaces. Ref: 2.02

2-3. A low-viscosity hydraulic fluid flows 2-3. FASTER

than a hloh-viscosity fluid.
Ref: 2.06

2-4. The change In fluid viscosity caused by 2-4. VISCOSITY INDEX (VI)
a change In temperature is referred to
as the fluid's Ref: 2.09

2-5. The viscosity Index of a fluid Is found 2-5. REFERENCE SAMPLES

by comparing a test sample to two
Ref: 2.10

2-6. The lowest temperature at which a fluid 2-6. POUR POINT

will flow Is known as the fluid's
Ref: 2.13

2-7. An economical method of compensat 2-7. CHANGE THE FLUID

ing for high and low service tempera
tures Is to periodically. Ref: 2.14

2-8. Although hydraulic components toler 2-8. RECOMMENDED

ate some variance In fluid viscosity, the
system should be filled only with the Ref: 2.15
fluid.

This material is protected l>y U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optiesl. eloetronic, or other moans is illegal without permission.

Component Protection
2.18 The rubbing surfaces of bearings, vanes, valve
spools, pistons, and cylinders must move freely while
operating under high pressure. Although these preci
sion-made components are manufactured to very close
dimensional tolerances and then assembled to very
clo.se fits, they .still have some surface irregularities,
like those shown magnified in Fig. 2-5A. If they are to
function efficiently, they must be protected from wear
by the hydraulic fluid. Without hydraulic fluid, the two
contacting surfaces would be subject to a great deal of
surface friction and wear out. Also, if the two moving
parts were to experience too much metal-lo-metal con
tact. they could generate so much heat that they would
weld or fuse together.
2.19 Hydraulic fluids protect the rubbing surfaces
in a hydraulic system from excessive wear by provid
ing a lubricating film between the surfaces. This film
should be durable and thick enough to prevent metal-
to-metal contact between the surfaces, both when they
are moving and standing still. Also, the film must be
present under light or heavy loads. Fluids must have
the right viscosity to be able to penetrate into the small
clearance between the closely fitted parts and remain
there, as shown in Fig. 2-5B. The property of a fluid
that permits it to maintain a film under heavy load is
called ilsfihn strength. The more this lubricating film
succeeds in preventing metal-to-metal contact between
rubbing surfaces, the more wear-resistant the surfaces
2.20 Hydraulic fluids also reduce the friction
between rubbing surfaces by substituting the compara
tively low friction inherent in a lubricating film for the
friction between the contacting surfaces. The film
should be slippery, so that the moving parts can move
easily. In addition, the fluid should wet the metallic
surfaces and cling to them. The properly of a fluid
which gives it the clinging slipperiness to lubricate
well is called its liihricity. In order to protect surfaces
from corrosion, the hydraulic fluid should cover all
surfaces with a thin,durable protective film.
Chemical Properties
2.21 In addition to the chemicals that are added to a
fluid to increase its VI, others are required for various
reasons. Most chemicals determine how well and how
long a hydraulic fluid will function before it must be
This msiotiQi >s protected Oy U S. Copynght latv
Hydraulic Fluids 25
Fig. 2-5. Effect of fluid film on contacting surfaces
valve spool
Valve body
Fluid film
replaced. The most important chemical property a fluid
can have is its resistance to oxidation. All fluids are
subject to oxidation, and it is the most common factor
that shortens fluid life.
2.22 Fluid oxidation is the chemical reaction of a
fluid with oxygen from the air. New substances or
compounds are formed that are different from those
that existed in the original, clean fluid. When
hydraulic oils oxidize, soluble (dissolved) resins and
other compounds are formed. These resins cause the
oil to become dark in color, and increase its viscosity.
Darkened oil is the first sign of trouble in a system.
Some of these soluble compounds are acids, which
corrode metal components in the system.
2.23 When soluble resins contact hot surfaces,
they frequently bake out and form hard coatings.
These coatings are called varnishes or lacquers. Small
particles of the varnishes are suspended in the fluid
and circulate through the system. Some resins become
only partially oxidized, remaining suspended in the
fluid in the form of "gums." Other substances formed
by oxidation settle out as sludge at low points in the
system. When sludge mixes with bits of metal or
other solid particles in the system, it becomes an
insoluble compound (it will not dissolve in the
hydraulic fluid) that causes many system problems.
These problems include increased wear, reduced
clearances. Jammed moving parts, clogged orifices,
and plugged lines and valves. In addition, these com-
Copying py any opticel, electronic, or oihor moans is wthojt pormission
26 Lesson Two
pounds disrapt the control balance of the system and
eventually render it inoperative.
2.24 The rate of oxidation in unprotected oils
increases as the temperature, amount of air, and the
amount of contamination in the system increase. Tem
peratures that exceed normal limits cause the greatest
amount of oxidation. It is estimated that the service life
of hydraulic fluids is reduced by halffor each 18 to lO'C
increase above a normal operating temperature of 54°C
(135°F).This means that the effective service life of typ
ical hydraulic fluids is reduced by about 75% when
operating at a temperature of 200°F (93"C). Below
135°F(54'C),no appreciable oxidation takes place.
2.25 Air is present throughout a hydraulic system
whenever it is in operation. Air that is dissolved or
absorbed by the fluid causes oxidation at hot spots
throughout the system. When a system is shut down,
much of the dissolved air is released in pockets
throughout the system, where it acts on the surface it
contacts. Air is released at shutdown because hydraulic
fluids only absorb up to 10% of their own volume of
air at atmospheric pressure, while they absorb up to
140% of their own volume of air at 200 psi.
2.26 Contaminants in the system, such as dirt, has
ten the oxidation of hydraulic fluid. Oxidation is
speeded up by some metals (especially copper), and
contaminants such as cutting oils, greases, water,
paint,and pipe joint or gasket compounds.
2.27 Fluid oxidation in a hydraulic system can be
limited or controlled in three different ways —
mechanically (proper equipment), chemically, and
with proper maintenance. If equipment is designed
well, most of the contaminants will be removed from
the system automatically. In addition, a good preven
tive maintenance program ensures that contaminants
are removed frequently, and that hydraulic fluid is
regularly tested and checked throughout its service
life. Good maintenance procedures also specify how
much fluid oxidation can be allowed before replacing
the fluid. Air should be removed from the system con
tinuously, whether it is running or idle. Operating
temperatures should be kept low and contaminates
removed. If high fluid oxidation persists, use a fluid
that contains an oxidation inhibitor.
2.28 Chemical oxidation inhibitors function in two
ways. One is the chain-breaker variety, which inter
This(naieriol is pntteetod by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electionic,or other irteatts is illegal without permission.
rupts oxidation of the fluid when it starts and prevents
it from continuing. Another inhibitor is of the metal-
deactivator type, which reduces the catalytic effect of
metals. There are hundreds of oxidation inhibitors that
can be used. However, they should be added by sup
pliers who are competent to make recommendations
based on manufacturers' test data that are seldom
available to maintenance personnel.
System Contamination
2.29 Although oxidation is the greatest contamina-
tor in a hydraulic system, many other contaminants
exist. All contaminants can be controlled through the
use of chemicals and good maintenance procedures.
The best control, of course, is through good mainte
nance. Maintenance procedures must be performed
regularly, because chemical stability cannot be
checked in the plant.
Water
230 Small amounts of water get into the hydraulic
fluid in the form of water vapor from the air that con
stantly finds its way into the system. When the air is sus
pended in the fluid, the water vapor also becomes emul
sified in the fluid, and remains in suspension as a result
of the churning conditions that exist in the system.
Water-fluid emulsions may be thin and sluny, thick and
pasty,or heavy and gummy depending on the amount of
water and the fluid viscosity. Emulsions frequently pro
mote the collection of impurities, which increases fric
tion and wear in the system. Many fluids use chemicals
to prevent emulsions from forming. If a fluid (with or
without the aid of chemicals) resist the formation of
water-fluid emulsions and promotes the breakdown of
emulsions,it is said to be a demulsifier.
2.31 Demulsification, or the breakdown of emul
sions, usually takes place under conditions of low
pressure and reduced churning found in return lines
and reservoirs. As the emulsions break down, the
water separates and settles to the bottom of the reser
voir. During overnight and weekend shutdowns, the
reduced pressure in most of the valves, hydraulic
lines, accumulators, and cylinders also allows the
water to settle out. Because water breaks through the
lubricating films, it causes rust to form on the rubbing
surfaces and in ports and orifices. If the system drains
properly, all free water will eventually accumulate at
the bottom of the reservoir, from which it should be

drained periodically. Any free water in the fluid
decreases its lubricity and causes increased leakage
and erratic pump action.
2.32 The water in a hydraulic system can cause
vapor pressure. Vapor pressure is created when water
comes in contact with hot fluid or metal and starts to
boil. In an open container this vapor would escape to the
atmosphere, but in a sealed system it becomes trapped
just as air does. Not all vapor pressure is caused by
water. Petroleum oils subjected to heat may evaporate.
When this happens,they also cause vapor pressure.
Dissolved Air
2.33 The air solubility of a liquid is its ability to
absorb or dissolve air. The air bubbles are very small
and are distributed completely through the fluid. Air
is picked up when the pump suction filter is exposed
to the air in the reservoir, or through leaks in the suc
tion piping or pump packing. Air can also get into the
system if foamy oil is picked up by the pump suction
inlet, or if the oil reservoir is open to the outside air.
2.34 As previously pointed out, air that remains in
solution oxidizes the fluid and causes problems at
those points in the system where sudden pressure
drops occur. When hydraulic fluid has a considerable
amount of dissolved air in it, a sudden pressure drop
will reduce its ability to retain the air, which causes
violent foaming.This foaming can be minimized with
screens or splash plates.
Foaming
2.35 Although all fluids are susceptible to foaming,
the amount offoam in a system can be reduced to a min
imum by the addition of chemical foam depressants.
These additives do not prevent air from dissolving in a
fluid or prevent foam from forming when pressure is
suddenly reduced. Rather, a foam depressant forms an
unstable foam with large bubbles that break up faster
once they separate from the fluid. This reduces the total
amount of foam that is formed. As a result, the amount
of foam that accumulates in the reservoir can be held
down to a comparatively thin layer.
Corrosion and Rusting
2.36 Corrosion generally is considered to be any
deterioration of a metallic surface caused by the
This material is protected by U. S. Copyright(aw. Copying by any optical, electionic, or ethor means is illegal without permission.
Hydraulic Fluids 27
chemical action of an acid or an alkali. Rusting is the
oxidation of iron or steel surfaces caused by oxygen
in the air in the presence of moisture. In hydraulic
systems there are few alkalis present, but acids are
formed as a result of oxidation. Corrosion occurs as
the acid attacks the metal of the system. Dark accu
mulations found at the place of corrosion are often the
compounds which caused the corrosion.
2.37 In hydraulic systems, rusting is caused by air
bubbles and pockets in the system, which oxidize the
iron and steel surfaces in the presence of water. The
rust may be eroded away by turbulent fluid flow or
cavitation, but often it remains where it has formed. If
left undisturbed, a layer of rust will slightly protect
the metal remaining under it. If the rust is washed
away,additional rusting takes place.
2.38 Rust and corrosion are chemically induced
processes that eat away at flow passages, valve ports,
orifices,springs,and valve spools in such a way that the
flow characteristics of these parts are changed. Rust
buildups and the deposits of corrosive compounds also
change the flow characteristics of the system.
2.39 There are several ways of preventing or mini
mizing rusting and corrosion. The best way is to have
the hydraulic system operated at moderate tempera
tures and pressures and under the specified operating
conditions. In this way, fluid oxidation and acid
action are reduced, and the air and water formations
can be controlled. A fluid that is filtered properly and
changed regularly, and that has suitable lubricating
qualities, will help reduce corrosion and rusting.
2.40 If this is not possible, the properties of the
fluid that protect against corrosion and rust should be
improved by the addition of chemical additives. Cor
rosion-resistant additives form a thin, strongly adher
ent film that resists the rusting action of air and water
and the corrosive action of acids better than a deep
layer of hydraulic fluid. However, this film can be
removed by hydraulic fluid that does not contain
inhibiters. Only fluid with the proper amount of rust
and corrosion inhibiter should be used in systems that
require inhibiters.
Types of Hydraulic Fluids
2.41 Hydraulic fluids are available in many differ
ent blends,or mixtures. The "proper" type to use for a
28 Lesson Two

Hydraulic fluid comparison chart

Petroleum Water-emulsion Water-glycol Phosphate ester

Fire resistance
Bare flames Poor Fair Very good Good
Hot surface Poor Fair Good Very good

Cost(times petroleum) 1 1 31/2

Stability Excellent Good Excellent Excellent

Lubricity in pump
Balanced vane Excellent Good Very good Excellent
Gear with bushings Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent

Temperature limits 0to130T 50to120°F Below 0 to 120T Below 0 to 130°F

-18to54'C 10to49''C MC
-18to49°C -18to54"C
1

CM
Corrosion protection Very good Good Good Very good

Compatibility Excellent Very good Very good Good (except paint,

(except paint) (except paint) rubber, plastic)

specific systems depends a great deal on the system viscosity, viscosity index, lubricity, film strength, and
and the way in which it operates. The surrounding resistance to corrosion, rust, fire, and oxidation.
atmosphere also plays a part in the type of fluid Because petroleum oils are not fire-resistant,the substi
selected for an application. The following types of tution of a petroleum oil for a fire-resistant fluid should
hydraulic fluids are commonly used in industrial be considered very carefully. Substitution of a fire-
hydraulic systems: resistant fluid with reduced lubricity for a petroleum-
based fluid also must be considered very carefully.
• petroleum oils
2.43 The viscosity characteristics of water-based
• oil-in-water emulsions fluids are quite different from either the petroleum
oils or the nonwater-based fluids. Water-based fluids
• water-in-oil emulsions have no viscosity index —their viscosity varies
according to the percentage of water in the fluid. Vis
• water-based glycols cosity indexes for nonwater-based fluids range from
negative values for some of the phosphate esters to
• chlorinated hydrocarbons indexes of over 100 for silicones.

• phosphate esters 2.44 The corrosion resistance of most hydraulic

fluids is excellent.(However, water-based fluids can
• silicones attack magnesium,zinc, and cadmium.)In addition to
their high corrosion factor, water-based fluids have
• silicate esters. low lubricity when compared with petroleum oils.
Hydraulic fluids with a high water content do not
Information about some of these fluids, their advan always perform well in a system, and frequently
tages, and their characteristics are shown in the cause maintenance problems in the components.
hydraulic fluid comparison chart.
2.45 Nonpetroleum fire-resistant fluids may soften
2.42 Industrial hydraulic systems usually are or remove paint and varnish and attack neoprene and
designed to operate well with one particular type and synthetic rubber seals. Strainer and filter recommenda
grade offluid. Selection of a fluid generally is based on tions for these fluids are also different. Any contem-
This material is pniteeted by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any opticBl, dectionic, or other means is illegal without permission.
 Hydraulic Fluids 29

plated change in the type of hydraulic fluid used in 4. What types of fluids are recommended by
any given system can only be made on the basis of a your suppliers?
thorough understanding of the system operation. Con
sideration must be given to the following questions: 5. What changes in the existing system would have
to be made in order to utilize a different recom
1. What types of fluids are used in identical or mended fluid,and how costly would they be?
similar systems?
6. Can the operating conditions be changed in
2. How has the fluid currently being used per other ways so that a change in fluid is not
formed in the system? necessary?

Does an examination of the equipment indicate 7. What advantages will be gained by changing
that it would be compatible with a different fluid? fluids?

This nialeriol is protscted by U.S.Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electionic, or other means is illegal without permission.
30 Programmed Exercises

2-9. The property of a fluid that permits it to 2-9. FILM STRENGTH

maintain a film under heavy load is
referred to as its Ref: 2.19

2-10. The term used to describe the ability of 2-10. LUBRICITY

a fluid to lubricate and cling to metallic
surfaces is Ref: 2.20

2-11. The chemical reaction between 2-11. OXIDATION

hydraulic fluid and oxygen from the air
is called Ref: 2.22

2-12. Resins caused by oxidation cause 2-12. COLOR

hvdraulic fluid to chance
Ref: 2.22

2-13. The best method of controlling contam 2-13. MAINTENANCE

ination in a hydraulic system is through
Good procedures. Ref: 2.29

2-14. A fluid that resists the formation of 2-14. DEMULSIFIER

water-fluid emulsions is said to be a(n)
Ref: 2.30

2-15. The chemical additive used to aid air 2-15. FOAM DEPRESSANT
bubbles in breaking up is called a(n)
Ref: 2.35

2-16. Any deterioration of a metallic surface 2-16. CORROSION

caused by chemical action can be
classed as Ref: 2.36

Thb matefial is pretected by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electtonic, of other means is iUegal wittwut permission.
 Self-Check Quiz 31

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

2-1. The functions of a hydraulic fluid include all of 2-6. The ability of a fluid to maintain lubrication
the following EXCEPT between closely fitted parts under load is
determined by its
□ a. lubricating components
□ b. generating heat □ a. film strength
□ c. transmitting power □ b. triple point
□ d. reducing friction □ c. viscosity
□ d. lubricity
2-2. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its
2-7. What type of reaction occurs when a
□ a. internal friction hydraulic fluid oxidizes?
□ b. temperature index
□ c. grade number □ a. Physical
□ d. compatibility □ b. Chemical
□ c. Thermostatic
2-3. A hydraulic fluid with a viscosity of 150 SSU □ d. Electrical
than one with a viscosity of 275
SSU. 2-8. It is estimated that the service life of a
hydraulic fluid for each 18 to 20®C
□ a. prevents metal-to-metal contact increase above 54°C.
under load better
□ b. flows faster □ a. is doubled
□ c. is more viscous □ b. is tripled
□ d. is less viscous □ c. is reduced by half
□ d. is reduced by 75%
2-4. The term that describes the stability of fluid
viscosity when it is heated is 2-9. Contamination in a hydraulic system can best
be controlled by
□ a. pour point
□ b. vapor pressure □ a. good maintenance procedures
□ c. viscosity index □ b. keeping operating temperatures high
□ d. lubricity □ c. making sure no chemical additives
are present
2-5. Hydraulic oils used for low-temperature appli- □ d. many filters
cations should have a
2-10. Corrosion in a hydraulic system generally is
□ a. low pour point caused by all of the following EXCEPT
□ b. high viscosity index
□ c. low oxidation rate □ acids
□ d. high temperature coefficient □ alkalis
□ oxidation
□ cavitation

This matenal is pratoOsd by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by orry optical, eloctronie, or other means is iUegaJ without permission.
32 Lesson Two

SUMMARY

Hydraulic fluids transmit power from point in the
system to another. The fluid also lubricates the
contacting surfaces of the mechanical working
parts of the system. The physical properties of
the fluid determine how well It works. The chemi
cal properties determine how long the fluid will
last. When selecting a hydraulic fluid, you should
consider its properties and the recommendations
of the equipment manufacturer.
Viscosity is the most important physical property
of a hydraulic fluid. A fluid's viscosity changes
with changes in temperature and pressure, and
these changes affect how well the fluid works in
the system. A fluid's viscosity Index indicates
how much Its viscosity changes in reaction to
changes In temperature.
The most Important chemical property of a
hydraulic fluid Is Its resistance to oxidation. Oxi
dation occurs when air reacts with the hydraulic
fluid. Contaminants speed up oxidation and pre
vent the fluid from doing its job. Water in the
hydraulic fluid is also harmful. Most contamina
tion can be controlled by chemical additives and a
good maintenance program.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

2-1. b. Generating heat. Ref: 2.01,2.02 2-6. a. Film strength. Ref: 2.19

2-2. a. intemai friction. Ref: 2.04 2-7. b. Chemical. Ref: 2.22

2-3. d. is less viscous. Ref: 2.06 2-8. c. is reduced by half. Ref: 2.24

2-4. c. Viscosity index. Ref: 2.09 2-9. a. Good maintenance procedures.

Ref: 2.29
2-5. a. Low pour point. Ref: 2.13
2-10. d. Cavitation. Ref: 2.36

This matofial is protsdsd by U. S. Copyright Isw. Copying by any optical, doctiQnic, or other meorts is illegal wiOiool permission.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lesson Three

Strainers and
Filters

,r.

TPC Training Systems

34

Lesson

3 Strainers and Filters

TOPICS

Hydraulic System Requirements In-Line Strainers

Settling Filters
Degree of Filtration Fiber Media
Performance Characteristics Nonfibrous Surface Media
Performance of Different Media Magnetic Media
Strainers Filter and Strainer Installations
Reservoir Strainers

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to.

• Name contaminants found in hydraulic systems Describe the two basic types of filter/strainer media.
• Explain the difference between a strainer and a filter, Draw graphic symbols for strainers and fitters.
and describe the main function of each.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Settling 3.03 a method used to filter and remove Surface medium 3.12 a medium that collects
large or heavy contaminants from hydraulic fluid particles on a single surface; usually used with
Degree of filtration 3.06 a rating of the percent strainers
age of contaminants of a particular size that a Depth medium 3.12 a medium that collects parti
strainer or filter can stop from entering a system cles on a number of surfaces arranged in layers;
Micron 3.07 a unit for measuring the dimensions usually used with filters
of fine particles: one-millionth of a meter
Dirt capacity 3.09 the relationship between the
size of a strainer or filter opening and the size of
the contaminant particles

Thn malarial la protedsd ay U S Copyrght Ian Copying by any oplcal. elaclranc, or other IS Illegal without permsson
make sure th^fMalriiTgood system is to
and servicing procedures will heln main*a- times. Although careful filling
ers and ""ers also arrrL,uLd ?t.ev
deslred result-fluid In good condltlon\hroughout Ks seri'S itfe ^
™ ut^^?s''?helr®Mn^ ""I®'®"'
monfi if . construction, operating
""®'® "®®''""" hydraulic fluids,
ments. Knowing why strainers are locatedlimitations, and Installation
in certain places and filters require
In other
places in a system, and how they function, will enable you to locate possible
sources of trouble which cause system malfunctions.

Hydraulic System Requirements
3.01 Clean hydraulic fluid is very important if a fluid
power system is to function properly for acceptable peri
ods of time. During operation, a hydraulic system picks
up and generates many contaminants.As much contami
nation as possible should be removed or treated while
the system is in operation. Otherwise,equipment begins
to wear,valves begin to stick,seals begin to leak,and the
hydraulic system no longer functions properly.
3.02 Contaminants are present in a hydraulic system
in many different forms: air, water, lubricating oils,
greases, pipe joint compound, coolant fluids, welding
scale, dust, grit, and small metal particles. In addition,
resins, acids, gums, varnish, lacquer, core sand from
castings, and a variety of sludges are also present.
Although it is impossible to remove all the contaminants
from a system, the greatest portion must be. If not, seri
ous damage can occur in the hydraulic equipment. Cont
aminants can be removed in a number of ways,includ
ing settling, screening or straining, filtering, and with
magnets. Chemicals can be used to condition the fluid,
but they do not remove or destroy contaminants.
entire hydraulic system should be cleaned out thor
oughly about every 2000 to 4000 hours of service.
The exact interval depends upon the operating condi
tions of the system,the fluid being used,and the man
ufacturer's recommendations.
3.04 Water released by the hydraulic fluid in the
reservoir also settles to the bottom, since it is heavier
than the hydraulic fluid. A drain valve usually is pro
vided in the reservoir to permit the water to be drawn
off before the system is started after a shut-down peri
od. Water released in other parts of the system usually
is flushed into the reservoir shortly after the system is
started. It can then be drawn off, either shortly after
start-up,or before start-up the next day.
Degree of Filtration
3.05 Theoretically,strainers and filters are made to
pass particles of one size and stop those of another.
Fig.3-1. Fluid flow in a reservoir

Settling
Fill cap
Breather

3.03 The larger or heavier contaminants usually

Return line
settle to the bottom of a fluid that is moving slowly or
standing still. Because fluid velocities usually are To pump
high in hydraulic lines and in the equipment,the place
where fluid slows down is in the reservoir. As shown
Baffle
in Fig. 3-1 returning fluid enters the reservoir through
the return line, and flows slowly around and over the Fluid,
baffle which divides the reservoir in half. The larger level
■Drain
and heavier solid and sludge particles settle to the
Strainer
bottom of the reservoir. Sludge should be removed at
regular intervals with a suction pump or a scoop. The

This malsrial is prataeted by U. S. Copyright tsw. Copying by ony optical, olactnnic, or other moans is illegal without permission.
36 Lesson Three
with the strainers removing the larger particles and
the filters removing the smaller particles. Although
strainers and filters are identified this way. U is not
possible to describe the filter action in terms of the
opening sizes alone. The openings of typical strainers
and filters stop about 98% of the particles that are of a
certain size or larger. The remaining 2% that slip
through may be long and narrow, well-rounded, or
otherwise shaped so that they arc not stopped easily.
3.06 In addition to their opening size, strainers and
filters are described by their decree offiltration. For
instance, a strainer with a degree of filtration of 25
microns stops 98% of the particles measuring 25
microns or more. This is known as its nominal rating.
This same strainer, however, may remove 100% of
the particles from a fluid if they are all larger than 50
microns. This is called its absolute rating. Remember
that the absolute rating is based on a much larger par
ticle size. Also remember that strainer and filler rat
ings are based on their performance when they are
new and clean, and operating with clean fluid under
the design flow conditions of the application. Because
the actual conditions usually are different, published
ratings should be used as a guide only.
3.07 The micron is a customary unit for measuring
the dimensions of fine particles. A micron (abbreviated
is equal to one-millionth of a meter,or approximate
ly 0.0(X)04 in. You can remember the relative size if
you remember that 25 ^ equals about 0.001 in. Parti
cles of over 40^4 are visible to the naked eye. The sizes
of some familiar particles in microns are as follows:
• a grain of table salt —100 //
• a human hair (in diameter)—70/^
• a particle of talcum powder—10//.
Performance Characteristics
3.08 The performance of strainers and filters is
evaluated by the amount of dirt or particles they
remove from the system. Because the openings in a
strainer are nearly all the same size, its range of parti
cle removal is small compared with a filter. Because
the holes are not uniform in size, a filter picks up
smaller particles as well as larger particles. A filter
operates longer without loading up if the dirt concen
tration is low, because a filter has smaller openings
This malSfial « proteaoO by U. S Copyright law Copying by any optcal, eleclronie, or other means is illegal without permission
Fig. 3-2. Exceeding the maximum pressure drop
than a strainer.(Before a strainer can pick up particles
that are smaller than its openings, it has to build up an
accumulation of particles.) If a strainer and a filter
with nearly the same range of opening sizes are used
under the same conditions, the strainer picks up fewer
of the smaller particles than the filter, which is why il
has a lower nominal performance rating.
3.09 The performance rating of strainers and filters
is also based on their dirt capacity'. Dirt capacity is the
relationship between the size of openings and the size
of the contaminant panicles. If an element is very effi
cient and picks up everything, it loads up fast, and over
a period of time cannot collect as much as an ineffi
cient element that does not pick up the small particles.
For this reason, strainers are used in one part of a
hydraulic system to pick up big particles, and filters are
used in other parts to pick up the small particles. The
service life of strainers and filters, based on dirt capaci
ty, is determined by the amount of contaminant parti
cles that can collect on the filtering medium without
causing the maximum allowable pressure drop.
3.10 The maximum allowable pressure drop is the
pressure drop across the filtering medium that permits
the passage of particles through the medium. As shown
in Fig. 3-2, if the maximum pressure drop is 10 psi,
then at 11 psi the dirt particles pass through the filter,
while at 9 psi they do not. The actual maximum allow
able pressure drop of a filter should be checked with
the manufacturer. As a rule of thumb, fiber fillers can
withstand pressure drops of about 10 psi. Metal filters
can withstand much higher pressure drops.
 Strainers and Filters 37

W Fig.3-3. Surface and depth media • thin membranes

• sintered metal powders

• nonmetal woven cloth (single layer)

• nonmetal granules and powders (sintered plas

tic, fired porcelain or glass, bonded carbon
and boned stone).
Airflow K
3.14 The following media usually are considered
to be depth types:

• felted or matted fibers

Surface Depth

• nonfelted fibers packed together

• papers
3.11 Another important performance characteristic
of strainers and filters is that they must not be affected
by the fluid they are cleaning. In addition, they must • wound yam
not affect or alter the fluid by removing its chemical
additives or changing its chemical composition. • nonmetal woven cloth (multiple layers)

Performance of Different Media

• composite media of either type,in layers.

3.12 The different media (or materials used to
remove solid particles from fluids) are grouped into
two basic types: surface media and depth media. Sur
face media usually are used with strainers, and depth
media usually used with filters. The names refer to
the manner in which they accomplish filtration and
have nothing to do with the materials used. As shown
in Fig. 3-3,surface strainers collect particles on a sin
gle surface, and depth filters collect particles on a
number of surfaces arranged in layers. The openings
in a surface medium are approximately the same size
over the entire area, and are arranged in a regular pat
tern. The openings in a depth medium are usually of
many different sizes, with the openings becoming
smaller and smaller as the fluid passes through each
layer. Unlike the openings in surface media,the open
ings in depth media are usually a maze of tangled pas
sages.
3.13 The following media usually are considered
to be surface types:
3.15 While the strainer or filter is in operation,con
taminants constantly move about on and in the filtering
medium. This is referred to as contaminant release.
When the maximum allowable pressure drop is passed,
and the contaminants work themselves completely
through the filter, contaminant migration occurs. This
can also happen in fibers that change their porosity
with changes in the pressure or flow rate. Dirt that is
trapped in a filtering medium during its manufacturing
process is known as built-in contamination. However,
this usually is not a problem because it is flushed out
before the system is put in operation.
3.16 Another filter medium performance problem
is abrasion migration. This takes place when a filter
ing medium loosens from its housing or seal and
releases particles that had been stopped by the filter.
(This happens mainly as a result of vibration.) Media
migration occurs when parts of the filtering medium
break off and are carried along with the fluid.
Strainers

• metal screens and cloths(woven or wound) 3.17 A strainer is classed as having a surface medi
um. Most strainers use a porous wire mesh to remove
• metal and nonmetal ribbons, disks,and wires the larger particles found in fluids. Wire mesh strain-
This matBrial is piutected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electmnic, or other means is illegal without permission.
38 Lesson Three
ers for hydraulic fluid often are made of stainless
steel, woven in such a manner that a specified number
of openings are contained in each square inch of area.
This is called the mesh of the screen.(A 100-mesh
screen has 100 openings in each square inch.) The
thickness of the wire used may vary slightly in order
to control the size of the openings and the size of the
particles they will pass.
3.18 Although strainers are economical and suit
able in many applications, they have several limiting
restrictions, including the range of particles they can
remove, the size of the smallest particles they can
remove, and their overall capacity for holding large
accumulations of particles on a single surface.
Because of these limitations, they usually are not rec
ommended for applications where very small particles
must be removed, where there is a large buildup or
accumulation of particles, or where a small pressure
drop must be maintained.
3.19 Remember that strainers cannot pick up or
accumulate a lot of small particles without having a
large pressure drop across them. However, they can
pick up many large particles without having too large
a pressure drop, which is what they are designed to
do. The most commonly used wire mesh strainers in
hydraulic systems are:
• 60-mesh (openings of 240 pi, or 0.01 in.)
• 100-mesh (openings of 150//,or 0.006 in.)
This matetial is pratected by U. S.CopyhQW law. Copying by any optical, olectronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
• 200-mesh (openings of 75 ,or 0.003 in.).
3.20 Other types of surface-medium strainers
include sintered and nonsintered woven cloth or
wound ribbon or wire. These strainers, though seldom
used in hydraulic systems, may be made with removal
ratings of 98% for particles as small as 2 pi y and
removal ratings of 100% for particles of 12 // and
over.
3.21 In most hydraulic systems, strainers are used
as pump suction inlet screens (to protect the pump)
and as Hlling screens (to prevent dirt particles from
entering the fluid reservoir). Strainers are sometimes
used on the return line to break up foam,generated in
the system, as it enters the reservoir. Under certain
conditions, strainers also are used successfully to
break up oil and water emulsions.
3.22 The primary function of strainers used as
pump suction inlet screens is to protect the pump
from the damaging action of large, solid particles.
Strainer selection is based not only on the maximum
particle size, but also on the minimum flow of'
hydraulic fluid. To strain out the larger particles with
out causing pump starvation, the inlet strainers must
have enough open passages and sufficient overall sur
face area. Proper strainer design must allow the
strainer to pass at least three times the pump capacity
without the fluid velocity exceeding 4 ft/s, or the suc
tion vacuum increasing by more than 6 in. of mer
cury.
 Programmed Exercises 39

3-1. If hydraulic fluid is to function properly, it 3-1. CLEAN

must be
Ref: 3.01

3-2. Water is than hydraulic fluid. 3-2. HEAVIER

Ref: 3.04

3-3. The rating of a filter or strainer that 3-3. NOMINAL

removes almost all of the particles up to
a certain size is called its Ref: 3.06
rating.

3-4. Fine containment particles usually are 3-4. MICRONS(n)

measured in
Ref: 3.07

3-5. When contaminants begin to pass 3-5. PRESSURE DROP

through a filter, the maximum allowable
can be exceeded. Ref: 3.10

3-6. Name the two types of filter media 3-6. SURFACE, DEPTH
used in hydraulic systems.
Ref: 3.12

3-7. Abrasion migration generally takes 3-7. VIBRATION

place as a result of
Ref: 3.16

3-8. Most strainers used in hydraulic sys 3-8. POROUS WIRE MESH
tems have a surface medium made of
Ref: 3.17

This material is protected by U.S. Copyright law. Copying try any opticsl, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
40 Lesson Three
Reservoir Strainers
3.23 Pump inlet strainers are
mounted in various ways, as
shown in Fig. 3-4. Figure 3-4A
shows a single cylindrical strainer
mounted horizontally in the reser
voir on the end of a pipe riser. The
strainer should always be placed
far enough below the surface of
the fluid to prevent a suction vor
tex (whirlpool) from forming. The
strainer should be far enough
above the bottom of the reservoir
so that it does not pick up any sludge on the bottom.
Figure 3-4B and 3-4C show duplex strainer arrange
ments.
3.24 When the strainers are hard to get at, they
frequently are neglected and become plugged. If at
all possible, strainers should be located where they
can be removed quickly for cleaning or replace
ment. Many suction strainers are provided with a
bypass arrangement the permits the contaminated
fluid to flow around a plugged strainer in an emer
gency. Such emergencies do not include the failure
to clean or replace a strainer when it is mounted in
a hard-to-reach location. If a bypass is used to
delay the cleaning or changing of a strainer, the
result may be expensive damage to the pump and
other hydraulic components. However, if an auto
matic bypass is not provided, an expensive piece of
equipment can be destroyed by attempting to oper-
Flg.3-5. A screen strainer
# /r.'
•/.0 0
Tha matorial a protected Ijy U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other meara a illegal without permasion.
Fig.3-4. Placement of inlet strainers
Duplex (double)
ate without sufficient fluid. Bypasses are neces
sary—for emergencies-but the strainers must be
maintained properly.
3.25 When returning hydraulic fluid contains dis
solved air, foam may form in the return lines and the
reservoir. Sometimes, the foam can be removed by
placing a strainer in the reservoir. A slanting 60-mesh
screen usually is mounted either below or to one side
of the return line in the reservoir. As shown in Fig. 3-
5,the screen is placed beneath the surface of the fluid
at an angle of 30" to the horizontal. Foam usually
breaks up as it passes through the screen.
In-Line Strainers
3.26 In addition to the reservoir strainers used,
many hydraulic systems are equipped with in-line
strainers. These strainers usually are installed in
accessible locations near the pump, as shown in Fig.
3-6. Occasionally, duplex in-line strainers are used. In
this way, one strainer can be cleaned while the other
is in operation. When in-line strainers are used, a
coarse strainer or screen is placed in the reservoir to
keep large particles out of the in-line strainer.
3.27 In-line strainer media usually are made from
wound ribbon or wire, or from stacked disks. Other
types of media include sintered metal and nonmetal
particles. The different media are placed in fabricated
steel housings. For instance,a stacked-disk or wound-
ribbon strainer is provided with a housing that has a
manual scraper to remove the accumulated particles
from the surface without shutting the system down.
Other media may be placed in a plain, steel-shell
housing, with the medium held in place by a spring
located in the bottom of the shell.
 Strainers and Filters 41

3.28 When stacked-disk or wound-ribbon strainers Fig.3-6. An in-line strainer

are placed in service, contaminated particles build up
on the outer surface of a strainer and are removed as
Coarse strainer
shown in Fig. 3-7. Metal-edged straining media pro
In-line strainer
vide free passage of the smaller particles because they
are made with a tapered cross section, as shown in 1=^
Fig. 3-7. The scrapers can be either fixed or movable, Pump
depending on the manufacturer. Most metal-edged
strainers have a 98% removal rating for particles of
25 to 500 pi and a 100% removal rating for particles
of 50 to 500 li. These ratings vary slightly with the
different strainers.

Filters
additives and stabilizers from the fluid. This disad

3.29 Filters are used to pick up smaller contami
nant particles because they are able to accumulate
them better than strainers, and because they can con
tinue to function with a comparatively low pressure
drop. A filter not only stops more different sizes of
particles than a strainer, but in low-contaminant con
centrations, a filter accumulates more particles per
surface area than a strainer. In addition,filters remove
elongated particles and fibers from a fluid more effec
tively than strainers do. Some filters are designed to
treat the hydraulic fluid chemically by adding or
removing additives and stabilizers as the fluid passes
through the filter.
3.30 Most filters use depth media, although some
are classified as surface media. In a sense, a filter is a
series of strainers. Openings are large at first and then
decrease in size, the very smallest ones coming last.
The filter materials are arranged in a random pattern,
and the close spacing near the surface makes the
medium very dense.
vantage can be overcome through the proper selec
tion of the medium.
Fiber Media
3.33 Wound-yam filters are usually cylindrical in
shape and wound onto a core that is part of the filter.
Filters of this type may be from 1 to 2 in. in depth.
Like all depth media, the inner windings are closer
together and the outer ones are farther apart. Parti
cles are picked up in the passages between the yam,
in the nap (furry part) of the yam, and in the yam
itself. Wound-yam filters have 98% removal ratings
for particles of 1 to 100 and 100% removal rates
for particles of 10 to 150 //.This type of filter is pre
ferred for heavy concentrations of particles, and may
be used as a full-flow filter near the hydraulic pump
outlet.
Fig.3-7. A stacked-disk strainer

3.31 Filter housings usually are made of fabricated

steel. The housing is attached to the framework on the T-handle Strainer disks
discharge side of the pump with a small bracket. The
filter elements are held in position by springs or other
retaining devices. Because the filter medium is not
capable of being cleaned, no provision is made for a Housing]
scraper mechanism. When the filter becomes dirty, it
is discarded and replaced. Cross section of
Fixed strainer disks
scraping
blade
3.32 Depth filters have two disadvantages. First,
filters used in highly contaminated fluids load up
quickly and do not provide as long a service life as
they do in less contaminated fluid. Second,
absorbent filter-bed materials frequently remove
Thia motoriol is pratsctod by U.S. Copyhght tew. Copying by any optical, eloctionic, or othor moons is ittegal without pomiission.
42 Lesson Three

Fig.3-8. A packed filter bag in Fig. 3-8 and placed in canisters. These filters are
not suitable for high temperatures and pressures. In
addition, because they have a much looser construc
tion than felted fibers, media migration can occur.

3.37 Paper is yet another fiber medium. Paper of

Packed fibers
Knitted bag
3.34 Some filters that use cloth or yam woven in
either a square (plain) or twill weave have a removal
rating of98% for particles larger than 25 //.
3.35 Felted media are made up of interlocking
fibers matted together in a dense, porous structure.
Sometimes they are resin-bonded. Because of their
constmction, they can withstand only a small amount
of pressure drop. The small,fine, and densely packed
fibers provide good filtration, and they have a stmc-
ture similar to filter papers. Some felted media have
thin filter elements, like surface filter elements, but
most felted fibers are used in depth filters. They have
a 98% removal rating for particles of 5 to 100 pi.
Occasiontilly, if the fibers are interlocked too loosely,
media migration occurs.
3.36 Unfelted cotton or other cellulose fibers are
simply packed into woven or knitted bags, as shown
various types is used for both surface filters and depth
filters. The classification depends upon how fine and
thin or how coarse and thick the papers are. In order
to provide a large surface area, the papers are pleated
and slipped over a cylindrical supporting core, as
shown in Fig. 3-9. Frequently the filter contains sev
eral layers. The out-layer papers are slightly coarser
than the inner-layer papers, which allow the filter to
collect a greater range of particles. Most of the filter
elements available commercially have 98% removal
ratings for particles of 2 to 5,10 to 15 and 20 to 35 .
Paper media have almost no media migration because
the wood fibers are bonded with chemical resins.
Nonfibrous Surface Media
3.38 Many of the filter media used in industrial
hydraulic systems are furnished with filters that are
different from the fiber types just described. One of
these has a membrane medium made of thin, porous
sheets of cellulose acetate or cellulose nitrate, pro
duced by evaporating the solvent from the slurry-like
solution of these materials. The membranes are so
fine that they are considered surface media. Because
they are not physically fused or bonded together, but
are formed chemically, media migration does not take
place. They have removal ratings of 100% for parti
cles of 0.1 to 12//.

Fig.3-9. A disposable paper filter 3.39 Other surface filter media include metal pow
ders that are sintered (fused) together under heat and
pressure to form thick, rigid, and porous structures.
The pores are so fine and uniform in size that they are
Cover considered surface media. The thick mass of material
Gasket provides support to the filtering surface and allows
the filter to be used at high pressures. Metal powders
Replaceable have 98% removal ratings for particles of 2 to 60 //
element
and 100% removal ratings for particles of 4 to 60//.

3.40 Another surface filter uses nonmetallic gran

Housing ules or powders,either chemically bonded or sintered
to form surface media similar to metal powders, but
with finer pores. Fired porcelain has 100% removal
ratings for particles of 0.2 to 25 //. Fritted glass has
100% removal ratings for particles of 0.1 to 125 //.
Thi» material b pcotabed by 0. S. Copyright taw. Copying by any optieal, electronie, Of ottior means b Illegal wHtiout permission.
 Strainers and Filters 43

Magnetic Media
Fig.3-10. A magnetic strainer
3.41 Another means of removing contaminant parti
cles from hydraulic fluids is magnetic attraction. A mag
net will attract and hold fine metallic particles, which
occur from wear,that are too small to be removed by fil
tering. Magnets of different shapes are placed wherever
they can remove metallic particles from a fluid most
effectively. For example, magnetic plugs frequently are
Magnets
mounted in the fluid reservoir, or magnetic elements are
placed in the pump inlet strainers, as shown in Fig.3-10. Screen strainer
In other applications, magnetic elements are combined
with paper or other fiber filters.

Filter and Strainer installations 3.43 Work on hydraulic equipment can be per
formed easily and safely if a few simple rules are fol
3.42 Up to now,this Lesson has presented informa lowed. Because of the high pressures used in hydraulic
tion on the construction and use of filters and strainers. systems, safety precautions must be observed. Here is
A brief look at some of the installation procedures and one of the most important safety rules to follow:
precautions is now in order. For you to know where to Always treat the system as though it were pressurized.
place a filter or strainer in a hydraulic system, you Another good safety rule: Always keep the equipment
probably would have to refer to a drawing or schematic and the work area clean. Strainers and filters are
of the system. A pictorial drawing may show an exact designed to protect very expensive equipment. If they
placement. Graphic diagrams have become accepted as are not cleaned or changed as often as they should be,
the standard method of representing hydraulic power the equipment becomes contaminated.
systems, and symbols have been adopted to represent
hydraulic components and circuit arrangements. Figure 3.44 In addition to safety rules, observe these pre
3-11 on shows the symbols for strainers,filters, separa cautions when installing or replacing filters or
tors, and some of the other components used in strainers:
hydraulic systems. Schematic filter-installation dia
grams are not difficult to understand if you remember 1. Place strainers and filters in easily accessi
the graphic symbols. Other symbols are presented in ble locations where they are not likely to
following Lessons. be forgotten. If equipment filters are locat
ed in out-of-the-way places,
make sure they are serviced
regularly.
Fig.3-11. Schematic symbols for hydraulic components
2. Thoroughly clean and equip
hydraulic systems with the
correct filters before placing
Reservoir open Connecting lines Filter-strainer them in service. Change fil
to atmosphere above fluid level ters after the first 50 hours
of operation, and again after
500 hours of operation.
After that, inspect the filters
Reservoir Connecting lines Filter/strainer/
pressurized below fluid level automatic drain periodically and change
them at regular intervals.
Clean edge-type strainers
Pump (fixed-
\J displacement) and drain them frequently.
Ruid flow Lines crossing Clean screen type filters as
often as necessary.

Thi» muofiol it pratectad by U.S. CopyrigM Itw. Copying by any opbeal, etocbonic, or dhof inaana i* illegal without pennctsion.
44 Lesson Three

3. When cleaning or changing filters, make sure If newly installed filters and strainers have
that all of the contaminants and sludge are high pressure drops across them, they proba
removed from the housing. Also make sure bly are not sized correctly for the applica
that all gaskets are in good condition, and that tion. Check the manufacturer's recommen
they seal the filter properly. Replace all worn dations for the correct size and type of filter
or damaged gaskets. or strainer.

4. Strainers should be used for picking up large Some filters are designed to remove contami
particles (above 25 pi). Filters should be used nants in the range of 5 to 10 or less. Paper
to remove fine particles. filters or wound fibers are generally best.
Powdered metal filters have a higher degree
5. If a filter or strainer is repeatedly found of filtration, but occasionally small particles
plugged up, it should be serviced more often, of the filter break off and contaminate the
replaced with a larger or multiple filter, or hydraulic fluid.
with a filter of a different type. Clean and
flush the system, then inspect it to find out
why there are so many contaminants.

This motoriol is pfotectod by U. S.Copyright low. Copying by any optical, olectionic, or othor moans is iUogal without pemiission.
 Strainers and Filters 45

This malcflsl is protoctod by U.S,Copyright law. Copying by any optical, eloetronie, or other moons b illegat without permission.
46 Programmed Exercises

3-9. Inlet strainers should be mounted far 3-9. SUCTION VORTEX(WHIRLPOOL)

enough below the fluid surface of a
reservoir to orevent anfn^ Ref:3.23
from forming.

3-10. When In-line strainers are used, a 3-10. RESERVOIR

coarse strainer Is placed In the
Ref:3.26

3-11. In-line strainer media usually are made 3-11. STACKED DISKS
of wound ribbon or
Ref:3.27

3-12. Filters not only function more effective 3-12. PRESSURE DROP
ly than strainers do, they also maintain
a low Ref: 3.29

3-13. Wound-yarn filters are used with fluids 3-13. HIGH

that have contaminant con
centrations. Ref: 3.33

3-14. Pleating a paper medium Increases Its 3-14. SURFACE AREA

fllterinq
Ref: 3.37

3-15. To remove fine metal particles, mag 3-15. FLUID RESERVOIR

netic plugs usually are mounted In the
Ref: 3.41

3-16. As a safety precaution when working 3-16. PRESSURIZED

on a hydraulic system, always treat the
svstem as If It were Ref: 3.43

This materiBi is pnitoctgd by U.S. Copyright law. Copytng by any optical, electronic, or other moans is Illegal without permission.
 Self-Check Quiz 47

Answer the following questions by marking an "X"

in the box next to the best answer.

3-1. For a hydraulic fluid to function properly over 3-6. Which of the following is NOT true of depth
acceptable periods of time, it must filters used in highly contaminated fluid condi
tions?
□ a. maintain a high temperature
□ b. be kept clean □ a. They load up quickly
□ c. contain additives □ b. They frequently remove additives
□ d. contain resins □ c. They have a short service life
□ d. They can be cleaned and reused

3-2. The performance rating of a strainer is based 3-7. Wound-yarn filters are used for heavy conta
on its ability to remove from the minant concentrations because they
system.
□ a. are good inlet strainers
□ a. dirt □ b. are compact in size
□ b. resins □ c. have good removal ratings
□ c. additives □ d. can be cleaned easily
□ d. grease
3-8. How is the filtration area of paper filter media
3-3. The point at which a filter allows contami increased?
nants to pass through the medium is called
the □ a. Form winding
□ b. Pleating
□ a. degree of filtration □ c. Resin bonding
□ b. absolute rating □ d. Layering
□ c. dirt capacity
□ d. maximum allowable pressure drop 3-9. Surface filter media made from sintered metal
powders can be used for high-pressure filtra
3-4. The medium in a strainer usually is made of tion because of their

□ a. porous wire mesh □ a. large mass

□ b. wound yarn □ b. metal structure
□ c. sintered bronze □ c. fusing process
□ d. pleated paper □ d. fine pores

3-5. Which of the following is NOT true of a filter in 3-10. When working on or around a hydraulic sys
a hydraulic system? tem, always remember that the system may
be
□ a. It collects small contaminants
□ b. It collects fibers □ a. under vacuum
□ c. It functions with a low pressure drop □ b. shut down
□ d. Its openings gradually increase in □ c. pressurized
size □ d. isolated

This materi&l is pnstected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any opticsl, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
48 Lesson Three

SUMMARY

The use of strainers and filters in a hydraulic sys with filters. The openings in a surface medium are
tem helps prolong the service life of hydraulic about the same size throughout. The size of the
fluid and, consequently, the system components. openings in a depth medium vary throughout the
There are many kinds of contaminants-air, water, medium.
dust, and small metal particles, to name just a
few. Large or heavy contaminants often settle to Strainers are economical, but are limited in the
the bottom of still or slow-moving fluid and can range of size of particles they can remove and also
then be removed. Smaller particles, measured in in how much they can hold. Filters are better at
microns, are removed by filters and strainers. picking up and accumulating small contaminan*
particles, except when used in highly conta
Strainers and filters are described by their degree fluids.
of filtration. Their performance is determined by
the amount of dirt or particles they remove from Good maintenance practices play a major
the system. The materials used to remove soldi- keeping a hydraulic system running smoc
particles from fluids are called media. Common The best filter or strainer cannot do a goo
media include fibers, nonfibrous surface materi you fail to do yours. You must clean and c
als, and magnetic elements. Surface media are the filter and strainer elements often to ge I
used with strainers and depth media are used benefit of the equipment.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

3-1. b. Be kept clean. Ref: 3.01 3-6. d. They can be cleaned and r©
Ref: 3.31,3.32
3-2. a. Dirt. Ref: 3.08
3-7. c. Have good removal ratings.'
3-3. d. Maximum allowable pressure drop. Ref: 3.33
Ref: 3.10
3-8. b. Pleating. Ref: 3.37
3-4. a. Porous wire mesh. Ref: 3.17
3-9. a. Large mass. Ref: 3.39
3-5. d. Its openings gradually Increase In
size. Ref: 3.29, 3.30 3-10. c. Pressurized. Ref: 3.43 i

This mat6'ial is protected by U S. Copynght law Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lesson Four

Reservoirs and
Accumulators

TPC Training Systems

50

Lesson

Reservoirs and Accumulators

TOPICS

System Demands Reservoir Cooling

Fluid Reservoir Requirements Reservoir Accessories
Baffles Accumulators
Air Separation

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to..

• Explain the functions of fluid reservoirs. • Identify important accessories used with r
• Explain the purpose of reservoir baffles. • Demonstrate pressure ratio calculation fo
• Describe various methods of counteracting high oper tlal-piston accumulator.
ating temperatures.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Fluid reservoir 4.03 a tank for accumulating and Accumulator 4.27, 42.8 a unit that st
storing a supply of hydraulic fluid at atmospheric hydraulic fluid under pressure until th<
pressure needs it
Baffle 4.07 a device in the reservoir tank that
helps circulate returning fluid

This mftlonal is protected by U. S Copyright Law Copying by any opticol. oLoetronic. or other I illeoal without pormission
 Reservoirs and Accumulators

cyllnders that create The power to do tho u. ?"*? ®''® *''® P"n>ps and
the reservoirs and accumulators These tvm'rn"®* •'"PP'tant, though, are
insignificant, but they do p^rfo^a nec^L^r^ iobTd"®"'® T*
system is to operate. indispensable If the

tern components covered so far" res'lre'^irfand acw^^^

Lystem S^llZopemfe"""*' """"P®"®"*- P"» w«ho"t them the
System Demands
help cool the fluid and keep its operating te
4.01 Hydraulic systems have very unusual fluid perature steady in the 100 to 130°F (38
requirements. Although the pump is designed to sup 54''C) temperature range
ply hydraulic fluid at a constant rate, the demands of
the system are variable. In order to meet this constant provide access for the removal of used flui
and contaminants, and for the addition (
ly changing demand, extra fluid is stored in a reser
fresh fluid
voir. Although the reservoir may appear to be a rather
unimportant part of a hydraulic system, without it the provide a firm, accessible mounting platfon
system cannot function properly. for the pump, motor, intake filter, and othi
equipment that makes up the power unit <
4.02 Another seemingly insignificant part of the the system.
hydraulic system is the accumulator, which is
required to supply small amounts of pressurized fluid. 4.04 The size of a reservoir is not given or class
Not all hydraulic systems are equipped with accumu fled by its physical dimensions, but by its liqui
lators, but you should know how an accumulator capacity. A reservoir should hold at least as muc
functions. Accumulators are available in several dif hydraulic fluid as the pump is capable of pumping ;
ferent types, but all of them operate according to the three minutes. This is more than enough to provide
same basic principles. stable fluid level and to operate the system efficientl
The oil level in the reservoir should never drop so lo
Fluid Reservoir Requirements during operation as to expose the pump suction inl
or to allow a whirlpool (vortex) to form. Either i
4.03 The fluid reservoir is a very important part these conditions will draw air into the pump. If
of a hydraulic system. The functions of the fluid pressure or retum line breaks, the system must ha
reservoir in a hydraulic system include the follow enough fluid to come safely to a stop during an emt
ing: gency shutdown. The capacity and approximate phj
ical dimensions of commonly used rectangular rest
accumulate and store an adequate supply of voirs are given in Fig. 4-1 on the next page. The rc
hydraulic fluid to meet the varying demands tangular shape is used because it provides benef
of the entire system that circular and square reservoirs do not. Howev
in some applications space limitations may prohi
• break up any foam generated in the system, the use of rectangular tanks, and one of the oti
and separate dissolved air from the fluid reservoir shapes has to be used.

settle out heavy dirt particles, sludge, and 4.05 As hydraulic fluid moves through the syste
water from the fluid it collects dirt, wear particles, water, and gummy si

This matoriai is pniteetod by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electionic, or other moans is illegal without permission.
 Fig. 4-1. Sizes of reservoirs
Reservoir
capacity (gal)
stances. When the fluid is returned to the reservoir, it
slows down as it moves through the tank. The sudden
slowdown in fluid movement causes many of the con
taminants suspended in the fluid to separate and settle
to the bottom of the tank, forming what is called
sludge. The larger the tank, the slower the movement
of the fluid, and the greater the amount of sludge.
4.06 The bottom of the tank should be slightly V-
shaped, and sloped toward one end, or have a low spot.
The low part in the tank is called the sump, and is the
point where most of the sludge settles. A reservoir
drainage valve should be installed in the sump to allow
Fig.4-2. A properly placed baffle
Fluid level
Th,s.a,e..,. p, us.CO.,
for sludge removal when the tank is cleaned out. A mag
netic plug can be installed near the sump to collect small
magnetic particles which otherwise might not settle out.
Baffles
4.07 A bajfle is placed in a reservoir to halve its
length, as shown in Fig. 4-2. It should extend upward
for about two-thirds the distance from the bottom of
the tank to the normal fluid level. The baffle is used to
help circulate returning fluid around the inside of the
tank, which causes the fluid to give up some of its heat
before entering the pump suction inlet pipe. With the
return line and pump suction inlet located on the same
end, as shown in Fig. 4-3, the baffle keeps the.fluid in
contact with the outer surfaces of the tank for a longer
period of time, resulting in more cooling of the fluid
Some tanks have slightly different arrangements!
depending on the manufacturer and the application.
Air Separation
4.08 When hydraulic fluid is under pressure, it may
contain a considerable amount of dissolved air. The
dissolved air changes to foam in the return lines and is
finally released in the reservoir. There must be enough
space above the fluid level in the reservoir to hold the
foam until it breaks up, giving the escaping air bubbles
a change to be released. If there is not, the foam will
overflow the tank and create a safety hazard.
Copviog S,any.p,.a,, a,oc,.a,c, o..ha,.ea.a. pe™,..a
 Reservoirs and Accumulators 53

4.09 Although Fig. 4-3 shows a single return line,
many systems have several return lines connected to
the reservoir. Almost all large return lines come from
directional control valves (that supply fluid to the
hydraulic actuators), relief valves, unloading valves,
and other lines which have high discharge rates.
Small return lines come from the pilot flow-control
valves, pressure-control valves, and drainage or leak
age lines that handle low volumes of fluid at atmos
pheric pressure. Large return lines with high dis
charge rates usually are retumed singly to the reser
voir, while the smaller flows sometimes are collected
into a conunon line to be retumed to the reservoir.
4.10 Most of the large return lines discharge into
the reservoir below the oil level, at a point about one
inch above the bottom of the tank. This prevents the
fluid from entraining or absorbing air as it leaves the
retum line. Return lines containing large amounts of
air or foam in the fluid discharge above the fluid level
onto a sloping plate placed at a 5 to 10° angle from
the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 4-4. This plate
spreads out the fluid, letting the air release faster. It is
also important that drainage and leakage lines at
atmospheric pressure discharge above the fluid to pre
vent an airlock (trapped air)from forming.
4.11 Large amounts offoam in the retum lines, or in
the reservoir near the return lines, usually can be
removed by placing a slanted screen in the reservoir.
The screen normally is about 60-mesh, and is mounted
below the surface of the liquid near the retum lines at an
angle of 30° from the vertical. Foam trying to pass
through the screen will give up its air to the atmosphere.
Reservoir Cooling
4.12 It is desirable to maintain the fluid tempera
ture in a hydraulic system at about 110 to 120°F (43
to 49°C). This is not always easy, especially if the
reservoir is placed where it is hot. In addition, wasted
pump work, caused by pump losses, pipe losses, and
control losses, generates large amounts of heat. Expe
rience has shown that systems run cooler under the
following conditions:
• sufficient fluid in the system
• sufficient reservoir surface area to give up
heat to the surrounding air
• a free-standing reservoir that allows for some
degree of air circulation on all sides of the
reservoir
• a good baffle in the reservoir
• thin side walls on the reservoir, with sturdier
bottom and top plates
• location of the hydraulic system in cooler
area of the shop.
4.13 In order to permit efficient cooling of the
fluid, reservoir walls should be as thin as possible.
However, safety must come first. The wall thickness
of a steel reservoir can vary from Vie in. for small
tanks to V4 in. for tanks containing up to 500 gallons
of fluid. Thicker tops and bottoms with adequate

Fig.4-3. Location of suction and return lines Fig.4-4. Use of a splash plate

Return line Baffle

Splash plate
Screen

-u
c

()

Suction line

This(Dstorisl Is proteetsd by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, elactionic, or othor means is illegal without permission.
 ing. Hot reservoirs under precision machinery are
Table 4-1. Reservoir heat transfer undesirable, and have a bad effect on the perfor
mance of the hydraulic system and the machine.
Tank Radiating Heat transfer
capacity (gal) surface (tt^) (Btu/hr)
925
4.15 If a hydraulic system operates with a high
15 7^/8
30 12V2 1550 fluid temperature, even under favorable conditions,
45 153/4 1950 some additional means of cooling the system and
60 21 2600
100 27 3500
reservoir must be used. The following methods aid
200 41 5200 in relieving the fluid of some of its heat:
350 60 7500
500 70 9000
• Fans or blowers can be used to cool accumu
lators or components.

angle-iron reinforcement should be used to provide a • The ventilation near the hydraulic system
firm mounting for the pump and motor. Table 4-1 installation can be improved with exhaust or
shows the approximate amount of cooling provided free-standing fans.
by a reservoir of a given size. Because different
hydraulic fluids transfer heat at different rales, the • A fan-cooled fluid radiator can be used to
Btu value shown must be multiplied by a correction cool the hydraulic fluid.
factor to determine the actual change in degrees
Fahrenheit of the fluid. The correction factor varies • Finned pipes can replace portions of the lines
from approximately 0.10 to 0.40, depending on the to cool the fluid.
type of fluid used, its flow rale and temperature, and
the difference in temperature between the fluid and • A water-cooled heat exchanger also can be
the surrounding air. installed to cool the hydraulic fluid.

4.14 Many manufacturers use reservoirs that are The cooling method used will depend on the appli
built right into the machine. These save space and cation and the amount of cooling required. The
shorten the hydraulic lines, but they do have disad plant or maintenance engineer, or a knowledgeable
vantages—including improper cleaning and cool vendor, can select the necessary cooling equipment.

Fig.4-5, A shell-and-tube heat exchanger

Tube bundle
Water in Fluid out

Hydraulic flow

Cooling water flow M

Header
Water out

Thi» matorial « protaclvd Py U S Copyngnt law Copying by any optcal. electionic. or oinor mean* n illegal wimoyt pefmisiion
 Reservoirs and Accumulators 55

Fig.4-6. Hydraulic graphic symbols

Pump
-<S>
Pressure gauges
d) <D
Temperature gauges Accumulator

I I I I TAmnArAturA
Temperature
Coolers controller Heater Pressure-relief valve

Reservoir
Flow direction

-DXh
Globe valve Gate valve Check valve Filter or strainer

4.16 The operating temperature of the fluid in a one direction through the heat exchanger, while the
hydraulic system can be lowered by cooling the reser liquid doing the cooling moves in the opposite direc
voir with compressed air. For example, at room tem tion. As shown in Fig. 4-5, the hydraulic fluid being
perature without air cooling, the fluid temperature at cooled flows generally from right (inlet) to left (out
the pump inlet may be 150°F(66°C) and the tempera let) through the shell. The cooling liquid flows from
ture of the returning fluid 180°F (82''C). Forced-air left (inlet) to right (outlet) through the tubes, thus
cooling can reduce these to 105°F(40°C) at the pump removing heat from the outer surface of the tubes.
inlet and 135°F (SVC) in the return line. This is a Usually, either the temperature or the flow of cooling
much more satisfactory range of operating tempera water is controlled (to change the cooling rate of the
tures. nuid).

4.17 Under nonnal circumstances, the fluid reser 4.19 A heat exchanger used for cooling hydraulic
voir provides sufficient cooling of the hydraulic fluid. fluid should be connected between the hottest return
If additional cooling (or heating) is needed, shell-and- line(s) and the reservoir. If only a small amount of
tube heat exchangers like the one shown in Fig. 4-5 cooling is needed, a finned tube can be installed as
can be used. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are effi the return line. Sometimes a finned tube helps cool
cient, economical, and compact. They consist of a the hydraulic fluid without requiring a heat exchanger
bundle of tubes connected to a header plate at each or a cooling fluid.
end. A header cap is placed on each end and is con
nected to the cooling fluid, which circulates through Reservoir Accessories
the tubes. The shell, which surrounds the tube bundle,
is connected to the hydraulic fluid lines. As the 4.20 Pump intake strainers are reservoir acces
hydraulic fluid flows through the shell, interior baf sories that were described in Lesson Three. If the
fles change the fluid direction several times. These intake strainer is mounted within the reservoir, an eas
baffles help prevent coating films from forming, ily removable cover plate or door with a leakproof
increase heat transfer efficiency, and support the tube gasket should be provided. If the inlet strainer is
bundle. As the hydraulic fluid flows around the tubes mounted above or outside the reservoir, a gasketed
in the shell, it gives up its heat to the cooling fluid in adapter plate usually is provided in place of the cover
the tubes. plate.

4.18 Most heat exchangers are of the counterflow 4.21 A suction gauge, with a shutoff valve to pro
type. This means that the fluid being cooled moves in tect it, ordinarily is provided as part of the inlet

This material is proteetod by U.S. Capyrighl law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
56 Lesson Four
strainer assembly or piping. This allows the pump
suction pressure to be watched, and aids in deter
mining the condition of the intake strainer.
4.22 An air breather equipped with a 10-/< filter is
installed on the reservoir to allow the reservoir to vent
to the atmosphere. As the fluid level in the reservoir
rises and falls during the operation of the system, the
air breather lets air enter or leave and prevents pres
sure or vacuum buildups in the reservoir.
4.23 A gauge or sightglass should be provided so
that the fluid level and its condition can be checked
easily. Plastic lenses are preferred to glass. They
should be located in a safe place, and be clearly visi
ble. Watching the fluid's condition is just as impor
tant as making sure there is sufficient fluid in the
system.
This cnstetiol is pnteded by U.S. CopyrigM Isw. Copying by any optical, eioctronic, or othor moans is illegal without permission.
4.24 Thermometers or temperature gauges some
times are installed to measure fluid temperatures in
the return line and suction inlet. Although thermome
ters are not an absolute necessity, at least one should
be installed in the return line and regularly check for
accuracy.
4.25 If the reservoir is the support base for the com
plete power unit of a hydraulic system, a great deal of
additional equipment is provided. Additional items
include a base plate, a pump and electric motor with
pressure switches and control wiring,an accumulator,a
pump-unloading control, a filter, a pressure-relief
valve, a line-pressure gauge (with isolation valve), and
a check valve. The number of accessories included in a
power unit package depends on the system require
ments. The graphic symbols for some of these acces
sories are shown in Fig.4-6 on previous page..
 Programmed Exercises 57

4-1. Contaminants suspended in hydraulic 4-1. SLUDGE

fluid settle to the bottom of the reservoir
to form Ref: 4.05

4-2. The bottom of a reservoir should be 4-2. SUMP

sloped toward one end or have a low
spot called the Ref: 4.06

4-3. In order to help circulate returning fluid 4-3. BAFFLE

around the inside of the tank, a reser
voir mav contain afnl Ref: 4.07

4-4. Fluid lines carrying large amounts of air 4-4. SPLASH PLATE
as they return to the reservoir should
discharoe onto afnl Ref: 4.10

4-5. Hydraulic fluid temperatures should be 4-5. 43 TO 49

maintained at about ®C.
Ref: 4.12

4-6. One of the easiest ways to cool the 4-6. COMPRESSED AIR
reservoir is to use
Ref: 4.16

4-7. In most liquid-cooled heat exchangers, 4-7. OPPOSITE

the heat transfer occurs between two
fluids that flow in the direc Ref: 4.18
tion.

4-8. If only a small amount of cooling is 4-8. FINNED

required, afnl tube can be
installed in the return line. Ref: 4.19

This tnalori&l a pcotMod by U.S.Copyrighl law. Copying by any opiical, oiectionie, or other moons is illegal without permission.
58 Lesson Four

Accumulators Fig.4-7. System fluid requirements

4.26 In most hydraulic systems, the demand for

hydraulic fluid and pump work varies greatly during 10
;
i 1
an operating cycle of the system, as shown in Fig. 4- i 1 ■ ! 1
9
7. Starting at zero, the system requires eight gallons - 1 :
e ®
per minute (8 gpm) of fluid for one minute, 2 gpm 9: 7 i

w
I I I :
for 2 minutes,6 gpm for 3 minutes,3 gpm for 3 min, £ 6
2 5
and no flow for 1 min. Thus, in a period of 10 min, ? 4
O
the pump supplies 39 gallons of fluid, or 3.9 gpm. If IL Q i

the system requires no additional fluid for another O

10 min,the average flow would be 1.95 gpm. i \

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
4.27 One way to provide sufficient hydraulic Time(min)
fluid to meet the needs of this system is to use a
pump that can supply 8 gpm whenever it is neces
sary, and a smaller amount at other times. However,
such a solution would mean that much of the pump's • weight-loaded or gravity accumulators
capacity is not used during the greater portion of the
cycle. If the system can store fluid, a smaller pump • spring-loaded piston accumulators
can be used. For instance, if a pump supplies 3 gpm
to the system continuously, and the system accumu • air-bottle or nonseparated-gas accumulators
lates excess fluid until it is needed, then the installa
tion, operating, and servicing costs of the pump are • bladder or bag accumulators
greatly reduced. This is the function of an accumula
tor. • diaphragm accumulators

4.28 Accumulators store fluid under pressure and • gas-charged piston accumulators
release it on demand in a smooth,even flow, at rela
tively constant pressure. Accumulators provide auxil • differential-piston accumulators.
iary power and emergency power in case of pump
failure, compensate for leakage, and help cushion or The performance ranges for some of these accumula
absorb hydraulic shocks. Selection of the accumula tors are shown in Table 4-2. Some manufacturers'
tor is based on total system requirements and not just ranges may vary slightly from those shown.
a partial sampling. Accumulators are made in many
different types. Although different in design and con 4.29 The weight-loaded or gravity accumulator,
struction, they all operate in the same manner. Some shown in Fig. 4-8, consists of a long, finely ground
of the more common types of accumulators used in and polished vertical steel cylinder that is fitted with
hydraulic systems are: a long, close-fitting, smooth-finished piston. A seal-

Table 4-2. Accumulator performance range

Accumulator Capacity(gal) Pressure(pel) Temperature(°C) Temperature ("F)
Weight-loaded or gravity 1 500 121 250
Spring-loaded piston Vp 50-500 80 175
Air-bottle 10-1500 50-500 Fluid limit Fluid limit
Bladder 10-20 6000 80 175
Diaphragm 20 1500 80 175
Gas-charged piston 20 5000 -40 to 121 -40 to 250

This moterisl is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying tiy any optieal, electiDnic, or other means is illegal without permission.
 Reservoirs and Accumuiators 59

ing device is fitted into the cylinder wall to prevent Fig.4-8. Weight-loaded accumulator
fluid from leaking past the piston. Weights are
mounted or placed on the piston to maintain a con
stant fluid pressure within the cylinder and the
Weight
remainder of the system. The amount of weight
depends on the system pressure. The piston is pre
vented from overtraveling by limit switches that turn Sealing device
the pump off when the level is too high and turn the
pump on when the level becomes low.

4.30 The fluid capacity of most weight-loaded
accumulators does not exceed 250 in^ (slightly over
one gallon). Weight-loaded accumulators are used
infrequently because they are large, heavy, costly, and
sluggish. Their response to changes in fluid demand is
slow, especially during high input surges, because of
the large mass of the weights and the frictional drag
of the pressure seals.
4.31 The spring-loaded piston accumulator,shown
in Fig. 4-9, is similar to the weight-loaded accumula
tor in design and principle. Pressure is maintained
within the system by one or more springs. As excess
system fluid is admitted to the cylinder, the piston
rises, compressing the springs. When fluid is
required, the springs expand and force the piston
down,adding fluid to the system. The amount of fluid
in the cylinder and the system is controlled by a pres
sure switch that turns the pump on when the system
reaches the minimum pressure point, and turns it off
when the accumulator is charged and maximum pres
sure is reached. Pressure delivered by spring-loaded
accumulators decreases as the spring returns to its
uncompressed length. A safety stop switch limits pis
ton travel and also shuts off the pump if the spring
breaks.
Cylinder
^ To hydraulic system
shell by the fluid in the lower portion. There is no
physical separation between the air (or gas) and the
fluid. These accumulators are usually fitted with some
type of limit switch to control the fluid level and pre
vent gas from escaping out of the fluid port in the bot
tom. To prevent the gas from leaving the accumulator
during high rates of fluid flow, about one-third of the
fluid remains in the shell.
4.34 The fluid capacity of air-bottle accumulators
is quite large because of their nonmechanical design.
The fluid capacity is dependent only on the size of the
vessel used. Although the response is fast, the major
disadvantage of this accumulator is the fact that gas is
absorbed or dissolved by the fluid under high pres
sures and can cause cavitation in the system. As a
result, nonseparated-gas accumulators should not be

Fig.4-9. Spring-loaded accumulator

4.32 The fluid capacity of spring-loaded piston
accumulators is small (usually less than one gallon).
Although spring-loaded piston accumulators have low
maintenance costs, they are comparatively large and
expensive for their capacity. Their response is fairly
fast, but their use is limited to small volumes and
low-pressure applications.

4.33 The air-bottle or nonseparated-gas accumu Packing

lator shown in Fig. 4-10 on the next page is fully
enclosed shell, mounted vertically, which has a fluid
port on the bottom of the shell and a pneumatic charg
ing valve on the top. When charged, air or nitrogen To hydraulic system
under pressure is confined in the upper portion of the
This matsrtsl is protoctod by U S Copyright taw. Copying by any ophcal, electronc, or other means is illegal without permission.
60 Lesson Four

Fig.4-10. Air-bottle accumulator Fig.4-12. Diaphragm accumulator

High-pressure
air valve

High-pressure
air line for Diaphragm
precharging
Fluid level

Perforated plate
2
To hydraulic system
^ To hydraulic system 1 <=>

used with high-speed pumps. Another disadvantage is
that a separate compressor usually is required to
charge and maintain the gas pressure in the vessel.
4.35 Figure 4-11 shows a bladder or bag accumu
lator. A seamless, high-pressure cylindrical shell
encloses a pear-shaped synthetic rubber bladder. The
bladder is molded to an air stem, which contains a
high-pressure air valve, and is mounted with a high-
pressure seal in the upper end of the shell. The bottom
or fluid end of the shell is sealed by a special plug and
spring-loaded poppet valve that ailows fluid to flow
in and out of the shell. The poppet valve prevents the
bladder from bulging out into the fluid port. In addi
tion, the plug has a safety device that prevents the dis
assembly of the accumulator if there is any pressure
in the system.
4.36 Before being put in operation, the accumula
tor is preloaded with air and then charged with
hydraulic fluid from the system,thus compressing the
air and the bladder. As the system needs fluid, the
bladder expands—first at the top (where its diameter
is largest and its wall thickness is least) and then,
gradually, stretching downward and outward against
the walls of the shell. This action squeezes out all but W
the cushion oil in the bottom of the shell and gives the
bladder its high efficiency and pressure range.
4.37 Even though the bladder has a fluid capacity
of approximately 20 gallons, its response is as fast as
the discharge valve will permit. The bladder also has
very low inertia, making it a good pump-pulsation
dampener. In addition, it maintains a positive separa
tion between the fluid and gas. This is especially

Fig.4-11. Bladder accumulator

Normal Preloading Charging

position with air from pump
Air at system
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure — Preload Oil at system
pressure pressure
r\

Pressurized oil
Cushion oil from pump

This material is protsclsd by U.S. Copyright law. Copying try any optical, electiontc,or other means is illegal without permission.
 Reservoirs and Accumulators 61

important when considering the high-pressure condi Fig.4-13. Gas-charged piston accumulator
tions for which bladder accumulators are recom
mended.

4.38 The diaphragm accumulator is clamped

between two dome-shaped shells held together by
threaded or bolted flanges, as shown in Fig. 4-12. The
Bleed hole
diaphragm has an even thickness and is molded with
a single convolution (wave or roll) to allow it to move
more easily. During operation, the diaphragm flexes
instead of stretching like the air bladder. It is not suit
able for high pressures.
To hydraulic
system
4.39 The gas-charged piston accumulator shown
in Fig. 4-13 can be compared to a diaphragm accumu
lator. It consists of a free-floating piston, placed in a
cylinder, which separates the gas and fluid. The cylin piston. For instance, if the air piston has twice the
der is precision-machined, honed, and capped,and the area of the fluid piston, the fluid has twice the pres
piston is equipped with seals to en.sure positive sepa sure of the air and '/: the actual volume.
ration of the fluid and gas. The end caps of the cylin
der are retained by various means, including thread 4.43 Gas-charged accumulators depend on the
ing, lock rings, tie rods, and welding. The accumula compression of a gas for their fluid capacity and pres
tor is safety-locked to prevent it from being disassem sure level. If the temperature of the gas increases
bled while it is pressurized. Also, a safety-burst disk slightly, the gas volume also increases, and the fluid
is sometimes built into the gas end to protect the volume decreases. If the temperature of the gas cools,
accumulator from excessive pressures and to prevent
the opposite occurs. When selecting a differential-pis
serious accidents.
ton accumulator, make sure that the selection is based
on the volume of the fluid piston.
4.40 Although the fluid capacity of some gas-
charged piston accumulators may reach 20 gallons, their
response is slower than that of the bladder accumulator
in eliminating pulsations because of the mass of the pis
Fig.4-14. Differential-piston accumulator
ton and the friction of the seals. Other disadvantages
include cost, limitations in size, maintenance difficulties,
and frequent recharging of the gas side. One of the
advantages of gas-charged piston accumulators is that
they are suitable for both high- and low-temperature Check valve

operation when the proper 0-ring seals are used. Air pressure
regulator

4.41 The differential-piston accumulator shown in

Fig. 4-14 consists of a large-diameter air piston in an Air chamber-

upper cylinder, which bears against a small-diameter Packing

Air piston
fluid piston in a lower cylinder. This arrangement
allows a small amount of air pressure to control a Oil piston Bleed port
large amount of fluid pressure. The differential-piston
-Packing
accumulator is also used as a pressure booster or fluid
intensifier.
Oil chamber

4.42 The gain in pressure is offset by a loss in

fluid flow. Volume and pressure are calculated as fol To system
lows: pressure ratio = area of air piston -r area of fluid
The maienal i» protsOM tiy U S Copyngnt law Copying by any oolcai, aWctronc. or obiei maans is illegal wntbojl permissjon
62 Programmed Exercises

4-9. The function of an accumulator is to 4-9. STORE

hydraulic fluid for the svstem
under pressure. Ref; 4.27, 4.28

4-10. The fluid capacity of a weight-loaded 4-10. ONE

accumulator generally is not much more
than oallonfsT Ref: 4.30

4-11. The use of spring-loaded accumulators 4-11. LOW

is limited to -pressure aoolica-
tions. Ref: 4.32

4-12. Air-bottle accumulators are not recom 4-12. BECAUSE THE AIR IS ABSORBED
mended for use in high-pressure appli BY THE FLUID
cations. Why?
Ref: 4.34

4-13. A bladder accumulator has a fluid 4-13. 20

capacity of approximately
gallon(s). Ref: 4.37

4-14. Diaphragm accumulators should NOT 4-14. FLEXES

be used for high-pressure applications
because the diaphraom dur Ref: 4.38
ing operation.

4-15. Gas-charged piston accumulators are 4-15. PULSATIONS

not as effective as bladder accumula
tors in removino from the Ref: 4.40
system.

4-16. A differential piston accumulator can 4-16. BOOSTER; INTENSIFIER

also be used as a pressure
or fluid Ref: 4.41

This motoriol is protaetad by U.S. Copyright law Copying liy any opticBl, eloctionic. or othor means is illegai without porrrtission.
 Self-Check Quiz 63

Answer the following questions by marking an "X"

in the box next to the best answer.

4-1 In order to separate contaminants from 4-6. For what reason is an air breather installed
hydraulic fluid in the reservoir, the fluid must on a reservoir?
be
□ a. Prevent pressure buildup
□ a. moved rapidly □ b. Control air pressure
□ b. moved slowly □ c. Control humidity
□ c. swirled □ d. Maintain vacuum
□ d. air-entrained
4-7. An accumulator is used in a hydraulic system
4-2. The bottom of a hydraulic fluid reservoir for all of the following reasons EXCEPT to
should NOT be
□ a. store pressurized fluid
□ a. V-shaped □ b. absorb hydraulic shocks
□ b. equipped with a drain □ c. supply fluid on demand
□ c. sloped □ d. take the place of the pump
□ d. flat
4-8. Because of their nonmechanical design, air-
4-3. A hydraulic reservoir relies on an interior baf bottle accumulators should NOT be used with
fle to
□ a. large volumes
□ a. help heat transfer □ b. low pressures
□ b. reduce fluid surface area □ c. high-speed pumps
□ c. strengthen the reservoir walls □ d. low volumes
□ d. support interior piping
4-9, Which of the following is the correct proce
4-4. What method is NOT used to maintain the dure to use when charging a bladder accu
temperature of hydraulic fluid at an accept mulator?
able level?
□ a. Preload fluid, then air
□ a. Reducing pump work □ b. Preload air, then fluid
□ b. Reducing pipe friction □ c. Preload fluid, drain air
□ c. Using reservoir with large surface □ d. Preload air, drain fluid
area

□ d. Using reservoir with thick side walls 4-10. A distinctive characteristic of a differential-pis
ton accumulator Is that it reduces
4-5. Most liquid-cooled heat exchangers transfer
heat by means of □ a. the pressure ratio
□ b. air pressure
□ a. direct contact of the fluids □ c. fluid volume
□ b. separated fluids moving in the same □ d. vacuum
direction
□ c. separated fluids moving in the
opposite directions.
□ d. forced-air cooling

This mateiial is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying try any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
64 Lesson Four

SUMMARY

The fluid reservoir of a hydraulic system accumu Pump intake strainers, suction gauges, and air
lates and stores hydraulic fluid to meet the varying breathers are common reservoir accessories.
needs of the system. Fluid moves slowly while in Others include level gauges and thermometers.
the reservoir, allowing suspended contaminates to The type and number of reservoir accessories
settle to the bottom of the tank where they are used depend on the requirements of the system.
removed later. A baffle in the tank helps returning
fluid to circulate so that it can give up some of its Another important hydraulic system component
heat. Dissolved air in the hydraulic fluid changes to is the accumulator. The accumulator stores
foam while in the return lines to the reservoir. The hydraulic fluid until the system needs it. It also
foam that enters the tank eventually dissolves. helps cushion and absorb hydraulic shocks.
Large amounts of heat are often generated in the There are many types of accumulators, but all
hydraulic system, heating the fluid as well. Fans or operate In the same manner. Fluid capacities
blowers, ventilation,fan-cooled radiators,finned range from less than one gallon to more than 20
pipes, and water-cooled heat exchangers are gallons.
among the methods used to cool the hydraulic
fluid.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

4-1. b. Moved slowly. Ref: 4.05 4-6. a. Prevent pressure buiidup. Ref: 4.22

4-2. d. Flat. Ref: 4.06 4-7. d. Take the piace of the pump.
Ref: 4.27, 4.28
4-3. a. Help heat transfer. Ref: 4.07
4-8. c. High-speed pumps. Ref: 4.34
4-4. d. Using reservoir with thick side waiis.
Ref: 4.12 4-9. d. Preioad air, then fluid. Ref: 4.36

4-5. c. Separated fiuids moving in the 4-10. c. Fluid volume. Ref: 4.41-4.43
opposite directions. Ref: 4.18

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 4-1. Abex Corp. Dennison Div. Figure 4-11. Greer Hydraulics, Inc.
Figure 4-5. Perfex Corporation Figure 4-14. Greer Hydraulics, Inc.

This material is protected liy U.S. Copyright low. Copying tiy any optlcel. electronic, or ether means is IBegal wittnut permission.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lesson Five

Hydraulic
Pumps

co

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Hydraulic Pumps

TOPICS

Pump Classification Service Life

Rating and Selecting Factors Installation and Maintenance Costs
Capacity Types of Pumps
Pressure Gear Pumps
Energy Consumption External Gear Pumps
Drive Speed Internal Gear Pumps
Efficiency Axial-Flow (Screw) Pumps
Reliability Cycloidal Pumps
Fluid Characteristics Vane Pumps
Size and Weight Piston Pumps
Control Adaptability

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Name the main classification of hydraulic pumps. • Define volumetric efficiency and overall efficiency.
• List factors affecting pump selection and pump perfor • Identify the most common types of positive-displace
mance. ment pumps, and describe their operation.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Pump 5.01 the device used in a hydraulic system Overall efficiency 5.16 the ratio of a pump's
to convert mechanical energy Into hydraulic ener hydraulic power output to its mechanical power
gy input
Volumetric efficiency 5.16 the ratio of a pump's
actual delivery rate to its theoretical displacement

Ths malerial is pnxeaed by U S Copyngni law Copying by any opiicai. siaclionc. or otber mearts s illegal wiinout oennsaion
 67

Previous Lessons in this Unit have described various components of a hydrauiic

system. All are Important If the system is to function properly. This Lesson
describes one of the most Important parts of the hydraulic system-the
pump-and explains its operating characteristics.

Pumps are classified according to different types of construction, operating

characteristics, and design features. This Lesson explains important mainte
nance and installation requirements of hydraulic pumps and boosters. When you
know how pumps are constructed and how they operate, you will be able to trou-
bieshoot the system quickly and with confidence.

Pump Classification separation against leakage or slippage. Because of

this slippage, the delivery of these pumps is reduced
5.01 A hydraulic pump is a mechanical device as the working pressure of a system is increased.
which converts mechanical energy into hydrauiic However, nonpositive-displacement pumps deliver
energy. More specifically, a pump converts the kinetic a continuous flow, while positive-displacement
(moving) energy of a rotating shaft into the kinetic pumps deliver an intermittent (pulsating) flow.
energy of fluid flow. The fluid flow also has potential These pulsations are small and can be smoothed out
energy that allows it to overcome the resistance of the by the accumulator or the system piping. Most
system to fluid flow. Remember that a pump provides hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement pumps
the force to produce flow and transmit power. of the rotary type.
Hydraulic pressure is caused by the load on die sys
tem and by the resistance of the hydraulic system to 5.05 Positive-displacement pumps have either a
fluid flow. fixed or variable displacement. The volume of deliv
ery, or gpm, of a fixed-displacement pump can be
5.02 When operating, a hydraulic pump performs changed only by changing the speed of the pump,
two functions. First, it creates a partial vacuum at its because the physical arrangement of the pumping
inlet, permitting the atmospheric pressure in the fluid mechanism cannot be changed.(This does not mean
reservoir to push the hydraulic fluid through the inlet that the flow in other portions of the system cannot be
strainer and line into the pump. Second, its mechani adjusted by valves.)
cal action delivers the fluid to its outlet and into the
hydraulic system, as shown in Fig. 5-1. As the fluid 5.06 The flow of a variable-displacement pump
leaves the pump, it encounters the working pressure can be changed by changing the physical arrange
in the system. This pressure is produced by the pres ment of the pumping mechanism with a built-in con
sure-regulating valve, the system work load, and flow trolling device. This device often functions in
losses in the hydraulic tubing.

5.03 A pump is classified on the basis of the Fig.5-1. Pump operation

physical arrangement of its pumping mechanism and
its basic principle of operation. Pumps classified by
principles of operation include positive-displace
ment and nonpositive-displacement types. Positive-
displacement pumps are equipped with a mechanical Pump
Pressurized
separation (gears, vanes, or impellers) between the fluid
inlet and outlet, which minimizes internal leakage or
slippage. Therefore, the output of positive-displace
ment pumps is almost unaffected by variations in
system pressure. Storage (fluid under Work
W atmospheric
pressure)
5.04 Nonpositive-displacement pumps (such as
centrifugal pumps) do not have a positive internal
This material is protected by U.S. Copyright law. Copying tty any optical, electronic, or other moans is ittegal without permission.
68 Lesson Five

Table 5-1. Pump comparison

Pump type Capacity(gpm) Pressure (psi) Speed (rpm) Efficiency(%)

Gear 150 2500 1800 SO

Vane 95 2000 1800 S5
Axial-piston 140 5000 1800 S8
Radial-piston ISO 3000 1800 95

response to system pressure or other signals. Vari • efficiency

able-displacement pumps are more complex than
fixed-displacement pumps and, therefore, cost more.
In addition, the efficiency of a variable-displacement
pump is lower than that of a fixed-displacement
pump. This is offset somewhat by the higher overall
efficiency of a system powered by a variable-dis
placement pump.
5.07 Most positive-displacement pumps are classi
fied as rotary pumps. This is because the assembly
that transfers the fluid from the pump inlet to the
pump outlet has a rotating motion. Rotary pumps are
further classified according to the mechanism that
transfers the fluid—such as gears, vanes,or screws.
5.08 A different kind of positive-displacement
pump is the piston pump. This pump uses a recipro
cating (back-and-forth) motion of the piston, alter
nately to receive fluid on the inlet side, and to dis
charge fluid on the outlet side. A radial-piston pump
has a revolving assembly with several piston assem
blies built into it, and can be classified as a rotary
pump. Several types of piston pumps will be dis
cussed later in this Lesson.
Rating and Selection Factors
5.09 The performance of different pumps is evalu
ated on the basis of many factors, including physical
characteristics, operating characteristics, and cost.
When selecting a pump, the following pump rating
and selection factors are considered:
• capacity
• pressure
• energy consumption
• drive speed
This tnatefial is pfotsctod by U.S.Capynght law. Copying by any optical. olectiDnic, or other meons a illegal without permission.
• reliability
• fluid characteristics
• size and weight
• control adaptability
• service life
• installation and maintenance costs.
Some of the performance characteristics of different
pumps are given in Table 5-1. Each of these selection
factors is described briefly in the following para
graphs.
Capacity
5.10 The primary rating of a pump is its capacity.
This is also called the delivery rate,flow rate,or volu
metric output. The capacity usually is given in gallons
per minute (gpm), cubic inches per minute (in^/min),
or cubic inches per revolution at specified operating
conditions.Pump capacity ratings usually are given at
standard atmospheric inlet pressure and various out
put pressures, as well as at approximate fluid service
temperatures.
Pressure
5.11 The pressure rating of a pump generally is
based on the ability of the pump to withstand pressure
without an undesirable increase in its internal leakage
(or slippage) or damage to pump parts. Pumps are
pressure-rated under the same conditions (speed,tem W
perature, and inlet pressure) at which they are capaci
ty-rated. Most pumps are pressure-rated at 100, 500,
1000,1500,2000,3500,or 5000 psi.

Energy Consumption
5.12 Energy consumption is an important consider
ation not only in the selection of a pump, but also in
the operating performance of the pump after the sys
tem is installed. The energy requirement for pumping
depends on the pumping pressure, and on the mass of
fluid pumped in a given time. The fluid pumping
horsepower is determined as follows;
hp =(gpm X Ib/gal x psi) -r-(14286 x n)
where n is the overall efficiency of the pump, motor,
and drive. As you can see from this equation, reduc
ing gpm and psi results in a proportional reduction in
pumping horsepower. Control of pump delivery can
be accomplished either manually or automatically,
using handwheels,levers, or variable-speed motors or
transmission actuated by load-sensing controls.
Drive Speed
5.13 Pumps often are rated at the commonly avail
able electric motor speeds of 1200 or 1800 rpm. They
also may be rated at speeds other than motor speeds.
For instance, higher speeds occur in mobile hydraulic
pumps driven from internal combustion engines.
These engines usually operate at a constant speed and
include speeds of 2000 rpm and higher. Some indus
trial hydraulic pumps are rated at speeds of up to
4000 rpm.
5.14 The maximum safe speed for a rotating pump
is limited by the pump's ability to avoid cavitation
and high outlet pressures. Most rotating pumps also
require a minimum operating speed. Although these
speeds usually are not critical, pumps operating at
high pressures require a minimum speed in order to
prevent overheating or internal slippage.
5.15 Maximum speed and pressure ratings for
pumps often are given for both intermittent and
continuous operation. Continuous ratings describe
the maximum speed and pressure at which a pump
can be operated for a normal design life (about
10,000 hours). Intermittent ratings are the maxi
mum speed and pressure at which a pump can be
operated safely for short times and still have a satis
factory service life. Operating a hydraulic pump
beyond its drive speed ratings usually reduces its
service life.
This material Is protected by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means Is illegal without permission.
Hydraulic Pumps 69
Efficiency
5.16 As pointed out earlier, the pressure a system
exerts on the hydraulic pump directly affects the
delivery rate of the pump. As the pressure increases,
the flow rate of the pump decreases. The amount of
decrease varies depending on the type of pump used.
This change in flow affects the pump's efficiency.
Pump efficiency is described in two ways:
• volumetric efficiency—\ht ratio of the actual
delivery rate to the theoretical displacement
• overall efficiency— ratio of the hydraulic
power output to the mechanical power input.
Reliability
5.17 The reliability of a pump is determined by
how well the characteristics of the pump are matched
to the requirements of the system. Reliability can also
be measured in maintenance time. Items such as how
much fluid is required, how well the system is
designed and maintained, where the pump is located,
and how durable it is, all are related to reliability.
Fluid Characteristics
5.18 The selection and rating of a pump are also
based on the type of fluid to be pumped, and its vis
cosity. Secondary fluid considerations include density,
foaming, lubricity, and oxidation and corrosion resis
tance,as well as temperature and its effect on seals.
5.19 Petroleum fluids with suitable viscosity and
protective additives usually present no problems for
pumps. However, the poor lubricity of water-contain
ing or fire-resistant fluids requires pumps that can tol
erate thin, nonlubricating oil films. For example, the
service life of a pump may be reduced 25 to 60% if
fire-resistant fluids are substituted for petroleum oil.
Size and Weight
5.20 Size and weight are key factors in selecting a
pump. Many pumps are mounted on a heavy plate on
top of the reservoir, so the reservoir must be strong
enough to support the load. It is also recommended
that the plate be vibration-isolated. In many applica
tions, the pump must be placed within a machine that
has only limited available space. Some pumps have
70 Lesson Five

specific limitations on their application (speed,fluids,
operating life, and so on). They also may have special
features, such as the release of air whenever another
pump is started up,or variable capacities.
Control Adaptability
5.21 The capacity of a pump must be controlled to
meet the power requirements of the system. The
methods used to regulate pump delivery include
hydraulic, electrical, mechanical, and pneumatic con
trols or adjustments. The flow rate or pressure capa
bility of a pump can be controlled by the pump, its
drive motor, or a control device in the system.
Although variable-displacement pumps are larger in
size than fixed-displacement pumps, they can greatly
simplify hydraulic system design.
Service Life
interior size is then reduced, and the fluid is dis
charged through the pump discharge. The pump is
designed to prevent the high-pressure fluid on the dis
charge side from leaking excessively to the inlet side
of the pump.Each type of pump is constructed differ
ently from the others, and each has a different internal
configuration that changes the volume of the pump.
Gear Pumps
5.25 Many types of gear pumps are manufactured
for hydraulic systems. They operate by trapping fluid
between the gear teeth and the housing on the inlet
side and carrying the fluid to the discharge side of the
pump. Fluid is prevented from leaking back by the
mechanical seal formed by the small clearance
between the gears and the housing. The four major
classifications of gear pumps are external gear, inter
nal gear, axial-flow (or screw),and cycloidal.

5.22 The service life of a pump is rated in hours of
operation. Many hydraulic pumps have a service life
of 10,000 hours, or about one year. Others operate for
three or five years at about 5000 hours per year,for a
total of 15,000 or more hours. The service life
depends on the design and construction of the pump
as well as on the application.
5.26 Each of these major classifications has two or
more variations to the basic design. The basic design
and construction features of these pumps euid some of
their variations will be discussed in the following por
tion of this Lesson.

Installation and Maintenance Costs

5.23 Various costs must be considered when you

select a pump.Although the initial cost of the pump is
a primary consideration, the cost of the piping con
nections, controls, and installation are also selection
factors. In addition, energy consumption, mainte
nance, and replacement costs should be considered.
All these pump selection factors are evaluated when
the system is being designed. After a pump has oper
ated for a period of time and must be replaced, usual
ly only the replacement, operating, and maintenance
costs are considered.

Types of Pumps

5.24 The most common types of pumps used in

hydraulic systems are gear, vane, radial-piston, and
axial-piston pumps. Each of these pumps is a posi
tive-displacement pump, which transmits fluid by
changing the volume of the pump interior. As the vol
ume of the pump interior becomes greater, fluid is
drawn into the pump through the inlet opening. The
This RialofisI is protected t>y U. S.Copyiight law. Copying by any optical, eleetronie. or other moans is iDegsl without pemsssion.
 Programmed Exercises 71

5-1. A hvdraulic oumo converts 5-1. MECHANICAL; HYDRAULIC

enerav into enerqy.
Ref: 5.01

5-2. Pumps classified by their principle of 5-2. POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT,

operation include and NONPOSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT
types.
Ref: 5.03

5-3. Positive-displacement pumps have 5-3. FIXED, VARIABLE

either afnl or dis
placement. Ref: 5.05

5-4. Fixed-displacement pumps are 5-4. MORE

efficient than variable-
displacement pumps. Ref: 5.06

5-5. The delivery rate or flow rate of a pump 5-5. CAPACITY

is commonly referred to as its
Ref: 5.10

5-6. To prevent overheating and internal 5-6. SPEED

slippage, a high-pressure pump is limit
ed to a minimum ooeratino Ref: 5.14

5-7. Name the two ways in which pump effi 5-7. VOLUMETRIC, OVERALL
ciency is described.
Ref: 5.16

5-8. The service life of a pump is specified 5-8. HOURS

in terms of ooeratino
Ref: 5.22

This malarial Is prataded by U. S. Copyright bw. Copying by any optical, alaetionic, or ochar moons is iOagal without permission.
External Gear Pumps
5.27 The classification of external gear pumps is
based on the construction of the gears, and the fact
that the gear teeth extend outward from the center.
The basic elements of the external gear pump are
shown in Fig. 5-2. These include a drive gear, a dri
ven gear, and a housing. When running, the driving
gear causes the driven gear to rotate in the opposite
direction. As the gears rotate, the pressure at the
pump inlet is reduced, allowing fluid from the reser
voir to enter the pump and flow into the space
between the teeth and the housing. As the gear teeth
mesh on the discharge side, the fluid is forced out
through the discharge port. External gear pumps oper
ate at speeds of 1200 to 4000 rpm and at pressures of
up to 3000 psi.
5.28 External gear pumps are furnished with steel
spur, helical, and herringbone gears. Each gear has
advantages peculiar to its own design, but all operate
in the same manner. For instance, spur gears are eco
nomical to manufacture but have a pulsating dis
charge flow. They are suitable only for low speeds
because of the angled formation of the teeth. Howev
er, the shape of the teeth also causes end thrust. Her
ringbone gears offer a smooth fluid flow and have
less end thrust than the helical gears, but are expen
sive to manufacture.
5.29 The housings of most gear pumps are made
of cast iron or steel and have several sections, as
shown in Fig. 5-3. The body or center of the housing
is machined to receive the gears and inlet and dis
Fig. 5-2. Elements of an external gear pump
Housing
Driven gear
Thia malenal ts piotMtti)Oy U S. Cooynght law
charge ports. The faces are machined smooth, and
drilled and tapped so that the end covers can be bolted
on. The end covers are drilled for the bolts, and may
be doweled or pinned to ensure a well-aligned fit
between the end covers and the center portion. The
end covers also are machined to accept the shaft-sup-
port bearings. These bearings may be of the sleeve or
antifriction type. In addition, the end cover on the
drive shaft end is fitted with a sealing device to pre
vent fluid leakage.
5.30 A variation of the two-gear external pump,
shown in Fig. 5-4, has three gears placed in a single
housing. A three-gear pump can have the inlet and
discharge passages from each section connected. In
this way, it will function as a single pump with twice
the flow of a two-gear pump, or it can function as two
separate pumps. The relatively short leakage path
between the intake and discharge chambers usually
limits the maximum pressure capability of a three-
gear pump to 1200 psi.
Internal Gear Pumps
5.31 The pumping action is an internal gear pump,
shown in Fig. 5-5, is similar to an external gear pump.
The major difference is in the pump construction. The
outer drive gear revolves within the housing and dri
ves the inner gear. A fluid seal is formed between the
inner and outer gear teeth by the stationary crescent.
Fluid is drawn into the spaces between the teeth of the
inner and outer gears in the inlet chamber and forced
out again into the discharge chamber. Note the posi
tion of the inlet and discharge ports. Internal gear
Fig. 5-3. An assembled gear pump
End covers
Copying by any ooocol. elactronic. or othsr means s illegal wilhou: pormisson
pumps used in hydraulic systems usually are limited Fig. 5-4. A three-gear pump
to operating at pressures below 1000 psi, in applica
tions that have low speeds and small capacities.

5.32 A variation of the internal gear pump com

monly called a gerotor pump is shown in Fig. 5-6.
Driven gear
This pump is manufactured without the crescent sep
arator and with the internal gear having only one
less tooth than the external gear. Because the exter
nal gear is enclosed, the inlet and discharge ports are Drive gear

located on the end covers of the housing. Some

pumps are made with a small spacer plate that con Outlet
tains the ports.
Driven gear

5.33 Housing materials used in internal gear

pumps are similar to those used in external gear
pumps, as is the construction of the housing. Howev
er, the end or wear plates of many internal gear
pumps form a seal with the ends of the gears. Fluid
from the pump outlet furnishes the pressure to keep Axial-Flow (Screw)Pumps
them tight against the ends of the gears, thus main
taining pump efficiency. 5.35 An axial-flow pump is more commonly referred
to as a screw pump. A screw pump is similar in operation
5.34 Most internal gear pumps are simple in con
to an external gear pump in that the fluid is moved along
struction and provide a continuous (but slightly pul
between the rotor teeth and the pump housing. However,
sating) transfer of fluid. As a positive-displacement
instead of the fluid being moved in a rotary motion, it is
pump, an internal gear pump's delivery varies almost
moved axially along the length of the housing. The screw
directly with its speed of operation. Its maximum
capacity of about 150 gpm is only slightly affected by pump shown in Fig. 5-7 on the next page has three rotors;
changes in pressure, fluid temperature, and viscosity. two-rotor models also are available.

The operating speeds and pressure (500 psi) are con

sidered low when compared to external gear pumps. 5.36 The seal between the rotors and the housing is
However,some are now being built for approximately maintained by a very small amount of clearance. This
3000-psi service. close fit prevents fluid from flowing back to the inlet side

Fig.5-5. An internal gear pump Fig. 5-6. A gerotor pump

Casing

This material is protectea by U. S. Copynghl law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
 Fig. 5-7. A screw pump
Discharge
I I
Power rotor
Suction
of the pump.In some models the pump inlet is at the ends
of the rotors with the discharge in the center. Also, some
pumps are equipped with timing gears on one end of the
shafts to prevent the rotors from contacting each other
while operating. Because of their method of moving fluid,
these pumps are limited to low-pressure (500 psi), high-
capacity uses,such as fluid-transfer applications.
Cycloidal Pumps
5.37 Figure 5-8 shows a cycloidal pump with two
lobes. These pumps function in much the same man-
Fig.5-8. A cycloidal pump
Tooth or lobe
This matenal is protected by U S Copyngnt law
Idler rotor
Idler rotor
ner as external gear pumps, but, because of their
design, the fluid seal cannot be as positive. Therefore,
these pumps are used more as transfer pumps, han
dling large volumes at low pressures. They are manu
factured with different tooth or lobe shapes and are
available with one, two,three, or four rotors.
Vane Pumps
5.38 Another type of pump frequently used with
hydraulic systems is the vane pump, which operates
quite differently from the gear pump. In the simple
unbalanced vane pump shown in Fig. 5-9A, fluid is
drawn into the pump by the action of the sliding
vanes. As the rotor turns, the sliding vanes remove the
fluid from the inlet area, causing a negative pressure.
This allows fluid from the reservoir to enter the inlet
passage. Fluid trapped by the vanes is pushed along
toward the discharge port. As the size of the cavity
becomes smaller, the fluid is forced out of the pump
discharge passage.
5.39 Although the various types of vane pumps
differ in construction, they are basically similar and
have similar components. The components include a
rotor that is slotted to receive the vanes, the vanes, a
cam ring, seal plates, a housing, and end covers. The
names that are given to the different pumps, such as
balanced, unbalanced, fixed-displacement, and vari
able-displacement, all describe the construction
and/or operation of the pumps.
5.40 Vane pumps constructed with an eccentric or
off-center rotor, as in Fig. 5-9A, are classified as
Copying by any optcai. eieciionc, or other moans is illegal wiirogi permisson

Fig. 5-9. Vane pumps
Inlet
Housing!
A. Unbalanced
unbalanced. The term unbalanced refers to the heavy
side thrust placed on the rotor bearings by the pres
sure of the fluid. Unbalanced vane pumps are not
used for high-pressure systems because of the large
bearing requirements and uneven wear.
5.41 The vane pump shown in Fig. 5-9B is a bal
anced high-pressure pump. Note that the pump is
made with two crescent-shaped pumping chambers
instead of one. In this manner, the thrust developed on
one side of the pump is balanced by the thrust devel
oped on the other side. The bearings on this pump
actually can be smaller than those on a gear pump of
comparable size because of the more even loading.
5.42 The vanes of most pumps are held in contact
with the housing by centrifugal and fluid pressure
developed within the pump. Vanes are shaped in vari
ous ways to make them more efficient for different
applications. Some are narrower at the bottom than at
the point where they touch the housing, some have
springs, and some are placed at different angles in the
rotor. In order to permit the vanes to move more
freely and to extend their life, the vane tips usually
are grooved or split, as shown in Fig. 5-10. Grooving
the vane tips allows for better lubrication, and results
in a smaller contact area being presented at the hous
ing. Splitting the vane has a similar effect, but it also
allows pump pressure to lift the vane much like a
spring, although with less force.
5.43 Many vane pumps are equipped with seal or
wear plates that press against the end faces of the
rotor and the vanes, providing the sealed chamber
1 malanal is proteded by U. S Copyrrgtil law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal witnout permission.
Hydraulic Pumps 75
^ Discharge
Housing
B. Balanced
required to transfer fluid. The seal plates are pressur
ized by the fluid being pumped, as they are in internal
gear pumps.
5.44 Fixed-displacement pumps are designed to
provide a maximum,constant flow of hydraulic fluid.
Various controls, such as relief valves, unloading
valves, and pressure-reducing valves, are added to the
system to reduce the fluid flow if smaller flows are
needed. Excess pump flow may be returned to the
reservoir or stored in an accumulator when it is not
needed.
5.45 The fluid flow of a variable-displacement
pump varies as the shape of the pump chamber is
changed. The vane pump in Fig. 5-11 on the next
page is similar to the one Fig. 5-9A, except that it is
provided with a movable cam ring in place of a fixed
housing, and a means for shifting the cam ring. The
cam ring usually can be shifted from an off-center
Fig. 5-10. Spring-loaded vanes
Casing
Vanes Rotor impeller
Fig. 5-11. A variable-displacement pump
Full flow
position (maximum flow) to a center position (no
flow). The cam ring can be adjusted manually, electri
cally, pneumatically, or hydraulically.
5.46 Constant-displacement vane pumps operate at
speeds of up to 4000 rpm, with pressure capabilities
between 250 and 3000 psi and flow capacities of up
to 250 gpm. Variable-displacement pumps have
speeds of up to 2000 rpm, with pressure capabilities
of only 250 to 1000 psi and flow capacities of up to
100 gpm. In addition to the lower speeds and capaci
ties, variable-displacement pumps are less efficient
than fixed-displacement pumps.
Piston Pumps
5.47 Piston pumps also are used to pump fluids in
a hydraulic system. Piston pumps are suitable for
developing high pressures, but they have low fluid
capacities. To supply a high capacity, the pumps are
operated at high speeds. Like the other hydraulic
pumps already discussed, piston pumps are manufac
tured in several different types. The more common
types are as follows:
• axial-piston pumps —with either a straight
shaft or a bent shaft
• radial-piston pumps—with either a stationary
block or a rotating block.
The specific type of pump used for a particular appli
cation is determined by the plant engineer or manu
facturer.
This matenal is pfoteoed by U S Copynghi ten Copying Oy any optcal. eiecfonc. or other nteans is illegal without pormissiort
No flow
5.48 Axial-piston pumps consist of several small
reciprocating pumps placed in a common housing.
The action of an axial-piston pump is shown in Fig.
5-12A. As the piston moves to the right, atmospheric
pressure in the reser\ oir forces fluid through the inlet
check valve into the pump cylinder. When the piston
moves to the left, fluid is forced through the outlet
check valve into the system. The amount of fluid
depends on the piston displacement (area of the bore
times the length of the stroke).
5.49 The drive shaft of the axial-piston pump
rotates the cam plate in such a way that the axial pis
tons in the stationary block move back and forth, cre
ating the pumping action. Although most axial-piston
pumps have a fixed delivery, variable delivery can be
obtained by bypassing part of the flow or by shifting
the cam plate, thus varying the piston stroke.
5.50 In axial-piston pumps having a bent shaft, as
in Fig. 5-12B, the drive axis rotates at a different
angle than the cylinder block and the pistons. As the
pistons rotate to the top, they are pulled out of the
cylinder block, drawing fluid in through the valve
plate. When the piston is rotated to the bottom, the
fluid is discharged through the valve plate into the
system. Most bent-shaft pumps are of the fixed-dis
placement class. The displacement of some of these
pumps is changed by adjusting the angle between the
drive shaft and the cylinder block.
5.51 Figure 5-13A gives a good view of how a
radial-piston pump with a stationary lock operates.
The rotating shaft has an off-center cam that pushes
Fig. 5-12. Axial-piston pumps

Cam plate Piston return spring

Cylinder block

Valve plate

A. Straight shaft B. Balanced

Fig. 5-13. Radial-piston pumps

Rotating
cylinder -
block Outlet ports
(lop)

Reaction
ring
Fixed shaft
inlet —
chamber
Inlet ports
Stationary' (bottom)
Outlet _ outer housing
passage

A. Stationary block B. Rotating block

each piston into the stationary block. When a piston is
pushed outward, the fluid in it is discharged through
the outlet check valve into the circular outlet passage.
When the piston returns, the expanding chamber
inside the piston draws fluid from the inlet chamber
through the check valve. The flow is varied by
bypassing part of the flow, or by grouping the flow
force and by inlet fluid pressure during the outward
suction stroke. The stationary pintle valve in the
center of the rotating cylinder block connects the
port of each piston to the pump inlet passage during
the discharge stroke. The reaction ring can be adjust
ed to vary the stroke of the pistons and the displace
ment.

from individual pistons.

5.53 The efficiencies of piston pumps are very
5.52 In the radial-piston pump shown in Fig. 5- high, as are the working pressures (up to 10,000 psi)
13B, the pistons move in and out in a rotating cylin and the flow rales (over 1000 gpm). The pressures
der block. The heads of the pistons are held against and capacities vary with the different types of pumps
an off-center, stationary reaction ring by centrifugal and their operating speeds.

Tha matenal a proieciM by U S. Copynghi law Copying by any opiical. eloctionc, or otnar means is illegal without permiaaen.
78 Programmable Exercises

5-9. External gear pumps can operate at 5-9. 3000

oressures of up to psi.
Ref: 5.27

5-10. Internal gear pumps are used In 5-10. LOW;SMALL

hvdraullc svstems that have
soeeds and capacities. Ref: 5.31

5-11. Gerotor pumps are made without an 5-11. SEPARATOR

Internal near
Ref: 5.32

5-12. A vane pump In which the rotor Is 5-12. UNBALANCED

placed off-center Is said to be
Ref: 5.40

5-13. Pump vanes that are not spring-loaded 5-13. FLUID

are held In contact with the housing by
both centrifuoal and pres Ref: 5.42
sure.

5-14. The fluid flow In a variable-displace 5-14. CAM RING

ment vane pump Is changed by moving
the Ref: 5.45

5-15. The two most common types of piston 5-15. AXIAL-PISTON, RADIAL-PISTON
pumps are and
pumps. Ref: 5.47

5-16. Can piston pumps operate at flow rates 5-16. YES

over 1000 gpm?
Ref: 5.53

Thit material is prctected by U.S. Copyright lew. Copying by any opbeal, elocttottie, or other means b illegal without permiision.
 Self-Check Quiz 79

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

5-1 A hydraulic pump does all of the following 5-6. Because of their design, internal gear pumps
EXCEPT are limited to applications having

□ a. iow pressures and high speeds

hydraulic energy low speeds and high pressures
□ b. produce the working pressure in the □ c. small capacities and high speeds
system □ d. small capacities and low pressures
□ c. create a partial vacuum at the inlet
□ d. deliver the fluid to the outiet 5-7. A vane pump of the unbalanced design can
be identified by its
5-2. Which of the following types of pumps is NOT
a positive-displacement pump? □ a. off-center rotor
□ b. countenfl/eights
□ a. Centrifugal □ c. duai iniet ports
□ b. Gear □ d. special drive motor
□ c. Impeller
□ d. Vane 5-8. The vane tips of a vane pump usually are
grooved or split to permit all of the following
5-3. The volume of delivery of a fixed-dispiace- EXCEPT
ment pump
□ a. longer vane life
□ a. cannot be changed □ b. better lubrication
□ b. can be changed by changing the □ c. free movement of the vanes
pump's speed □ d. a larger contact area at the housing
□ c. can be changed by changing the
physical arrangement of the pumping 5-9. Variable-displacement vane pumps control
mechanism fluid flow by
□ d. changes with variations in system
pressure □ a. changing the discharge port
□ b. shifting the cam ring
5-4. The capacity of a pump may be specified in □ c. shifting the housing
all of the following EXCEPT □ d. changing the inlet port

□ a. gallons per minute 5-10. Radial-piston pumps generally are designed

□ b. cubic inches per minute and manufactured with a
□ c. cubic inches per revolution
□ d. pounds per square inch □ a. rotating or stationary block
□ b. bent shaft
5-5. The efficient operating iife of a pump is usual □ c. double check valve
ly given in terms of □ d. straight shaft

□ a. flow rate
□ b. fluid pressure
□ c. hours
□ d. days

This material is pcoteclsd by U. S. CopyTight law. Copying by any optical, eloctronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
80 Lesson Five

SUMMARY

The pump is one of the most important parts of a Axial flow pumps are used in low-pressure, high-
hydrauiic system. It converts mechanical energy capacity applications. The main use of cycloidal
into hydraulic energy, producing fluid flow. Pumps pumps is in transfer applications of large volumes
are evaluated according to their physical charac at low pressures. Vane pumps are classified as
teristics, operating characteristics, and costs. The balanced, unbalanced,fixed-displacement, and
most important rating of a pump is its capacity,fol variable-displacement, depending on their con
lowed by its pressure rating. Pumps are also rated struction and/or operation. Vane pumps generally
by drive speed,efficiency, and fluid compatibility. are used in low-pressure systems. Piston pumps
have high-pressure, low-fluid capacities. There
Gear, vane, radial-piston, and axial-piston pumps are several different types of piston pumps,
are the most common types of pumps used in including axial-piston (straight shaft or bent shaft)
hydrauiic systems. Each is a positive-displace and radial-piston (stationary block or rotating
ment pump. Gear pumps are classified as external block) pumps.The plant engineer or manufacturer
gear, internal gear, axial-flow, and cycloidal, determines the specific type of pump needed for a
based on their design and construction, in axial- particular application.
flow pumps,fluid moves axially along the length
of the housing.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

5-1. b. Produce the working pressure in the 5-6. d. Small capacities and low pressures.
system. Ref: 5.01, 5.02 Ref: 5.31

5-2. a. Centrifugal. Ref: 5.03,5.04 5-7. a. Off-center rotor. Ref: 5.40

5-3. b. Can be changed by changing the 5-8. d. A larger contact area at the housing.
pump's speed. Ref: 5.05 Ref: 5.42

5-4. d. Pounds per square Inch. Ref: 5.10 5-9. b. Shifting the cam ring. Ref: 5.45

5-5. c. Hours. Ref: 5.22 5-10. a. Rotating or stationary block.

Ref: 5.47

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 5-3. Parker-Hannifin Figure 5-11. Blackmer Pump Co., Div. of Dover Corp.
Rgure 5-8. Waukesha Foundry Co. Inc., Pump Div. Figure 5-12. Dynex Division, Applied Power Indus, and Vickers
Figure 5-9. Abex Corp., Dennison Div. Div., Sperry Rand Corp.

Thi*(natocial b protebod by U.S.Copyright low. Copying by sny opbeal, elactionic, or othor moans b itiogal without permbsion.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lesson Six

Piping, Tubing,and
Fittings

\o-

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

^ Piping, Tubing, and Fittings

TOPICS

Hydraulic Piping Tubing

Flow and Velocity Tube Bending
Hydraulic Pressure Tube Fittings
Pressure Loss Hoses
Losses In a Line Hose-End Fittings
Steel Pipe Quick-Connect/Disconnect Couplings
Pipe Fittings Hose Installations
Pipe Installation

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Discuss the chief considerations in hydraulic line Describe various types of fittings used in hydraulic
selection. systems.
• Demonstrate how flow velocity and pressure loss are Explain the reason for using steel pipe.
calculated. List the main advantages of tubing.
• Explain pipe size schedules.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Safe working pressure 6.10,6.21,6.30 a rating Bursting pressure 6.22 a rating of how much
of how much pressure a pipe, tube, or hose can pressure a pipe fitting can withstand without
withstand without bursting bursting

Tha maiensl a pro(eci«d By U S Copyright taw Copying by any optcal. ek)Ction«, or otnor meana a illegal wthour pormiaaon
 83

V v All of the components of a hydraulic system require some type of fluid connec
tion between them. Except in cases where two or more components are directly
connected, pipes, tubes, or hoses are needed to transport the fluid from one
component to the next.

Knowing how pipes,tubes, and hoses are manufactured is not important to your
job. What is important is that you know how these items should be used and
what their limitations are. This Lesson describes the capabilities of hydraulic
lines and the proper ways to use them.

Hydraulic Piping
6.01 Pipes, tubes, and hoses are used to transfer
many different fluids throughout an industrial plant.
When used in a hydraulic system,they must provide a
direct path from the pump to the control valves and
actuators, and then back to the reservoir. Hydraulic
lines must not waste hydraulic energy by causing
excessive fluid pressure losses between the compo
nents, and they must be strong enough to withstand
the operating pressures that occur in the system. They
also should be easy to install.
6.02 The most important factor in selecting a
hydraulic line is the required flow rate through the
line. However, there are other considerations. These
include the type of fluid used, pressures, distances,
and the direction of flow.
6.03 Hydraulic lines should be large enough to
ensure that no excessive fluid pressure losses occur.
However,they should not be too large, because larger
pipes cost more, require too much fluid to operate,
and reduce the system's efficiency. Larger pipes also
require a larger reservoir to hold the extra fluid. Lines
should be as short as possible, but long enough to be
installed easily without too many bends and fittings.
system and the expected hydraulic shocks and mechan
ical abuse. Selection of most hydraulic lines is aided by
flow charts and tables, which give the safe working
pressures of available tubing and piping. Hydraulic
lines that have special conditions require special mate
rials. Because you are responsible for installing and
working on hydraulic equipment, you should review
some of the conditions that determine line selection.
Flow and Velocity
6.06 The desired flow in a hydraulic line should be
laminar. Laminar (streamline) flow takes place when
the flow passages are smooth and the fluid velocity is
low. Lines that are large enough to maintain laminar
flow usually do not cause excessive pressure losses in
hydraulic systems. Lines that have rough interiors and
high fluid velocities have turbulent flow and high
pressure drops. Some recommended velocities are
given in Table 6-1. Using these values will help avoid
turbulence and excessive pressure losses.
6.07 To calculate the fluid velocity through a pipe,
you must know the flow rate (in gpm), and the inside
cross-sectional area of the pipe or the inside diameter
(I.D.) of the pipe. The equations for calculating the
fluid velocity are as follows:

6.04 Hydraulic lines should be smooth, and should

be installed with a minimum of changes in direction.
Also, there should be no sudden reductions or enlarge
Table 6-1. Fluid velocities
ments in the size of the flow passage. Sharp bends and
complicated connections tend to choke or dampen fluid Type of Maximum Recommended
hydraulic line theoretical flow (ft/s)
flow and should be avoided. Connections placed in flow (ft/s)
hard-to-reach locations also should be avoided. Suction 5 2-4
Return 7 5

6.05 Hydraulic lines may be made from steel, alu- Pressure:

less than 400 psi 10 7
minum,copper,or plastic tubing, steel pipe, or flexible 400-800 psi 13 10
hose.The material used and the required strength of the more than 800 psi 16 15
line are determined by the operating pressure of the

This m&teiial is prateded by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, eloettonic,or otiter moons is illegal without permission.
84 Lesson Six

ing streamline fluid flow. Note that "nominal pipe

velocity (ft/s) = (gpm)x 0321
pipe area (in )
size" is not related to inside diameter. Therefore, it is
important to know the I.D. whenever a decision con
or cerning uniform flow diameter is to be made. For
flow (gpm) X 0.409
velocity (ft/s) = example, if the minimum strength and flow require
I.D in.^ ments are satisfied by both '/2-in.(ID.) piping and Va
in. (I.D.) tubing, use a '/2-in. pipe and a '/2-in. tube,
As an example,assume a flow rate of 15 gpm through even though the tubing has a greater strength than
a V4-in. diameter, Schedule 40 pipe. The area of pipe required. However, if Vs-in. piping and Vs-in. tubing
is 0.533 in2 and its I.D. is 0.824 in. Then: are large enough to permit the flow, but the Vs-in.
pipe is not strong enough, then the pipe having the
15 gpm X 0.321 proper strength must be selected. The next step is to
= 9 ft/s (approximately) select a new tube to match the pipe I.D.
0^33 in.'
or
Pressure Loss
15 gpm X 0.409
= 9 ft/s (approximately). 6.12 As mentioned earlier in the Lesson, the pres
(0.824 in.)'
sure lost in a hydraulic line depends on the flow veloci
ty of hydraulic fluid through the line. In addition, pres
6.08 In order to calculate the necessary area (in sure loss depends on the viscosity of the fluid, and on a
in2) that a pipe should have to achieve the desired factor that indicates the combined flow area and cir
flow velocity (in ft/s), use the following equation: cumference of the line - referred to as />». EH,or diame
ter to the fourth power, is a mathematical abbreviation
for four diameters multiplied together: D x D x D x D
area tin^) = fow (gPl")"0321 = EH. The pressure loss per foot of pipe in a hydraulic
velocity (ft/s)
line can be estimated by using the following equation:
From the above equation, you can calculate:
viscosity(SSU)X flow (gpm)
15 gpm X 0321 pressure loss (psi) =
9 ft/s
= 033 in^(approximately). 18,000

6.09 When calculating the inside area of a pipe, 6.13 The flow area and the circumference of the
you may find that the pipe or tube with the exact ID. line are important to pressure loss considerations. A
required is not available. When this happens, select fluid moving at 10 ft/s in a large pipe will have a
the next larger pipe size. Piping for a hy^aulic line is smaller pressure loss than fluid moving at 10 ft/s in a
selected by the nearest nominal standard pipe size that
small line. This is true because the effect of the fric
is available. If tubing is being used, it should be
tion caused by surface roughness in a large pipe is
selected on the basis of the next larger I.D. available.
less than that in a small pipe.
Hydraulic Pressure
6.14 If a V4-in. pipe (0.824 I.D.) is selected as a
hydraulic line to handle 15 gpm of a fluid with a vis
6.10 Do not overlook pressure requirements when
cosity of 150 SSU, the pressure loss per foot of line
selecting piping or tubing for a hydraulic system. The
can be estimated by substituting these figures for
safe working pressure must never be exceeded. If
those in the equation given above. The equation now
standard Schedule 40 pipe is not strong enough to
reads as follows:
withstand the system pressure, then you must select
extra-heavy Schedule 80 or double X (XX) pipe,
pressure loss =
which has a higher safe working pressure. Because ^ 18,000 X (0.824)^
the I.D. of the heavier pipe is smaller than the ID. of
the standard pipe, check the flow capacity. The same
2250
conditions apply to tubing.
"8298
6.11 When a hydraulic line is made up of both pip
ing and tubing, uniform I.D. is important in maintain = 0.271 psi per ft of pipe,

Thi> matenal is pretocted t>y U. S. Copyiighl bw. Copying by any optical, eloettonic, or other moans is iQogal without permiuion.
 Piping, Tubing, and Fittings 85

Fig.6-1. Pressure losses in a hydraulic line

100 psi 100 psi Pressure switch

Cylinder

Restriction

System stopped

100 psi 40 psi 20 psi Pressure switch

\y Vy Cylinder
m
Restriction

System moving

or 2.71 psi in 10 ft of pipe. If the system is operating Losses in a Line

at approximately 1000 psi, this is not an excessive
pressure loss(0.3% of the operating pressure). 6.17 Pressure losses in a hydraulic line are shown
in Fig. 6-1. The system is installed with long lines,
6.15 If a 3/8-in. pipe (0.493 I.D.) is selected to han- several fittings, and flow restrictions. Pressure gauges
die 3.1 gpm of a hydraulic fluid that has a viscosity of are placed at various points along the line to indicate
the pressure at those points. Whenever the cylinder
150 SSU, nearly the same velocity described above
contacts the work or is stopped, all gauges have the
exists. You can estimate the pressure loss in this line
same readings. When the cylinder is moving, pressure
by substituting the figures in the equation as before. readings along the line will show where the pressure
The equation then becomes: losses are. These differences in pressure occur only
when the fluid is flowing.
150 X 3.1
pressure loss = 6.18 Pressure drops for fittings usually are given
18,000 X (0.493)'
in approximate equivalent lengths of straight piping,
as in Table 6-2 on the next page. Whenever a fitting is
465 used in a hydraulic line, an equivalent length of
"1062 straight piping or tubing has to be added to estimate
the total pressure loss or back pressure.
= 0.438 psi per ft of pipe,
Steel Pipe
or 4.38 psi in 10 ft of pipe.
6.19 Only black steel pipe is recommended for use
in hydraulic systems. Galvanized pipe is not used
6.16 Although the pressure is higher in the smaller because the galvanizing may flake off and flow
pipe than in the V4-in. pipe, it is still not an excessive through the system, where it can clog small orifices or
pressure loss in a pressure line at 1000 psi. However, passages.
if this were a return line from a small control valve,
this amount of back pressure might be excessive. That 6.20 Steel piping is available in the standard nomi
is why return lines have lower recommended flow nal sizes and schedules (classes) of wall thicknesses
velocities (5 to 7 ft/s instead of 10 to 15 ft/s). Their listed in Table 6-3 on the next page. This nominal
line sizes are larger and their back pressure is pipe size chart does not describe small pipes, and it
reduced. only gives dimensions such as I.D. and O.D. Note

This motoriol a piatacted by U. S. Copyright low. Copying by any optical, electiDRic, or other moans is illogal without potmission.
86 Lesson Six

Table 6-2. Pipe pressure losses

Pressure loss Fitting friction loss
Pipe size (In.) (psi per ft of length) Fluid flow(gpm) (Equivalent ft of straight pipe)
Average flow velocity (ft/s) Tee Elbow

Std. Sq. 45°

Nominal Actual
i.D. I.D. 5 7 10 15 5 7 10 15 -Q S--6- t)
Va .622 .24 .36 .49 .68 4.74 6.65 9.48 14.22 3.5 1.05 3.5 1.5 3.5 .75
.546 .30 .45 .71 .78 3.65 5.12 7.30 10.95 2.9 .9 2.9 1.4 2.9 .68
.252 1.54 2.19 3.08 3.65 .78 1.09 1.56 2.34
.824 .14 .22 .27 .78 8.32 11.65 16.64 24.96 4.5 1.4 4.5 2.1 4.5 1.0
3/4 .742 .16 .26 .37 .87 6.74 9.45 13.48 20.22 4.0 1.2 4.0 1.6 4.0 .8
.434 .53 .67 1.05 1.31 2.31 3.24 4.62 6.93
1.049 .10 .13 .34 .57 13.45 18.85 26.90 40.35 5.7 1.7 5.7 2.6 5.7 1.2
1 .957 .11 .15 .24 .62 11.21 15.70 22.42 33.63 5.2 1.6 5.2 2.5 5.2 1.1
.599 .26 .37 .53 .67 4.39 6.16 8.78 13.17 3.0 1.0 3.0 1.5 3.0 .75
1.380 .05 .08 .25 .39 23.35 31.68 46.70 70.05 7.5 2.4 7.5 3.7 7.5 1.6
IV4 1.278 .07 .09 .26 .44 19.95 28.06 39.90 58.85 7.0 2.1 7.0 3.5 7.0 1.5
.896 .13 .16 .24 .71 9.83 13.75 19.66 29.49 4.9 1.5 4.9 2.3 4.9 1.05
1.610 .04 .11 .19 .33 31.75 44.49 63.50 95.25 9.0 2.8 9.0 4.3 9.0 2.0
IV2 1.500 .04 .08 .21 .36 27.55 38.62 55.10 82.65 8.2 2.6 8.2 4.0 8.2 1.8
1.100 .09 .09 .32 .51 14.81 20.75 29.62 44.43 6.5 2.0 6.5 3.0 6.5 1.4
2.067 .04 .08 .14 .24 52.30 73.45 104.60 159.20 11.0 3.5 11.0 5.5 11.0 2.5
2 1.939 .03 .09 .15 .26 46.00 64.60 92.00 138.00 10.8 3.4 10.8 5.0 10.8 2.4
1.503 .04 .12 .21 .36 27.65 38.78 55.30 82.95 8.2 2.6 8.2 4.0 8.2 1.8
2.469 .03 .07 .11 .20 74.75 104.80 149.50 224.25 14.0 4.2 14.0 6.5 14.0 3.0
21/2 2.323 .04 .07 .12 .21 66.11 92.60 132.22 198.33 13.0 4.0 13.0 6.1 13.0 2.9
1.771 .03 .10 .17 .30 38.45 53.40 76.90 115.35 10.3 3.1 10.3 4.8 10.3 2.2

that the O.D. remains constant. In this way, the same
pipe size can be used for each schedule of pipe. The
four schedules of pipe used in hydraulic lines are
Schedule 40 (standard), Schedule 80 (extra-heavy),
COt- (between extra-heavy and double extra-
Schedule 160
heavy),and double X(XX).Note that the 1.D.S for pipe
sizes listed under the different schedules are not con
stant in variation from the nominal size.
6.21 The safe working pressures of hydraulic piping
are based on providing a safety factor of 6, used for
noncritical applications that have no hydraulic shock.

Table 6-3. Steel pipe sizes

Inside diameter
Nominal Pipe Schedule Schedule Schedule 80 Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule XX(double
size O.D. 40(Std) 60 (extra-heavy) 100 120 140 160 extra-heavy)
.840 .622 .546 0.466 0.252
1.050 .824 .742 .614 .434
1 1.315 1.049 .957 .815 .599
IV4 1.660 1.380 1.278 1.160 .896
IV2 1.900 1.610 1.500 1.338 1.100
2 2.375 2.067 1.939 1.689 1.503
2V2 2.875 2.469 2.323 2.125 1.771
3 3.500 3.068 2.900 2.624 2.300
31/2 4.000 3.548 3.364
4 4.500 3.026 3.826 3.624 3.438 3.152

This(mtoiial is protadad by U.S.Copyrighl law. Copying by any optical, atactionic. or othar means is ittagal without pomussion.

Fig.6-2. Pipe Threads
National Pipe
Tight Fit, or
Oryseai
(NPTF)
mechanical vibration, or other severe stress. The burst
ing pressure of piping that has a safety factor of 6 is six
times as high as the listed, safe working pressure. Pip
ing used in systems that conform to JIC (Joint Industry
Conference) specifications requires a safety factor of 8
when determining the safe working pressure. Piping
selected for systems where hydraulic shock, vibration,
or other abuses are expected should have a safety fac
tor of 10. The safety factor should take into considera
tion the likelihood of rusting or corrosion, in addition
to the mechanical and hydraulic factors.
Pipe Fittings
6.22 Pipe fittings for hydraulic systems are most
commonly made of brass, steel, or stainless steel. Dry-
seal threads and welded or brazed connections are used
for sizes up to l'/4 in. Welded and flanged connections
are used for larger sizes. Threaded-brass pipe fittings
usually are made from bar stock or forgings, and have
bursting pressures of up to 13,500 psi. Therefore, the
safe working pressures of brass pipe fittings extend to
1800 psi, based on a safety factor of 8. Brass fittings are
not recommended for applications that have hydraulic
shocks, vibrations, or high working pressures.
6.23 Threaded-steel pipe fittings also are made
from bar stock or forgings, and have bursting pressure
that are about one-third higher than brass fittings. The
safe working pressures are also slightly higher, reach
ing 2500 psi for some fittings with a safety factor of
8. Steel fittings are stronger and withstand shock and
vibration better than brass.
Thu malenal is protected by U S Copyrigbl lew Copying py any optical, eloeironic. or other means is illegal without pertnission
Piping, Tubing, and Fittings 87
National Pipe
Thread (NPT)
6.24 Threaded hydraulic pipe uses two types of
pipe threads. The more familiar National Pipe Thread
(NPT) is used for water, air, and gas service piping.
The National Pipe Tight Fit (NPTF),or Dryseal thread,
is used in hydraulic piping. The difference between the
two threads is the way they are made, as shown in Fig.
6-2. An NPT thread has a clearance on the crest of the
thread, and seals fluid by flank (sloped side) contact
and pipe joint compound. The Dryseal thread has an
interference fit along the crest of the thread and also
seals by flank contact, which provides a tight Joint. A
lubricating thread compound should be used with Dry-
seal threads during installation to reduce tightening
friction and prevent damage to the threads. If Dryseal
threads are disassembled and reused, pipe joint com
pound is required to ensure a tight seal.
6.25 Steel piping is used for hydraulic lines
when:
• the fluid pressure is less than the safe work
ing pressure of steel pipe
• it is possible to install steel piping properly
and economically
• the line is not expected to be taken apart
• large hydraulic lines store great quantities of
fluid
• hydraulic lines are long and straight.
88 Programmed Exercises

6-1. The most important factor in selecting a 6-1. FLOW RATE

hydraulic line is the required
Ref: 6.02

6-2. Hydraulic lines should be as 6-2. SHORT

as possible.
Ref: 6.03

6-3. If a hydraulic line has high fluid velocity, 6-3. TURBULENT

will the flow be turbulent or laminar?
Ref: 6.06

6-4. When selecting pipe for hydraulic lines, 6-4. PRESSURE

always make sure it will withstand the
system Ref: 6.10

6-5. Pressure loss in a pipe is determined 6-5. VISCOSITY

by the flow rate, the flow area and cir
cumference of the line, and the fluid Ref: 6.12

6-6. Should pipe used for hydraulic lines be 6-6. NO

galvanized?
Ref: 6.19

6-7. A safety factor of is used to 6-7. 6

determine the safe working pressure of
a pipe in a hydraulic system. Ref: 6.21

6-8. One type of pipe thread recommended 6-8. DRYSEAL

for hydraulic fittings is the NPTF, or
thread. Ref: 6.24

Tha materisl a pcotodod by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, oleettonic, or othor means a illegal without permission.
 Piping, Tubing, and Fittings 89

Pipe Installation 6.29 Hydraulic tubing is made in standard sizes

measured by the O.D. and wall thicknesses, some of
6.26 Observe the following practices when making which are shown in Table 6-4. Wall thicknesses
screwed pipe connections: range from 0.035 to 0.180 in., and are specified in
decimals of an inch, or Birmingham or Slubbs
• Use Dryseal threads and fittings wherever Gauge numbers. Like piping, the O.D. of tubing
possible to avoid leakage problems. remains constant and the I.D. changes with the wall
thickness. In this way tube fittings and bending tools
• Use suitable pressure fittings with heavier- can be standardized.
walled piping.
6.30 Like piping, hydraulic tubing must have a safe
• Deburr threaded pipe ends on the outside and working pressure. The safe working pressures in Table
the inside to remove sharp edges and loose 6-5 on the next page are based on a safety factor of 5.
bits of metal. The bursting pressure of the tubing is approximately
six times the safe operating pressure. The lower factor
• Clean out all file and saw chips from both is allowed because steel tubing is more uniformly fab
piping and fittings before assembling them. ricated than steel piping. For some applications where
no additional stresses are present, tubing with a safety
• Provide unions to permit disassembly. factor as low as 4 may be selected. Hazardous applica
tions require a safety factor as high as 8 or 10.
• Use thread-sealing compound sparingly to
keep it out of the passages in the system. Tube Bending

• Support long runs with straps or hangers. 6.31 Hydraulic tubing is made of malleable mate
rials that form easily without building up high internal
• Avoid using unnecessary fittings or making
too many joints.

6.27 In addition, never use ANSI 125-psi, 150-psi, Table 6-4. Common tubing sizes
and 250-psi cast iron and malleable iron screwed fit
Tube Wall Tube Tube Wall Tube
tings for hydraulic pressure lines. They may be used O.D. thickness I.D. O.D. thickness I.D.
for suction lines and low-pressure return lines only .35 .430 .049 1.152
.042 .416 .058 1.134
with caution. Remember that the threads do not have
.065 .370 .083 1.084
Vs IV,
an interference fit, and air may be drawn into the sys (0.500) .072 .356 (1.250) .109 1.032
.095 .310 .120 1.010
tem at connection points.
.035 .555 .065 1.370
.042 .541 .072 1.356
Tubing .065 .495 .095 1.310
(0.625) .072
.095
.481
,435
(V5^0) .120
.134
1.260
1.232
6.28 The most common tubing materials used for
.049 .652 .065 1.620
hydraulic lines are SAE 1010 steel and 18-8 stainless .065 .620 .072 1.606
.072 .606 .095
steel. When these tubing materials are seamless and .095
13/, .120
1.560
(0.750) .560 (1.750) 1.510
fully annealed, they are recommended by JIC stan .109 .532 .134 1.482

dards without reservations. The materials have good .049 .777 .065 1.870
bending and flaring properties and are suitable for .058 .759 .072 1.856
.072 .731 .095 1.810
2
high-pressure hydraulic lines. Seamless aluminum (0.8^5) .095 .685
(2.000) .120 1.760
.109 .657 .134 1.732
tubing is JlC-approved for low-pressure (500 to 1500
psi) hydraulic applications, and has good bending and .049 .902 .072 2.356
.058 .884 .083 2.334
flaring properties. Because the working pressure of .083 .834 .120 2.260
2V2
aluminum tubing is less than that of steel tubing, (1.000) .109 .782
(2.500) .134 2.232
.120 .760 .180 2.140
make sure the system pressure does not exceed the
tube rating.

This material is protected by U. S. Copyrghi law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or otne- means e illegal witnoul oermissor.
90 Lesson Six

Table 6-5. Safe working pressures for steel tubing(psi)

Wall O.D. .032 in. .035 In. .042 In. .049 in. .058 in. .065 In. .072 In. .083 In.

Va n. 7680 8430 9920 11,750

3/i6 n. 5100 5610 6750 7850
V4 n. 3830 4200 5040 5890 7000 7850
=/l6 n. 3080 - 3370 4040 4710 5610 6290 6950 8010
% n. 2560 2800 3360 3920 4660 5240 5790 6660
^/16 n. 2190 2400 2880 3360 4000 4500 4960 5720
V2 n. 1920 2100 2520 2940 3500 3925 4340 5000
n. 1705 1870 2240 2620 3110 3490 3860 4450
% n. 1535 1880 2020 2350 2800 3140 3470 4000
n. 1395 1530 1830 2135 2530 2835 3140 3620
% n. 1280 1400 1640 1960 2320 2600 2880 3320
n. 1090 1200 1440 1680 1985 2225 2465 2845
1 n. 960 1050 1260 1470 1740 1950 2160 2490

stresses, as happens with copper. The minimum 6.35 Tubing has several advantages over piping
allowable bend radius for various tubing sizes is when used with hydraulic systems. The following list
shown in Fig. 6-3. Smaller radii may cause undesir shows some of the advantages:
able pressure losses in the line.
greater flexibility of installation
6.32 Tubing should be bent into a smooth bend
with the proper tool, as shown in Fig. 6-3. Maintain a higher pressure ratings, lower pressure
round cross section through the bend without collaps drops
ing, wrinkling, flattening, or kinking the tubing.
Bending the tube allows the tube to follow the con better appearance
tour of the mechanical equipment with fewer fittings
and connections. However, an excessive number of fewer fittings
poorly located bends should be avoided.
easier disassembly
Tube Fittings
reusability
6.33 Many different types of hydraulic tube fit
tings are available. They are designed to connect tub less leakage
ing to different types of equipment, hydraulic piping,
and to other tubing, firmly and without leaking. Fit suitability for severe service applications
tings for various types of service should be selected
on the basis of their safe working pressures. The rec ability to withstand vibration
ommended maximum working pressures for different
types of service are available from fitting manufac simpler installation.
turers.
6.36 Although tubing is easier to install than
6.34 Some of the fittings commonly used in threaded pipe, it cannot be done in a careless manner.
hydraulic systems are shown in Fig. 6-4. These The following are some general recommendations
include elbows, tees, crosses, and various adapters. and precautions to follow when installing hydraulic
Each of the fittings is usually available with differ tubing:
ent end configurations. These end configurations
include both flared ends (37 and 45° flares) and • Select proper tubing and fittings to meet
flareless ends. flow, pressure, and service requirements.

This matsfial is protoelad by U.S.Copyright bw. Copying by sny optical, dectionic, or ottier moans is illogal without permission.
 Piping, Tubing, and Fittings 91

Fig. 6-3. Tlibe bending

Radius of bend (r) is

measured from center
line of tube

Correct

Kinked L a Wnnkled

ncorrect

• Cut the tubing off square. Allow enough Avoid connections in straight pipe runs.
length for proper installation.
Support long tubing runs with clamps or
• Remove burrs from the inside and outside hangers.
edge of lube.
Install and remove assemblies without spring
• Inspect tubing and fittings and remove chips
and dirt.
ing, bending,or damaging the tubing.

• Assemble the flare nuts and sleeves onto the Install and remove all tubing assemblies with
tubing before flaring the lube or before insert hand tools.
ing the tube into the filling.
Use only steel or stainless steel fittings.
• Use a minimum number of bends and fittings
in the line.
Never use plastic or nylon tubing above their
• Protect the line from damage. rated pressures.

Fig. 6-4. Hydraulic tubing fittings

iiii'iiii

This material is protected by U S Copyright law Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal withoul permisson
Fig. 6-5. Hydraulic hose parts • makes connections in limited areas that are
too congested for piping or tubing

• makes good temporary connections

• provides connections and disconnections that

must be changed frequently.

Remember that even though flexible hoses may be

convenient, they are definitely less permanent than
Inner tube
piping or tubing and wear out from continued pres
Reinforcement sure cycles and flexing after a period of time.

6.38 Hydraulic hoses consist of an inner tube for

Fitting mateiials should be the same as the tub
ing to which the fitting is attached —brass fit
tings on copper tubing, aluminum on aluminum,
steel on steel.
carrying the fluid, a reinforcement for the inner tube,
and a cover that protects the reinforcement against
mechanical or corrosion damage. These three parts
are shown in Fig. 6-5.

6.39 The inner tube is made from synthetic rubber,

Hoses
synthetic resins, fluorocarbon resins, or other materi
als that are smooth, temperature-resistant, nonporous,
6.37 Flexible hoses frequently are used in hydraulic and compatible with hydraulic fluids. The reinforce
systems for a variety of reasons. Therefore, selection of ment may be made from natural (cotton) or synthetic
hose over some other material should be thoroughly yams or fibers, metal wires, or combinations of these.
investigated before proceeding with the installation. They may be braided, spiralwound, or wrapped. Bas-
Several advantages of using hose include the follow ketweave wire braid reinforcement is common. A
ing: plastic or rubber cover usually is extruded over the
reinforcement.
• insulates against noise, shock, and vibration
6.40 Hoses, like tubing and piping, are rated by
• connects moving and stationary components the temperatures and pressures they can withstand.
Most hoses are rated to operate at
temperatures ranging from -40 to
-i-200°F. For temperatures above
Fig.6-6. Hose-end fittings
lOO'F up to 450^, special hoses are
available. Above 450°F, use metal
tubing. Low-pressure hoses up to -Va
in. in I.D. generally are used for ser-
A vice in the range of 500 to 1000 psi.
V— Medium-pressure hoses up to Vs in.
) in I.D. are suitable for service at
3000 psi. High-pressure hoses up to
n 3/4 in. in I.D. can be used at 5000 psi.
J Most hydraulic hoses are rated with a
safety factor of 4. However, surge
T) pressures, which can reach twice the
level of working pressures, must be
' considered when selecting hoses
Permanent
Reusable with a safety factor of 4.

Thi» maienai is piWeded by U S Cooynow isw Copyine by any oplcal. ateeticnc, or other means is illegal wiiroji oerhiission
 Piping, Tubing, and Fittings 93

Fig.6-7. Hose installation techniques Permanent fittings are factory- or field-assembled in a

special press and cannot be removed. Methods of
assembling fittings onto hose vary. Detailed instruc
wrong
tions from each manufacturer must be followed to
CSflQa ensure the highest possible safe working pressure for
the finished hose assembly.

Quick Connect/Disconnect Couplings

6.43 Quick connect/disconnect couplings are

used where frequent or temporary hydraulic hose
connections are required. One or both parts of the
coupling may be self-sealing, and contain a
leakproof, spring-loaded poppet or seal. When the
two parts of the coupling are connected, the seal
opens and flow is permitted.

6.44 Care must be taken that the seals in the

couplings are compatible with the hydraulic fluid
being used, and that their temperature and pres
sure ratings are not exceeded. The safe working
pressure of connected couplings is as high as
5000 psi when coupled, but very low when
uncoupled. If one part of the coupling does not
Hose-End Fittings seal, it must not be installed on the pressurized
side of the line.
6.41 Numerous types of permanent and reusable
hose-end fittings are available, as shown in Fig. 6-6. Hose Installations
A hose-end fitting consists of two parts. One part
grips the hose and the other part attaches the hose 6.45 Proper hose installation requires observing
assembly to the fitting or component. The part that only a few precautions. The examples in Fig. 6-7
grips the hose must be installed with sufficient grip to show some of the dos and don'ts. In all cases,
avoid being blown off. However, the fitting should never exceed the minimum bend radius. Guide or
not be allowed to cut or even partially separate the clamp hoses to prevent rubbing and ultimate dam
reinforcement. age.

6.42 Reusable fittings are attached to the hose with

screwed or bolted devices, also shown in Fig. 6-6.

This molorittl» protoeted by U.S. Copyriflht low. Copying by ony opticol. clactionic. or othor moons is illegal without permission.
94 Programmed Exercises

6-9. When may threaded fittings made of 6-9. NEVER

cast iron be used on hydraulic pressure
lines? Ref: 6.27

6-10. Hydraulic tubing is measured by its 6-10. WALL THICKNESS

O.D. and its
Ref: 6.29

6-11. A bend in tubing should be smooth and 6-11. ROUND

have afn^ cross section.
Ref: 6.32

6-12. The angle on the end of a flared tube is 6-12. 37,45

either ° or °.
Ref: 6.34

6-13. Nuts and sleeves should be assembled 6-13. BEFORE

on tubino formino the flare.
Ref:6.36

6-14. Name the three types of materials used 6-14. NATURAL FIBER (COTTON),
for reinforcing hydraulic hoses. SYNTHETIC FIBER (NYLON),
METAL WIRE
Ref: 6.39

6-15. Hydraulic hose-end fittings may be 6-15. PERMANENT, REUSABLE

either the or
types. Ref: 6.41

6-16. If one part of a quick connect/discon 6-16. PRESSURIZED

nect coupling does not seal, it must not
be installed on the side of Ref:6.44
the line.

This matorisi is pFMocSod by U. S. CopyhsW law. Copying by any optical, olectronie, or other moans is illogal without permission.
 Self-Check Quiz 95

Answer the following questions by marking an "X''

in the box next to the best answer.

6-1 When selecting a hydraullc line, the most 6-6. When tubing is bent, which of the following
important factor to consider is the does NOT apply to the bend?

□ a. fluid flow rate □ a. It should have a round cross section

□ b. fluid pressure □ b. It should be free of flat spots
□ c. type of fluid □ c. It should conform to the minimum
□ d. direction of flow allowable bend radius
□ d. It should be formed by hand
6-2. Resistance to fluid flow in a hydraulic system
is increased by 6-7. Which of the following is a proper procedure
for installing hydraulic tubing?
□ a. smooth pipes
□ b. short lines □ a. Cut the tubing off at a 45° angle
□ c. pipe restrictions □ b. Support long tubing runs with clamps
□ d. the absence of bends or elbows or hangers
□ c. Flare the tube before assembling the
6-3. Which of the following does NOT contribute flare nuts and sleeves
to pressure loss in a hydraulic line? □ d. Always use copper fittings

□ a. Fluid flow rate 6-8. A disadvantage of hoses in hydraulic lines is

□ b. Fluid viscosity that they
□ c. Pipe size
□ d. Direction of flow □ a. provide temporary connections
□ b. wear from flexing
6-4. Hydraulic lines should NOT be made from □ c. insulate against noise
□ d. absorb vibration
□ a. galvanized pipe
□ b. hose 6-9. Hydraulic hoses should not be used for tem
□ c. tubing peratures above
□ d. black pipe
□ a. 100°F
6-5. Steel piping may be used for hydraulic lines □ b. 200°F
under all of the following conditions EXCEPT □ c. 350°F
□ d. 450°F
□ a. when the fluid pressure is less than
the safe working pressure of steel 6-10. Most hydraulic hoses are rated with a safety
pipe factor of
□ b. when the line is not expected to be
taken apart □ a. 4
□ c. when the hydraulic lines are short □ b. 6
and contain many bends □ c. 8
□ d. when large hydraulic lines store great □ d. 10
quantities of fluid

This material is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, olectronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
96 Lesson Six

SUMMARY

There are many factors to consider in choosing fitting. Brass, steel, or stainless steel materials
hydraulic lines. Most important is the flow rate of are used to make pipe fittings. The type of con
the fluid through the line. Other considerations nection used Is determined by the pipe size and
include the type of hydraulic fluid used, pres application.
sures, distance, and direction of flow.
Steel and stainless steel are the most common
Laminar flow is required for efficiency and opti tubing materials for hydraulic lines. Hydraulic tub
mum output. Lines must be large enough to pre ing comes in standard sizes measured by outside
vent excessive pressure losses between compo diameter and wall thickness. As with piping, do
nents, but not so large that a large reservoir of not exceed the safe working pressure of any tube.
extra fluid is needed to maintain efficiency, if pip
ing and tubing are used in the same line, they must Flexible hosesfrequently are used in hydraulic sys
be of the same inside diameter to maintain laminar tems because of their good insulating qualities and
flow. because they are useful in small,tight spaces and
in temporary installations. Hoses are rated by the
Black steel pipe usually is used in hydraulic pressure they can withstand. Many variations of
installations. Galvanized pipe is not recommend permanent and reusable hose-end fittings are avail
ed. Do not exceed the safe working pressure for able.
any pipe or the bursting pressure rating for any

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

6-1. a. Fluid flow rate. Ref: 6.02 6-6. d. It should be formed by hand.
Ref: 6.31,6.32
6-2. 0. Pipe restrictions. Ref: 6.03, 6.04
6-7. b. Support long tubing runs with
6-3. d. Direction of flow. Ref: 6.12 clamps or hangers. Ref:6.36

6-4. a. Galvanized pipe. Ref:6.19 6-8. b. Wear from flexing. Ref: 6.37

6-5. 0. When the hydraulic lines are short 6-9. d. 450®F. Ref: 6.40
and contain many bends. Ref: 6.25
6-10. a. 4. Ref: 6.40

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 6-2. Parker-Hannifin Rgure 6-5. Gates Rubber Company

Table 6-2. Parker-Hannifin Figure 6-6. Gates Rubber Company
Rgure 6-3. Parker-Hannifin Figure 6-7. The Weatherhead Company
Rgure 6-4. Parker-Hannifin

This material is pteteeted by U. S. Copyright(aw. Copying by arty optical, electronic, or othor nteans Is illegal without permission.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lesson Seven

Directional
Control Valves

V o

:0:

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Directional Controi Vaives

TOPICS

Directional Control Valves Normally Open and Normally Closed Valves

Manually Operated Valves Holding Valves
Automatic Two-Way Valves Four-Way Valves
Check Valves Five-Way Vaives
Pilot-Operated Check Valves Rotary Actuators
Spool Valves Valve Actuators
Two-Way Spool Valves Flow Ratings
Three-Way Spool Valves Accessories
Hydraulic-Motor Control

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to..

• Explain the classification of directional controi vaives. Describe the operation of a check valve, a spool
• Describe how manually operated valves work. valve, a three-way valve, a four-way valve, and a
• Explain the difference between direct-acting and pilot- rotary valve.
operated valves. Explain the difference between normally closed and
normally open valves.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Cracking pressure 7.14 the lowest fluid pressure Normally open valve 7.26 a valve that permits
that will open a check valve fluid to flow when the valve is in a nonactuated
Normally closed valve 7.26 a valve in which the position
flow is blocked when the valve is In a nonactuat-
ed position

Tnis malenal >s oroteaeo by U S Copyngni !av> Copying py any optical. elecltDnic. or other rneans « illegal wiirtout pc'misaan
 99

Up to now, you have studied many of the more simple components of a

hydraulic system. Even the directional control valves you will read about In this
Lesson are simple In both design and construction. The ways In which they are
used may be complex, but their operating principles are not.

There are many types of valves In a hydraulic system. Some are used to limit and
regulate the pressure and the flow rates In the system, while others control the
direction of fluid flow. Each of these valves Is slightly different In design, con
struction, and operation. This Lesson discusses directional control valves and
accessory valves, which also act as directional control valves. Pressure-relief,
pressure-regulating, and flow-regulating valves are discussed In the next Les
son.

Directional Control Valves • the total number of valve ports (four-port,

five-port)
7.01 Directional control valves are used to control
fluid flow in hydraulic lines, and to start, stop, or • the type of actuator that shifts the valve
change the direction of motion of hydraulic cylinders (pilot-operated, direct-acting)
and motors. Directional control valves can be operat
ed manually or automatically. Automatic operation • the valve construction (plug, ball, glove, gate,
can be controlled by mechanical action, electrical sig etc.).
nals, hydraulic power, or compressed air. Although
there are many types of directional control valves, Manually Operated Valves
they are all made up of the same simple basic ele
ments or combinations of elements. 7.03 Several manually operated two-way valves are
used in industrial applications. However, because of
7.02 Directional control valves are classified in low pressure ratings and high flow losses, some types
several different ways: are rarely found in hydraulic systems. Also many have
threaded connections that leak occasionally.
• the number of paths (three-way,four-way)
7.04 Figure 7-1 shows several manually operated
• the number of positions to which the valve two-way valves. Globe valves are used for air or fluid
can be shifted (two-position,three-position) service, generally for pressures of up to 250 psi. Some
are rated as high as 2000 psi. They regulate flow to a
• the way the fluid flows when the valve is in limited degree in the direction shown. The.gate valve
the center position (open or blocked center) also can be made with low and high pressure ratings

Fig.7-1. Manually operated two-way valves

V
O

Gate valve Globe valve Needle valve Plug valve Ball valve

Tha matena)b protcctad by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electionic, or other moons b illogal without pomibsion.
100 Lesson Seven
Fig.7-2. Direct-acting solenoid valve
Solenoid
Coil
Plunger
— Return spring
Valve body
In O Out
that are suitable for hydraulic systems. This valve
allows flow in either direction with low-pressure ser
vice. The plug valve is only suitable for low-pressure
service. It is low in cost and has low pressure losses, but
ftequently requires maintenance for leakage.
7.05 The ball valve is suitable for medium-pressure
service. Some ball valves are available for high pres
sures. A ball valve is similar to a plug valve and has
very low pressure losses. A ball valve is easier to oper
ate than a plug valve because there is no friction
between the ball and the seals, whereas the plug valve
is subject to a metal-to-metal contact. Both ball and
plug valves allow flow in either direction.
7.06 The needle valve is another manually operated
valve. It is suitable for very high pressures (10,000 to
50,(XK) psi), and is often used as a throttling valve as
well as a shutoff valve. One disadvantage of the needle
valve is the high pressure losses experienced at high
flow rates, which occur because the valve seat is much
smaller in diameter than the inlet and outlet connec
tions. For applications where the valve must be shut off
frequently, a soft seat is recommended in order to
reduce scoring of the tapered stem. The fluid flow is in
one direction,similar to that in a globe valve.
Automatic Two-Way Valves
7.07 The most common type of automatic two-way
valve is solenoid-operated. The solenoids can be direct-
acting or pilot-operated. A direct-acting solenoid valve
is shown schematically in Fig. 7-2.It is called a normal
This material is protected by U. S. Copyright htw. Copyittg by any optical, electronic, or otiwr moons is illegal without permission.
ly closed valve because the valve is closed when the
solenoid coil is deeneigized.The plunger is held against
the valve seat by the plunger spring. When the solenoid
coil is energized, the plunger is lifted from the seat,
allowing fluid to flow in one direction,as indicated.
7.08 Most solenoids are only strong enough to open
against a spring with a 15-lb closing force. Therefore,
the greater the hydraulic pressure, the smaller the valve
port must be. For larger flows at higher pressures,
pilot-operated solenoid valves must be used. The out
side of the body of a solenoid-operated valve usually is
marked with an arrow to show the proper direction of
fluid flow.
7.09 In the pilot-operated solenoid valves shown in
Fig. 7-3, the solenoid coil operates a small pilot valve
only. The pilot valve controls the hydraulic fluid that
operates the poppet valve or piston. Pilot-operated
solenoid valves are manufactured as normally closed
or normally open.
7.10 In the normally closed type, shown in Fig. 7-
3A, the deenergized pilot plunger closes the bleed ori
fice. The hydraulic fluid (at inlet pressure) flows
through the control orifice drilled in the main piston and
holds the piston against the valve seat. When the sole
noid coil is energized, the pilot plunger is lifted, open
ing the bleed orifice and relieving the pressure above
the piston. The pressure of the hydraulic fluid in the
inlet passage then lifts the piston and allows hydraulic
fluid to flow through the valve to the outlet. Note that
this valve allows fluid to flow in only one direction.
7.11 A normally open solenoid valve is shown in
Fig. 7-3B. Here, the solenoid coil is positioned lower
in the valve. The plunger spring is mounted under the
plunger to lift it off its seat and the plunger is length
ened. The plunger should be positioned slightly above
the solenoid coil by its spring. In this position, the
valve piston is held open by line pressure. When the
coil is energized, it pulls the plunger down and the
plunger closes the bleed orifice. Line pressure, acting
through the control orifice, forces the valve piston
down against its seat.
Check Valves
7.12 The check valves in Fig. 7-4 are another type
of two-way valve that allows hydraulic fluid to flow in
only one direction through a line. The direction of flow
 Directional Control Valves 101

Fig. 7-3. Pilot-operated solenoid valves

Plunger
Plunger spr Solenoid coil
(pilot valve)

Solenoid
Plunger
(pilot valve) lunger spring

Main piston sp

Main piston

■Hiai ain piston

Control orifice Control 01

Bleed orifice
Bleed orifice

Pressure Pressure
inlet

A. Normally closed B. Normally open

is marked by an arrow on the outside of the valve body. the heat exchangers from high pressures caused by
Most check valves used in hydraulic systems are con clogging or pressure surges. The pressure check
structed with ball checks or poppets. The graphic sym valves C prevent the flow from the left pressure pump
bol that represents a check valve is the same for either from being pumped into the right pressure pump, and
type. vice versa. The check valve D prevents fluid from
returning to the pumps when the accumulator oper
7.13 Normally, ball or poppet checks are held against ates. (Refer to Lesson Two of Unit 308 if you are
the check valve seat by a spring. Hydraulic fluid under unfamiliar with the schematic symbols used in the
pressure forces the check open and flows through the diagram.)
valve to the outlet. When the inlet pressure is reduced,
pressure at the outlet closes the check against its seat and
prevents reverse flow through the check valve.
Fig. 7-4. Check valves
7.14 The lowest fluid pressure that will open the
check is called the cracking pressure. The cracking
pressure (usually 5 to 10 psi) is determined by the
strength of the spring. When minimum cracking pres
sures are desired, some check valves can be mounted Flapper
vertically to close by gravity without springs. Check
valves without springs usually are not used in hydraulic
systems becau.se fluid pressure may be too high to
allow positive shutoff.

7.15 Check valves are used for many different appli Poppet

cations in hydraulic systems. Applications include not

only directional flow control, but also bypass or relief
valves. Figure 7-5 on the next page shows how check
valves are used in both capacities in a dual-pump system.

7.16 The A and B check valves function as bypass

valves in the system. Check valves A open when the
pump inlet strainers are clogged, in order to protect
the pumps from cavitation. Check valves B protect
This matOfial is prolecoa by U S Cooyiight law Coding Oy any optical, eleclronc, or other means is iltegai withoirl permission
Fig.7-5. A check valve application Fig.7-6. Pilot-operated check valve

Poppet

Pilot piston

Pilot-Operated Check Valves
7.17 It is desirable in some applications to have a
controlled reverse flow through a check valve. If the
poppet of a check valve could be pushed open,
reverse flow through the check valve would be pos
sible. In Fig. 7-6, a load is raised by a hydraulic
cylinder through the check valve and line 1. The
load is held in the raised position by fluid pressure
above the poppet in the check valve. To lower the
load, pressure is applied in line 2 and pilot line 3.
The pilot piston lifts the poppet check, relieving the
pressure in line 1 and permitting the load and the
pressure in line 2 to move the cylinder piston down.
In all cases, the pilot piston and the pressure in line
2 must be large enough to overcome the pressure
above the poppet check. Although there are compli
cated pilot-operated check valves, they all operate in
a similar manner.
Spool Valves
7.18 Spool valves are the most commonly used
valves in hydraulic systems. Because of their con-

Fig.7-7. Two-way spool valves

mmSmm
No flow No flow

Nonactuated Actuated Nonactuated Actuated

Normally open Normally closed

This malerial is protecled by U. S. Copynghl law Copying by any optical, electronic, or other mearts is illegal withoin permission

Fig. 7-8. Three-way diverter valve
m
struction they are partially balanced and, therefore,
easy to operate even when used in high-pressure sys
tems. Although the valves previously discussed are
limited to two-way functions, spool valves are con
structed as two-way, three-way, four-way, and five-
way valves that can be operated manually or automat
ically. The different valve constructions are discussed
in the following paragraphs.
Two-Way Spool Valves
7.19 Two-way spool valves may be normally
open or normally closed, as shown in Fig. 7-7. A
normally open valve permits fluid to flow through
the valve from the inlet to the outlet when the valve
is not actuated. When a normally open spool valve is
actuated, it shuts off the fluid flow. A normally
closed valve shuts off the fluid flow when it is not
actuated and permits fluid flow when it is actuated.
Note how the graphic symbols indicate what is hap
pening in the valve.
7.20 The normally open spool valve in Fig. 7-7 is
unbalanced because inlet pressure acts on both spool
surfaces only when the valve is open. When it is
lusi oe
closed, inlet pressure must be overcome to open tne
the
valve. A normally closed;ed valve is balanced in both
positions.
This msisrial is protected by U. S. Copyright Law Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission
Directional Control Valves 103
Fig.7-9. Three-way directional control valve
Load
F uid in
Flu d out
H
Three-Way Spool Valves
7.21 Three-way spool valves have three primary or
working connections. Pilot lines are not considered
primary lines. Most three-way spool valves resemble
two-way spool valves and move back and forth when
they operate. Three-way valves can be used as divert
er valves or selector valves, as in Fig. 7-8, or direc
tional control valves, as in Fig. 7-9. Because of the
ways in which these valves are used, they must be
constructed so that any of their three connections can
be pressurized without internal leaking occurring.
7.22 Figure 7-8 shows the spool of a three-way
diverting valve held in the nonactuated position by
the spring. Hydraulic fluid at port P is able to flow
through the valve and out port 1 to cylinder A. When
the valve is actuated, the spring is compressed and
hydraulic fluid flows from port P through port 2 to
cylinder B. Note how the schematic symbols show
the fluid flow. In this example, the diverter valve
operates only the cylinders. Return of the actuating
fluid to the reservoir is accomplished with another
three-way valve.
7 23 The differences between three-way divert-
j^g gr selecting valves and directional control
valves are in the piping connections and internal
104 Lesson Seven

construction. The three-way directional control

valve in Fig. 7-9 is in the nonactuated position. The
position of the spool allows fluid from the cylinder
to flow through the valve and out port T. When the
valve is actuated, fluid under pressure flows
through the valve and out port 1, raising the cylin
der. The spool may be spring-loaded to hold the
valve in the "drain" or "fill" position (as a safety
feature), depending on the application.

7.24 You now have seen how two three-way

valves can be used to raise and lower two cylinders.
In the first example, one three-way valve is used for
raising the cylinders and the other for lowering the
cylinders. For this application, the cylinder move
ments alternate. In the second example,each cylinder
can be operated independently. If the application
requires that both cylinders operate together, then
only one three-way directional control valve is
required.

Ttiia matorial is prataetod by U. S.CopyrisM law. Copying by any optical, electionic. or other means is illegal without permission.
 Programmed Exercises 105

7-1. Directional control valves can be oper 7-1. MANUALLY, AUTOMATICALLY

ated or
Ref: 7.01

7-2. Directional control valves are classified 7-2. CENTER

by the way the fluid flows when the
valve is in the position. Ref: 7.02

7-3. Many manually operated two-way 7-3. PRESSURE

valves are NOT suitable for hydraulic
service because of their low Ref: 7.03
ratings.

7-4. One disadvantage of needle valves Is 7-4. PRESSURE LOSSES

that thev usualIv have hlqh
Ref: 7.06

7-5. A direct-acting solenoid valve Is a nor 7-5. CLOSED

mally valve.
Ref: 7.07

7-6. Automatic solenoid valves that operate 7-6. PILOT

In high-pressure hydraulic systems are
usuallv -operated. Ref: 7.08

7-7. A two-way check valve permits fluid 7-7. ONE

flow In dlrection(s).
Ref: 7.12

7-8. The lowest pressure at which a check 7-8. CRACKING

valve will ooen Is Its pres
sure. Ref: 7.14

This moicrisl Is pnitaetod by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, etoctiortie, or other means is iUogol without permission.
106 Lesson Seven
Hydraulic-Motor Control
7.25 A three-way diverter valve can be used in two
ways to control a hydraulic motor. The simplest way
is to use the valve as an on/off valve that allows fluid
to flow either to the motor or to the reservoir. A varia
tion of this is shown in Fig. 7-10. When the valve
spool is moved to the left, pressurized fluid flows
through the valve to the motor and then to the reser
voir. When the spool is pushed to the right, the motor
is unloaded by allowing the fluid on the motor side to
return to the reservoir through port T. Unloading the
fluid pressure permits the motor to coast to a stop.
Normally Open and Normally Closed Valves
7.26 Three-way valves, like two-way valves, are
classified as normally closed or normally open.A nor
mally closed valve has the flow blocked from the
pressure inlet P to the cylinder when the valve is in a
nonactuated position, as in Fig. 7-11 A. A normally
open valve permits flow from the pressure inlet P to
the cylinder when the valve is in a nonactuated posi
tion,as in Fig.7-1IB.
Holding Valves
7.27 A three-way valve that is designed to hold all
its ports blocked at one time is shown in Fig. 7-12.
When the valve spool is in midposition, the left and
right ports are closed. When the valve is shifted, flow
is possible between the left or right and center ports.
To permit easier actuation, the valve usually is assem
bled with the spool mounted between two springs. The
springs center the spool in the nonactuated position.
Four-Way Valves
7.28 For direct-flow patterns in sim
ple hydraulic circuits, two-way or three-
way valves are sufficient to control the
flow. However, when a circuit becomes
more complex, simple valves cannot be
used efficiently. (Too many would be
required to perform the complicated
control.) Instead, more complex four-
way valves are used.
7.29 A four-way valve has four pri
mary working connections, as shown in
This material is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, eleettonie, or other means is illegal wittwut permission.
Fig. 7-13 on page 108. It has a pressure fluid inlet P,
a return line to the reservoir T, and connections 1
and 2. Connections 1 and 2 connect the fluid outlet
ports to the actuator, which is usually a cylinder or a
motor. Note that there are only four external connec
tions even though the valve has five internal ports.
(The two exhaust ports are directed to a common
external connection.) As has already been stated, the
number of external connections determines the valve
classification. Also, since pilot lines are not consid
ered primary lines, they are indicated or shown sepa
rately with their own connections.
7.30 Most four-way valves are designed to per
form as many functions as possible efficiently. To
accomplish this, most valves are manufactured with
three operating positions: middle (nonactuated), actu
ated to the left, and actuated to the right. If the center
position is not used, it is called a crossover position
and the valve becomes, in effect, a two-position
valve. When the middle, nonactuated position is used,
the spool usually is centered by two springs and must
be actuated in both directions from the middle posi
tion. If the middle position is not used,a spring usual
ly is placed on one end of the spool and the valve is
actuated in only one direction.
7.31 The two-position,four-way valve in Fig. 7-14
on page 108 shows how a spool is used to provide the
most efficient flow pattern. With the spool in the non-
actuated position, flow from the pressure line P is
directed to line 1. At the same time, flow from the
cylinder (rod-end) line 2 is directed to the reservoir
line T. When the spool is actuated, flow from the
pressure line P is directed to line 2, and flow from
line 1 is directed to the reservoir line T. Note that the
Fig.7-10. Three-way diverter valve controlling a motor
Fluid \ Flow Fluid \ No flow
motor motor
Vented
Fluid m Fluid in
Motor running Motor floating
 Directional Control Valves 107

standard symbol for this valve shows only four con Fig.7-12. Three-way holding valve
nections. As described before, the two internal
exhaust ports are joined in a common passage that has
only one external connection. Study the fluid flow.
You will then be able to understand the symbol more
Stem in
easily.

7.32 The three-position, four-way valve is called a

closed crossover valve because all ports are closed
when the spool is passing through the center position.
The operation and the schematic symbol of a three- Centered

position, four-way valve are shown in Fig. 7-15 on

No f ow
page 109. The fluid flow in a three-position valve is
the same as in a two-position valve.

Stem out
Five-Way Valves

7.33 A five-way valve is usually a special varia

tion of a four-way valve. The difference between the
two valves is simple. In a four-way valve, the two
exhaust ports are connected internally. In a five-way Openings or ports in the side of the valve body.
valve, they are not. Five connections are required. Instead of the valve shifting right or left, it rotates.
Separate exhaust connections are used so that the Although the valve shown in Fig. 7-16 on page 109
fluid leaving each side of the actuator can be regulat is a four-way valve, two-way and three-way rotary
ed. This allows the actuator to travel at different valves also are manufactured.
speeds,hold its position, or move in steps.
7.35 In position A, the spool valve directs
Rotary Valves hydraulic fluid from the system pressure line to port
1, allowing fluid to enter the system. When the spool
7.34 Rotary spool valves are quite different in con rotates to the return position, B,fluid is directed to
struction and operation from the valves that have been port 2. In the neutral or center position, C,the ports to
described thus far. However, they perform the same the spool valve and the actuator are closed and no
function of controlling fluid flow,and can be operated fluid flows.
manually, mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically,
or electrically. Rotary valves are made with a round 7.36 Rotary spool valves also are made with line
core that has passages in it that line up with various connections and ports in the bottom of the valve body.

Fig.7-11. Three-way valves

To cylinder IT To cylinder To cylinder

/
Out tn Out
T P P T

Nonactuated
zT P TP
Actuated Nonactuated

PT PT
Actuated

A. Normally closed B. Normally open

This matsrial is pratoctad by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optcal, electronic, or other meens is illegal without peimissian.
108 Lesson Seven

Regardless of construction, all rotary spool valves

Fig.7-13. A four-way valve
operate in the same manner as the valve just described.

Valve Actuators

7.37 There are several ways in which the spool of a

valve can be shifted. The methods and their symbols
are shown in Fig. 7-17. In many cases, two or more
symbols may be attached to the valve schematic sym T(Out)
bol. When this occurs, you can determine from the
schematic symbol exactly how the valve is set up and
actuated. Sometimes the manual symbol is used in
place of the lever, button, or foot pedal that operates
the valve.

Flow Rating
7.38 When you replace a hydraulic valve, it is
important to know that the replacement valve has the
required flow rating. In the past, valve descriptions
were expressed in terms of pipe size, port size, or
both. Because of advances made in valve design in
recent years,comparison by pipe size or port size does
not always ensure equal capacity. If the replacement
valve is insufficient for a required flow, pressure drop
and energy losses will be excessive. If the valve is too
large, energy losses will be low but initial cost and
space requirements will be high.
7.39 To facilitate-comparison between different
makes and models, manufacturers rate the flow
capacities of their valves by a coefficient called the
Cv factor. Any two valves with the same Cy rating,
regardless of make or size, will pass the same flow at
the same pressure drop.
Accessories
7.40 Standard valves are usually available off-the-
shelf. When valves require unusual porting arrange
ments, pilot setups, manifold mountings, or actuators,
they are considered special valves. For example,throt
tling spools that have flats, slots, notches, or bevels
can be used to smooth out flow rates and reduce
hydraulic shocks in the system. Throttling features
also are added to allow a small fluid flow between
selected ports while the spool is moving, which elimi
nates pressure surges and hydraulic shocks.
7.41 Accessories are added to the valve to reduce
spool travel and restrict flow passages. Accessories

Fig.7-14. A two-position,four-way valve

12 1 2

PT P T

Nonactuated Actuated

This mstefial is protoctsd by U.S. Copyright btw. Copying by any optical, eloctionic, or other rrteons is illegal without permissian.
 Directional Controi Valves 109

Fig. 7-15. A three-position,four-way valve

P T P

Fig. 7-16. A rotary spool valve

From pump From syste

A. Feed position

Fig. 7-17. Actuator symbols for directional control valves

Hand lever Solenoid Manual symbol Spring

Foot pedal Detent

include check valves, flow regulators, and pressure be employed to operate valves in particular applica
regulators. They can be built into the valve bodies or tions. Sometimes manual pushpin overrides are added
mounted on adjacent manifolds. Various types of sole to solenoids to allow a hydraulic valve to be operated
noid coils, manual devices, or pneumatic devices can manually if the solenoid does not function electrically.
This maienal is prolected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, oiecitonic, or oibor means is illegal without permission
110 Programmed Exercises

7-9. A three-way diverter valve controls a 7-9. ON/OFF

hydraulic motor by serving as either an
unloadlno device or a simple Ref: 7.25
valve.

7-10. A normally open three-way valve per 7-10. NONACTUATED

mits flow to the cylinder when the valve
Is In afn) position. Ref: 7.26

7-11, A four-wav valve has primary 7-11. FOUR

working connections.
Ref: 7.29

7-12. Most four-way valves are manufactured 7-12. THREE

with operating positions.
Ref: 7.30

7-13. A three-position, four-way valve Is 7-13. CLOSED CROSSOVER

called a(n1 valve.
Ref: 7.32

7-14. A five-way valve Is usually a variation 7-14. FOUR-WAY

of afn) valve.
Ref: 7.33

7-15. Are the exhaust ports connected Inter 7-15. NO

nally In a five-way valve?
Ref: 7.33

7-16. A four-way spool valve which does 7-16. ROTARY

NOT shift with a linear motion Is a(n)
valve. Ref: 7.34

This material is pnitecled by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, eloctrenic, or other means is illegal without permission.
 Self-Check Quiz 111

Answer the following questions by marking an "X'

in the box next to the best answer.

7-1. Directional control valves do all of the follow 7-6. Spool valves usually are partially balanced
ing EXCEPT because of their

□ a. control fluid flow □ a. number of internal ports

□ b. move hydraulic cylinders □ b. construction
□ c. stop hydraulic cylinders □ c. actuator type
□ d. relieve excess pressure □ d. body size

7-2. Directional control valves are NOT classified 7-7. Three-way spool valves are made with three
by the number of
□ a. primary connections
□ a. pipe threads □ b. secondary connections
□ b. paths □ c. primary and three secondary
□ c. positions connections
□ d. ports □ d. basic parts

7-3. Some manually operated two-way valves are 7-8. Selector and diverter three-way valves differ
NOT suitable for hydraulic service because of in their

their
□ a. pressure ratings
□ a. low pressure ratings □ b. pilot connections
□ b. slow opening speeds □ c. number of piping connections
□ d. internal construction
□ c. slow closing speeds
□ d. seating design
7-9. A three-position, four-way valve is referred to
as a
7-4. The closing force of a solenoid-operated
valve is usually limited to □ a. needle valve
□ b. direct control valve
□ a. 51b
□ c. closed crossover valve
□ b. 15 lb
□ d. split-phase valve
□ c. 251b
□ d. 351b
7-10. Rotary spool valves can be manufactured to
operate as all of the following EXCEPT
7-5. The pressure at which a check valve will start
to open is called its □ a. two-way valves
□ b. three-way valves
□ a. popping pressure
□ c. four-way valves
□ b. pressure rating
□ d. five-way valves
□ c. cracking pressure
□ d. seating pressure

TNs,«.«Ha.^pra.««.odWU.S.CopyH8Mtow. Copyingb,anyop.^. «<«hc, ^

112 Lesson Seven

SUMMARY

Every hydraulic system requires a means of con
trolling the fluid flow In the lines. Such control Is
provided by directional control valves, which may
be operated manually or automatically. Direction
al control valves are classified by the name of the
valve and also by the number of piping connec
tions that can be made to the valve body.
Globe, gate, plug, ball, and needle valves are all
manually operated two-way valves that can be
used for hydraulic service. Automatic two-way
valves generally are solenoid-operated and classi
fied as direct-acting and pilot-operated. A check
valve is also a type of two-way valve. Check
valves can be pilot-operated when controlled
reverse flow is necessary.
Spool valves are the most commonly used valves
in hydraulic systems. They are made as two-way,
three-way,four-way, and five-way valves and can
be operated manually or automatically. Two-way
and three-way valves are classified as normaliy
open or normaiiy ciosed, depending on whether
or not the fluid is permitted to flow when the valve
Is in a nonactuated position.
Four-way and five-way vaives are more complex
than two-way or three-way vaives. A four-way
valve has two exhaust ports connected internally.
A five-way valve requires five connections.
Rotary spooi vaives can be operated manually,
mechanically, hydraulicaily, pneumatically, or
electrically. The valve has a round core with pas
sages in it that line up with ports in the side of the
valve body.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

7-1. d. Relieve excess pressure. Ref: 7.01 7-6. b. Construction. Ref: 7.18
7-2. a. Pipe threads. Ref: 7.02 7-7. a. Primary connections. Ref: 7.21
7-3. a. Low pressure ratings. Ref:7.03 7-8. d. Internal construction. Ref: 7.23
7-4. b. 15 ib. Ref: 7.08 7-9. 0. Closed crossover valve. Ref: 7.32
7-5. c. Cracking pressure. Ref: 7.14 7-10. d. Five-way valves. Ref: 7.34

Thi,m.,oriali.pro,oCodbyU.8.Copyriflh,(«w. Copying by any omicol. o,other i.

UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lesson Eight

Pressure-
Control Valves

VO:

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Pressure-Control Valves

TOPICS

Pressure-Control Valves Unloading Valves

Pressure-Relief Valves Pressure-Reducing Valves
Poppet Valves Shock Suppressors
Spool Valves Flow-Control Valves
Sequence Valves Pressure Compensation
Counterbalance Valves Temperature Compensation
Holding Valves

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to.

• Explain the functions of a pressure-control valve, a Name the operations performed by flow-control
pressure-relief valve, and a pressure-reducing valve. valves.
• Describe the operation of a spool valve, a poppet Describe how pressure compensation and tempera
valve, and a sequence valve. ture compensation work.
• Explain the purpose of holding valves, unloading
valves, and counterbalance valves.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Pressure-control valve 8.01 a valve that limits Counterbalance valve 8.20 a valve used to sup
and regulates the pressure and controls the flow port a hoisted load or to prevent uncontrolled fall
rates of fluid In a hydraulic system Pressure-reducing valve 8.25 a valve used to
Pressure-relief valve 8.03, 8.04 a valve that pro limit the pressure In one part of the system to
tects a hydraulic system against excess pressure below that of the main part of the system
by gradually opening to relieve pressure
Sequence valve 8.18 a valve used when It is
necessary to have one cylinder actuated either
before or after another

Thi$ malenal is proleded by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, eleclronc, or other means is illegal wrthout permission
Maintaining constant pressure in a hydraulic system is just as important as
directing the flow of the fluid to the proper place. The pressure-relief and pres
sure-regulating valves maintain this constant pressure, which the system
requires in order to function at its best.

This Lesson describes the operation and construction of different types of pres
sure-control valves used in hydraulic systems. Remember that these valves do
not function in the same manner as flow-control valves—but without pressure-
regulating valves, damage due to either too much or too little pressure can
occur in many parts of the hydraulic system.

Pressure-Control Valves Poppet Valves

8.01 Pressure-control valves limit and regulate the
pressure in a hydraulic system. They are two-way
valves that are either normally closed (no flow) or
normally open (full flow). Between fully closed and
fully open, pressure-control valves can have any num
ber of partially open positions.
8.05 A simple, direct-acting poppet relief valve is
shown in Fig. 8-1 with its schematic symbol. The
inlet port is connected to the hydraulic-pressure line
and the outlet port to a return line that leads back to
the reservoir. The poppet is held in a normally closed
position on the valve seat by the poppet spring.

8.02 Pressure-relief, unloading, sequence and 8.06 The pressure setting of the valve is either fixed
counterbalance valves are normally closed. They or controlled by the adjusting screw of the poppet
open either partially or fully when in operation. spring. When the fluid pressure under the poppet
Pressure-reducing valves are normally open. They reaches the cracking-pressure setting, the fluid opens
restrict and sometimes block flow to the con the poppet slightly, against the force of the spring. This
trolled circuit, depending on the controlled pres- allows some of the fluid to flow through the valve out
let and return to the fluid reservoir. If the pressure in
the line continues to increase, the poppet opens farther,
Pressure-Relief Valves allowing more fluid to return to the reservoir. A contin
ued increase in line pressure continues to open the pop-
8.03 Pressure-relief valves are designed to pre pel, allowing more and more fluid to return to the
vent the pressure of the fluid in a hydraulic system reservoir until the valve reaches its full-flow position.
or a part of the hydraulic system from exceeding a
set maximum. Otherwise, excessive pressures
could damage expensive components and equip
ment. Pressure-relief valves are the safeguard Fig. 8-1. A direct-acting poppet relief valve
which limit pressure in a system and divert exces
sive fluid to the reservoir when pressures get too
Pressure-
high. adjusting
screw

8.04 Relief valves can be divided into two cate

gories: direct-acting and pilot-operated. Most relief
valves in a hydraulic system are of the ball, poppet, or
spool type. Occasionally you may hear a relief valve Poppet

referred to as a safety valve. This is not correct. A

relief valve has a smooth action that starts at a given => Outlet
pressure and increases to a maximum level. A safety
valve releases all at once, thereby dropping line pres
sure immediately.

This maler«l is proieded by U. S. Copyright law Copying by any optical, eloclronic, or other mearts is illegal without permissioo.
Fig.8-2. A pilot-operated poppet relief valve valve outlet until system pressure drops below the
valve setting.
... , Pilot poppet ,,
weak spring Heavy spring 8.09 Because only a weak spring force is over
come when the main poppet of the two-stage valve is
cracked, the operating differential is less. For
instance, a valve of this type, having the same full
flow as the direct-acting poppet valve just discussed,
would probably crack open at 975 to 980 psi and
close at 940 to 960 psi when set at 1000 psi. The
operating differential would be about 20 to 25 psi
compared to 50 psi, and the system pressure would
fluctuate in a much smaller range.

8.10 In some applications the relief valve must

be controlled from a remote point. For these situa
tions, a small, remotely placed pilot valve can be
It is important that the full-flow capacity of the valve connected to a pilot-operated relief valve, as shown
be larger than the pump capacity rating. in Fig. 8-3. The remote position can be as far as 15
ft away from the main relief valve. The main two-
8.07 A pressure-relief valve is rated by its flow stage poppet valve operates differently in this appli
capacity and operating differential pressure. The cation. It cracks open at about 975 psi and opens
operating differential pressure for a relief valve is the fully at 1000 psi by remote control. The pilot pop
difference between the set (maximum) pressure point pet valve in the main two-stage valve can then be
and the cracking-pressure point. For example, a valve set to open at 1100 psi. In this way, the desired
may be rated for 15 gpm at 1000 psi, with an operat operating pressure can be set at 1000 psi, and the
ing differential of 50 psi. The set point is 1000 psi and pilot valve acts as a safety valve if the remotely
the cracking point is 950 psi. If the fluid pressure installed valve fails to function.
exceeds 950 psi, the valve starts to open. The valve
continues to open until, at 1000 psi, it is fully open.
When the fluid pressure drops, the valve starts to
Fig,8-3. A remotely controlled relief valve
close. When the pressure drops to 900 psi, the valve
closes completely. (It does not close at 950 psi
because flow velocity holds it open.)
Remotely la
placed '
8.08 For applications requiring valves that must relief valve i i
relieve large flows with small pressure differences, or:?!
pilot-operated relief valves are used. The pilot-operat
ed or two-stage poppet valve in Fig. 8-2 is a modifi
cation of a simple poppet. During operation, fluid at
inlet pressure passes through the orifice in the main
poppet. The fluid pressure, combined with a weak
poppet spring, holds the main poppet shut against line
Two-stage
pressure.(Note that the main poppet has no adjusting relief valve
screw.) Line pressure is adjusted at the pilot poppet
Pilot
spring. As the fluid pressure above the main poppet poppet
increases past the cracking point of the pilot poppet,
the pilot valve opens, relieving pressure inside the
main poppet. System pressure forces the large main
poppet off its seat, and fluid is allowed to pass to the

This matsriBf ts protMsd by U S Copyright lew Copying by any opticaJ, electronic, or other means is illegal withojt permission

Fig.8-4. A direct-acting spool valve
Pressure-
adjusting screw
Spring —
Circular
B
passage
(outlet)
Circular
passage
(inlet)
Spool Valves
8.11 Another type of relief valve, the direct-acting
spool valve, is shown in Fig. 8-4. Like the poppet
valve, the simple spool valve has its inlet port con
nected to the hydraulic-pressure line and its outlet
port connected to the reservoir return line. The spool
is held in the closed position by the force of the
adjustable sqring. During operation, hydraulic fluid
under line pressure enters the inlet and flows into the
inlet circular passage and under the spool end.
8.12 When the inlet fluid pressure reaches the
cracking pressure of the spool, the spool lifts, allow
ing some hydraulic fluid to flow through the outlet
circular passage to the outlet and then to the reservoir.
The higher the fluid pressure becomes, the more the
spool rises. When the spool completely uncovers the
circular passage, the full-flow capacity of the valve is
reached. The setting, cracking, and operating differen
tial pressure ranges of spool valves are similar to
those of poppet valves. Because of its .shape, the spool
valve provides smoother operating action than the
poppet construction.
8.13 The pilot-operated or two-stage spool valve
shown in Fig. 8-5 is slightly different from the direct-
acting spool valve. A bypass passage with a built-in
flow restriction leads to the spring side of the spool.
Fluid flowing through the bypass at line pressure,
combined with the force of the weak spring, holds the
spool in position. As in the poppet valve, the pilot
poppet spring can be adjusted to regulate the opening
This maidnal is protscied by U S. Cooyn9ht law. Copying by any optical, oloctron«c, or oihor means cs illegal without permission
Pressure-Control Valves 117
Fig.8-5. A pilot-operated spool valve
Weak spring Pilot poppet Heavy spring
Flow Bypass
restriction
O Outlet
Inlet cC>
pressure of the valve. When the line pressure exceeds
the pilot poppet pressure setting, the pilot opens and
the spool rises, allowing inlet fluid to flow out
through the outlet back to the reservoir. A two-stage
spool valve has a higher cracking pressure than a sim
ple spool valve, and a lower operating differential
pressure.
8.14 Sometimes a pilot-operated relief valve is
needed to unload the system. This is accomplished by
connecting a pilot-operated valve to a normally
closed two-way or three-way control valve, as shown
in Fig. 8-6 on the next page. When the control valve
is opened (block 2), the pressure above the spool is
relieved, allowing the spool to rise. System fluid is
then unloaded to the reservoir. When the control
valve is in the closed position, the relief valve func
tions normally.
8.15 Pilot-operated spool valves also can be
remotely controlled. Figure 8-7 on the next page
shows the main relief valve connected to a remote
pilot poppet valve through a three-position valve.
(Note that the pilot poppet is set at a lower pressure
than the main valve.) The three-position valve allows
the pilot-operated relief valve to function in ways
similar to the valve just de.scribed, but controlled by a
remote pilot valve.
8.16 With the three-position valve set in the center
position, the vent line is closed and the relief valve func
tions independently of the pilot. If the three-position
valve is shifted to the right (block I open),the pilot con-
Fig.8-6. Combining a relief valve with a control either pilot-operated poppet or spool valves. The type
of valve chosen depends on the system requirements
and the capabilities of the valves.
Control valve

I r Sequence Valves

8.18 Sequence valves are used when it is necessary

Pilot
control
to have one cylinder actuated either before or after
line another. Sequence valves are normally closed two-way
valves. They may be made up of direct-acting or pilot-
operated poppet or spool valves. They resemble direct-
acting relief valves except for the added drain line con
nected to the pressure-adjusting spring chamber(see Fig.
8-8). Another diff"erence is that the flow from the outlet
of a sequence valve is at line pressure and is used to
power the next section of the hydraulic system. The
spring chambers in sequence valves are drained to the
Two-stage valve
reservoir to prevent back-pressure buildup.

8.19 In the normally closed position, the combina

trol line is connected to the pilot poppet valve. If it is
shifted to the left (block 3 open), it acts as a relief valve,
allowing the two-stage valve to unload the system.
8.17 Arrangements that permit remote control,
multiple pressures, and unloading can be used with
tion of spring pressure plus inlet fluid pressure holds
the piston as shown in Fig. 8-8. This allows fluid to
flow to the primary circuit until the pressure setting of
the valve is reached. The increased pressure in the
primary circuit now moves the valve piston toward
the right, connecting the inlet with the secondary cir
cuit. Fluid from the spring chamber drains into the
reservoir. When the secondary circuit pressure reach-

Fig.8-7. A remotely controlled pilot-operated spool valve

Pilot poppet valve

Three position valve

Vent ine

Two-stage
relief valve

Pilot control line

Thi« material a protected by U. 5. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal withcjt permissiort
 Pressure-Control Valves 119

Fig. 8-8. Sequence valves Fig. 8-9. A counterbalance valve

Drain Load

Pump
Cylinder Check valve
Dram

H} Inlet

Q.pa
n

Outlet

Direct-acting Pilot-operated Counterbalance valve Drain

es the valve selling, it moves the piston back toward
the left.
Counterbalance Valves
820 A counterbalance valve is sometimes called a
foot, braking, or back-pressure valve. It usually is used
either to support a hoisted load, or to prevent a load from
dropping uncontrolled. A counterbalance valve is a nor
mally closed pressure-control valve similar to a relief
valve. As shown in Fig. 8-9, a double-poppet valve,
which has the poppets facing in opposite directions, is
used. Note that the counterbalance valve has an
adjustable spring.
821 In operation, hydraulic fluid enters the inlet and
flows past the check valve to the outlet, where it actu
ates a cylinder to lift the load. Fluid pressure and the
heavier spring pressure keep the counterbalanced valve
closed. If the load tries to reverse, spring pressure and
pressure from the returning fluid on the inner part of the
check valve cause the valve to close, blocking return
flow. When enough return fluid pressure is applied to
the counterbalance valve, it opens and permits the fluid
to flow out of the drain and back to the reservoir.

This matenaJ s proisciM by U S Copynghi law. Copying by any optical, elecirone, or oitiei means is illegal witnout pormission.
120 Programmed Exercises

8.1. Do pressure-control valves have any 8-1. YES

partially open positions between fully
closed and fully open? Ref: 8.01

8-2. Are pressure-relief valves normally 8-2. NORMALLY CLOSED

open or normally closed?
Ref; 8.02

8-3. Name the two general categories into 8-3. DIRECT-ACTING, PILOT-OPERATED
which all relief valves can be divided.
Ref: 8.04

8-4. Direct-acting poppet relief valves are 8-4. SPRING

held in the normally closed position by
a(n) Ref: 8.05

8-5. The difference between the set(maxi 8-5. OPERATING DIFFERENTIAL

mum)pressure point and the cracking- PRESSURE
pressure point for a relief valve is
called the Ref: 8.07

8-6. When a relief valve is controlled from a 8-6. TWO-STAGE

remote point, is the main valve usually
a single-stage or a two-stage valve? Ref: 8.10

8-7. What type of valves are used when it is 8-7. SEQUENCE

necessary to have one cylinder actuat
ed either before or after another? Ref: 8.18

8-8. An adjustable back-pressure or braking 8-8. COUNTERBALANCE

valve is usually called a(n)
valve. Ref: 8.20

This matarioi is pfotadod by U.S. Copyright bw. Copying by any optical, oloetionie, or othar means is Utegal without peimission.

Holding Valves
8.22 A holding valve operates somewhat like a
counterbalance valve. The difference is that the hold
ing valve offers less resistance to fluid flow. Con
struction of a holding valve is shown in Fig. 8-10. in
operation, hydraulic fluid flows from line 3 through
the inlet and past the check valve to line 1 to lift the
load. While the load is being held, pressure from line
3 is not enough to open the poppet against the spring.
When line 2 is pressurized, the added pressure opens
the poppet and permits the fluid from line 1 to flow
back to the reservoir.
Unloading Valves
8.23 Earlier in this Lesson, you saw how a poppet
relief valve connected to a two-way valve could be
used as an unloading valve. The unloading valve di.s-
cussed in the next paragraph is a pilot-operated rather
than a pressure-operated valve. The construction and
operation of a pilot-operated unloading valve can be
understood by looking at Fig. 8-11 on the next page
as you read the following description of the valve.
8.24 The valve shown is commonly used in a two-
pump circuit. In such a circuit, a high-pressure, low-
volume pump and a low-pressure, high-volume pump
are used together. The low-pressure pump fills the
system, and the high-pressure pump provides the
Fig. 8-10. A holding valve
/ \ Poppet
,—~ relief—
Load valve
Tni* rnatsnal is proleaed by U S Copyngm law. Copying by any cotcal. aleclionic. or other mearu is illegal wrinoul permission.
Pressure-Control Valves 121
force to operate the system. System (high) pressure at
the pilot port operates the pilot piston, opening the
poppet against the force of the spring. The spring is
adjusted to a pressure slightly lower than the pressure
capability of the low-pressure pump. (The low-pres
sure pump is connected to the unloading valve inlet.)
When the poppet opens, the main spool shifts to the
left, opening the outlet, and allows flow from the low-
pressure pump to return to the reservoir. When system
pressure drops below its minimum setting, the pilot
poppet closes. Fluid at low inlet pressure equalizes
the pressure on the main spool. The main spool spring
shifts the spool to the right, closing the passage
between the inlet and the outlet. The fluid from the
low-pressure pump then flows into the system.
Pressure-Reducing Valves
8.25 Pressure-reducing valves are normally open
two-way valves which are actuated by downstream
fluid pressure. There are two types, direct-acting and
pilot-operated. The primary reason for using a pres
sure-reducing valve is to limit the pressure in one part
of a system to below that of the main part of the sys
tem. A relief valve cannot be used for this purpose,
since the pressure in the entire system would be
reduced.
8.26 Operation of a pressure-reducing valve is
shown in Fig. 8-12 on the next page. The pressure
Check
rrU5 valve
10^
 Fig.8-11. A pilot-operated unloading valve

Spring-adjusting screw

Main spool

Outlet Inlet

from the controlled circuit acts on area A of the valve,
resulting in the partial closing of the valve. The spring
force is adjusted so that only enough fluid flows to
the outlet to maintain the required pressure in the con
trolled circuit. When outlet pressure reaches the valve
setting, the spring is compressed, closing the valve. A
small quantity of fluid is allowed to bleed from the
outlet, through the pressure-sensing passage and an
orifice in the piston, into the spring chamber, and
back to the reservoir. This small leakage prevents a
rise in downstream pressure above the valve setting.
When the outlet pressure drops again, spring force
moves the piston, which opens the outlet port as far as
necessary to maintain the controlled pressure.
Shock Suppressors
8.27 When a hydraulic system starts up, or per
forms any of its operations, the pressure rises rapidly.
Usually the high-pressure relief valves are unable to

Fig.8-12. A pressure-reducing valve

Pressure
set at 500 psi

Pilot poppet

This maienal la protected by U. S. Ck>pyngh<i law Copying by any optcal, eloctronic. or olber meana i» illegal wiinodt pennission.
 Pressure-Control Valves 123

Fig.8-13. Shock suppressors

Heavy spring
d

Orifice inlet

e
Outlet
r-(W~)-T-5=5
-Restricting piston
W
Light spring
J
Accumulator piston

reduce the pressure surge quickly enough, and 8.30 One of the easiest regulation methods is to
hydraulic shock occurs. Although the shock lasts only use a variable-delivery pump. However, varying the
about three one-hundredths of a second (0.03 s), the pump delivery affects the entire system. In more com
pressure can be twice as high as the normal operating plex systems, flow-control valves usually are pre
pressure in the system. To protect the system from ferred because of their flexibility and the variety of
needless wear and damage caused by shock, a shock available components.
suppressor can be installed.
8.31 The flow-control valves used in hydraulic
8.28 When operating, a suppressor must anticipate systems usually are positioned in the system to oper
shock by detecting the beginning of any sudden pres ate in one of the following ways:
sure rise promptly. Figure 8-13 shows how this hap
pens. A fast pressure rise enters the valve and partially • meter-in: regulates fluid flow on the inlet
flows through the restricting piston. Fluid passing side of the actuator
through the restriction acts on the accumulator piston,
compressing the accumulator spring and allowing • meter-out: regulates fluid flow on the out
fluid to return to the reservoir. High pressure also let side of the actuator
opens the restricting piston against the light spring
pressure, allowing fluid to return to the reservoir. • bleedoff: bleeds off excess fluid in cir
After the shock passes from the inlet through the out cuits where only a portion of the main flow is
let and back to the reservoir, the light spring closes required to control the actuator.
the restricting piston and the accumulator resets itself
until the next pressure shock occurs. Many of the flow-control valves discussed in the fol
lowing paragraphs can be used in more than one of
Flow-Control Valves the above control methods.

8.29 Although the pressure in a hydraulic system
determines the force that an actuator can exert, the
amount of fluid flow determines how fast or how
slow the actuators actually move. Fluid flow in a sys
tem can be regulated in a number of different ways.
8.32 The most common way of controlling fluid
flow is by an orifice in the hydraulic line. As the area
of the orifice increases, the pressure drop and the
fluid velocity decrease slightly. Fluid viscosity also
affects the flow through the orifice. As the viscosity

This material i» pretectad by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, eloctionic. or other means is illegal without pemtissien.
Fig. 8-14. Flow-control valves

increases, so does the flow resistance. A valve with a
fixed orifice usually consists of a disk with a small
hole in it, as shown in Fig. 8-14.
8.33 Systems that have varying flow requirements
usually are equipped with some type of adjustable
flow-control valve. Three different types are shown in
Fig. 8-14. Valve A is very similar to a globe valve.
Valve B controls the flow with the stem adjustment
and the notch in the stem. Valve C is slightly different
in construction. In this valve, the size of the slots in
the spool sleeve are present. Flow control is regulated
by the spool within the sleeve. In many valves, the
spool may be moved in or out to change the position
of the opening.
Pressure Compensation
ing the valve and restricting fluid flow. If the down
stream pressure rises, the spool shifts downward and
allows more fluid flow. If the downstream pressure
drops greatly, the spool blocks the inlet until the
downstream pressure increases enough to allow the
spool to return to its pressure-modulating position.
The valve is said to modulate because of its small
movements while regulating the fluid pressure.
Temperature Compensation
8.36 Frequently, the flow in a hydraulic system
must be changed because of variations in temperature.
Fig.8-15. A pressure-compensation valve

8.34 In Fig. 8-15, a variable flow-control valve is Adjustable

connected to a two-way spool to allow for pressure spring
changes. In operation, fluid above (upstream) the Down
stream
variable orifice acts on the lower (free) face of the side
spool. The pressure below (downstream) the orifice
Variable
acts on the upper (spring-loaded) face of the spool. orifice
The adjustment on the spring determines the average
pressure differential setting for the compensator. The
spool is shifted to allow the desired amount of fluid to
flow through the regulator.
Upstream
side
8.35 If the downstream pressure drops more than
the upstream pressure, the spool shifts upward, clos
This maionol is protected by U. S Copyright (a«v Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal withoirt permission.
 Pressure-Control Valves 125

Fig.8-16. A temperature-compensation valve

Sleeve
Expanding element

i :' i l l 1

\! =

Notched stem

For this, a special variable flow-control valve is used.

The one shown in Fig. 8-16 uses a stem that has a
high rate of expansion combined with a tapered notch
to compensate for changes in fluid temperature. When
operating cold, the expanding element contracts,
allowing increased fluid flow. As the fluid tempera
ture rises, the expanding element lengthens and the
opening between the notch and the sleeve becomes
smaller, thereby reducing the fluid flow. There are
other types of temperature compensation valves, but
they all operate on similar principles.

Thtj materisl« pratodod by U. S. CopyiigM law. Copying by any optical, otoctronic, or other moons is illegal withoul permission.
126 Programmed Exercises

8-9. A valve that is similar to a counterbal 8-9. HOLDING

ance valve, but which offers less resis
tance to return flow, is a(n) Ref: 8.22

8-10. Unloading valves are commonly used in 8-10. PUMP

hydraulic systems that have more than
one Ref: 8:24

8-11. Is a pressure-reducing valve used to 8-11. ONE PART

limit the pressure in one part of the sys
tem only or in the entire system? Ref: 8.25

8-12. Hydraulic shock in a system is usually 8-12. SHOCK SUPPRESSOR

controlled by afn)
Ref: 8.27

8-13. The speed at which an actuator moves 8-13. FLUID FLOW

is determined by the amount of
Ref: 8.29

8-14. Name the three ways in which a flow- 8-14. METER-IN, METER-OUT. BLEEDOFF
control valve can operate.
Ref: 8.31

8-15. A pressure-compensation valve is con 8-15. DOWNSTREAM

trolled bv pressure on the
side of the valve. Ref: 8.35

8-16. Temperature-compensation valves 8-16. EXPANDS

usually are equipped with an element
that as the temperature Ref: 8.36
rises.

This material is protected l>y U. S. Copyiight law. Copying tiy any ophcal, electronic, or odior moans is iDegal without poimission.
 Self-Check Quiz 127

Answer the following questions by marking an "X"

in the box next to the best answer.

8-1. A pressure-reducing valve is a 8-6. Pressure-reducing valves limit pressure

□ a. normally open three-way valve □ a. in one part of the system

□ b. normally open two-way valve □ b. in two separate parts of the system
□ c. normally closed three-way valve □ c. throughout the entire system
□ d. normally closed two-way valve □ d. at the pump

8-2. What is another term for the maximum pres 8-7. Hydraulic shock in a system is controlled by
sure of a poppet relief valve? a(n)

□ a. Flow capacity □ a. counterbalance valve

□ b. Set pressure □ b. shock suppressor
□ c. Cracking pressure □ c. unloading valve
□ d. Operating differential pressure □ d. adjustable orifice

8-3. What is the pressure at the discharge (outlet) 8-8. The speed of a hydraulic actuator is con
of a sequence valve? trolled by what characteristic of the hydraulic
system?
□ a. Cracking pressure
□ b. Set pressure □ a. Pressure
□ c. Line pressure □ b. Temperature
□ d. Negative Pressure □ c. Flow
□ d. Viscosity

8-4. A counterbalance valve is usually constructed 8-9. A flow-control valve can be positioned to
as a operate in all of the following ways EXCEPT

□ a. single poppet □ a. bleedoff

□ b. double poppet □ b. meter-in
□ c. single spool □ c. meter-out
□ d. double spool □ d. counterbalance

8-5. Unloading valves usually are made for 8-10. A pressure-compensation valve senses pres
operation. sure at the

□ a. pilot □ a. pump
□ b. pressure □ b. reservoir
□ c. manual □ c. downstream valve outlet
□ d. direct-acting □ d. valve inlet

This material a protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or ottier moaits is iOegal without permission.
128 Lesson Eight

SUMMARY

Various types of pressure-control valves are used
in a plant's hydraulic system.Some of these
valves limit or regulate the pressure in the sys
tem. Others control the flow rates of the system's
fluid. The specific types of valves, used are deter
mined by the requirements of the application.
Pressure-relief valves, usually of the poppet or
spool type, are common In hydraulic systems that
do not have variable-displacement pumps. A relief
valve opens gradually, beginning at a preset pres
sure. A safety valve, on the other hand, releases
all at once,causing an Immediate pressure drop.
Sequence valves are similar to relief valves. They
are used when one cylinder must be actuated
either before or after another. Counterbalance
valves are used to support hoisted loads or to
prevent loads from dropping with no control.
The use of flow-control valves Is one way to regu
late the flow of hydraulic fluid In a system. Flow-
control valves offer more flexibility than the the
use of variable-delivery pumps. One kind of flow-
control valve Is the pressure-reducing valve. This
type of valve limits the pressure In one part of the
system to below that of the main part of the sys
tem. Other types of flow valves are used to allow
for pressure changes In the system and for tem
perature compensation.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

8-1. b. Normally open two-way valve. 8-6. a. In one part of the system.
Ret: 8.01,8.02 Ret:8.25

8-2. b. Set pressure. Ref:8.07 8-7. b. Shock suppressor. Ref; 8.27

8-3. 0. Line pressure. Ref:8.18 8-8. 0. Flow. Ref: 8.29

8-4. b. Double poppet. Ref;8.20 8-9. d. Counterbalance. Ref: 8.31

8-5. a. Pilot. Ref:8.23 8-10. 0. Downstream valve outlet

Ref: 8.35

This matofial is protectsd by U. S.Copyright law. Copying by any optieal, electconie, or othor moons is illegai without permission.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lssson Nine

Cyiinders

^O:

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

f] Cylinders

TOPICS

Description of Cylinders Rod Packings

Double-Acting Cylinders Cylinder Mounting
SIngle-ActIng Cylinders Selecting a Cylinder
Two-Piston Cylinders Flow Capacity
Positional Cylinders Cushioning
Cylinder Construction Piston Rod Strength
Piston Rings and Seals Cylinder Applications

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to.

• Describe the purpose of a hydraulic cylinder, and Describe the construction of a hydraulic cylinder.
explain how a double-acting cylinder works. Expiain the various methods of mounting cylinders.
• Expiain the difference between "puli-type" and "push- Demonstrate how to calculate the flow capacity of a
type" single-acting cylinders. hydrauiic cyiinder.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Cylinder 9.01 a device that converts the pressure
and movement of hydrauiic fluid into straight-line
mechanical force and motion
Double-acting cylinder 9.05 a cylinder that can
exert hydrauiic force in either direction
Single-acting cylinder 9.07 a cyiinder that can
exert hydrauiic force in one direction only
Telescoping cylinder 9,12 a cylinder having from
two to six sleeves that slide or nest together
Two-piston cylinder 9.13 a cylinder with two
independent pistons that can move together or
individually

)mater«J 4 protected by U S Copynghi law Copying by any oetcai. electronic. o< other illegal withoi/ permiaa<on
This Lesson describes the most common actuator used in a hydraulic system—
a cylinder. Without hydraulic cylinders to perform work, very little of the poten
tial energy in hydraulic fluid could be utilized. Understanding exactly how cylin
ders are used is just as important as knowing how they are made and how they
operate.

This Lesson describes the construction and operating features of a hydraulic

cylinder, and also shows how the forces at work can be computed to help you
select cylinders. Knowledge of the selection procedure often helps you to deter
mine the causes of improper cylinder operation. Knowing how a cylinder is con
structed will make it easier for you to repair the cylinders and detect potential
trouble.

Description of Cylinders also available. However, all cylinders have similar

9.01 Hydraulic cylinders convert the pressure and
movement of hydraulic fluid into straight-line
mechanical force and motion. (Rotary motion is pro
duced by hydraulic motors and rotary actuators.) The
flow of fluid into a cylinder causes the piston to
move, and the fluid pressure gives the piston its
mechanical force. The movement and force of the pis
ton combine to do work. The flow rate of the fluid
determines the piston speed and also the hydraulic
output in horsepower.
9.02 Because of the many uses for hydraulic cylin
ders, many standard and special types are manufac
tured. The different types include double-acting, sin
gle-acting, two-piston, ram, double-end rod, and tele
scoping cylinders. Modifications of these types are
components and function in similar ways.
Double-Acting Cylinders
9.03 The main parts of a typical double-acting
cylinder are shown in Fig. 9-1. The shape of these
parts and the methods used to assemble them vary
slightly with the manufacturer. In order to improve
the performance of the cylinder in different applica
tions, additional parts and features are added.
9.04 Most double-acting cylinders are made of
steel tubing that has been machined on the inside to a
smooth finish and chrome-plated for long life. The
rod and cap ends are also steel, held in place by rods
or threads or welded to the cylinder. Pistons usually
are made of high-grade cast iron or steel, and can be

Fig.9-1. Parts of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder

Cylinder

This mateha! is proteaed by U. S. Copyrghl law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
132 Lesson Nine

Fig.9-2. A double-end rod cylinder into port B,the piston moves to the left, and fluid in
the rod end is returned through port A to the reservoir.
Because the rod takes up some of the surface area of
the piston, less force can be exerted on the rod side of
the piston than on the cap side. Therefore,the thrust is
greater when the piston is moved away from the cap
end than when it is moved toward the cap. Most stan
dard hydraulic cylinders are double-acting.
n n
9.06 When it is necessary to exert the same force
Cylinder
in both directions, a modified double-acting cylinder
may have a piston rod extending out of both ends as
in Fig. 9-2. This is called a double-rod, or double-end
rod, cylinder. The area of the piston is the same on
each side and both the thrust and fluid displacement
are equal in each direction. A double-end rod cylinder
is used when motion is required in two directions, or
on each end of the cylinder, and when only a limited
chrome-plated. Piston rings may be cast iron, O-rings,
amount of space is available. Reciprocating motion
or formed rubber-like materials. The piston rods are
can be created by using a double-end rod cylinder as
made of plain or stainless steel. Plain steel rods usual
shown. The extra rod extension also can be used to
ly are plated. Cylinder construction is described in
mount cam valves or limit switches, which cannot be
more detail later.
mounted on a single-end rod. In this type of cylinder,
each cylinder end requires a rod bearing and packing.
9.05 The double-acting cylinder in Fig. 9-1 can
exert force in either direction. When fluid is directed
Single-Acting Cylinders
into port A,the piston moves to the right. Ruid in the
cap end of the cylinder is pushed out through port B
9.07 Single-acting cylinders are manufactured
and returned to the reservoir. When fluid is directed
with many more modifications than double-acting
cylinders. Some of these are shown in Fig. 9-3. The
single-acting cylinder has a power stroke in one direc
Fig.9-3. Single-acting cylinders tion only—usually on the out or extending stroke
because the piston has a larger surface area on the cap
end. The load, gravity, or other external force is used
to return the piston to its original position when the
work is completed. A small vent line should be con
Load-return
nected from the nonpowered side of the cylinder to a
point below the fluid line in the reservoir. This pre
vents air from entering the cylinder, which could dry
out piston seals and rod packings.
Spring-return
9.08 If fluid is directed to the rod end of the pis
JL ton, the in or retracting stroke becomes the power
' X stroke. In such applications, the cylinder is called a
pull-type cylinder.
Ram

9.09 Another type of single-acting cylinder is-

equipped with an internal spring. The spring is locat
ed within the cylinder, and returns the piston to its
Telescoping original position after the power stroke. The spring is
only strong enough to overcome internal friction and
This matetial is protectod by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optieal, eloctrottie, or other means b illegal without pormbsion.
 Cylinders 133

force the fluid out of the cylinder and back to the

Fig.9-4. A two-piston cylinder
reservoir. The spring usually is not large enough to
return a heavy load.

9.10 The bodies of spring-return cylinders are

longer than double-acting cylinders that have the
same stroke. The additional length is needed to
accommodate the spring. The type and strength of C Fluid in center UJ A
spring required for the application is selected by the
manufacturer. Some applications use an external
spring in place of an internal one.

9.11 A ram is a single-acting cylinder that has a

rod diameter almost as large as the effective piston Fluid in outlet
C blocked
diameter. In most cases, piston seals are omitted and
only rod packing is used for the ram. A ram can be
returned to its starting position manually, by gravity,
by a load, or by springs. The ram usually has a shoul
the other in a timed cycle. Pistons also can be con
der to prevent it from coming out of the cylinder.
trolled by directional control valves.
Ram cylinders commonly are used for jacks in service
stations and hydraulic presses.
Positional Cylinders
9.12 Telescoping cylinders have from two to six
9.14 The positional cylinder shown in Fig. 9-5 on
sleeves that slide or nest together. This design
the next page is basically a two-piston cylinder, but
reduces the closed or retracted length of a long-
with only one extended rod. The cylinder's action is
stroke cylinder. Most telescoping cylinders are of the
very simple. The amount of fluid added or drained
single-acting type. During operation, the largest
through port A determines the positioning piston's
sleeve usually extends first, then the next largest
sleeve, and so on, until all of the sleeves are fully locations in the cylinder. Fluid entering port B moves
the actuating piston to the right, forcing fluid out
extended. Because the lifting force of a telescoping
through port C. The location of the left piston deter
cylinder is reduced whenever a smaller sleeve is
mines the amount of travel in the right piston.
brought into operation, it is desirable to use as few
sleeves as possible. Normally the sleeves retract in
Cylinder Construction
reverse order of extension. Telescoping cylinders or
their load must be well-guided.
9.15 Earlier in this Lesson, you read that cylinder
bodies and caps usually are made of steel, and that
Two-Piston Cylinders
they are made in different styles. Most cylinders used
9.13 A two-piston cylinders resembles a double-
for industrial applications have the heads or caps
end cylinder. However,instead of having one internal held in position on the cylinder body by four or more
piston that reciprocates, it has two pistons that move tie rods. These tie rods may be studs or long bolts.
independently. The pistons may move in unison or
individually, depending on the application. As shown 9.16 Mill cylinders also use tie rods to hold the
in Fig. 9-4, when fluid enters port A, the pistons ends in position, but have bodies with flanged ends.
move apart and fluid returns to the reservoir through Some heads and caps are attached to the body with
ports B and C. When fluid is returned to the cylinder short bolts instead of tie rods. Mill cylinders are
through ports B and C,the pistons close. If the flow thick-walled, very rugged, and made for heavy-duty
returning from the left piston through port C is applications. Their name comes from the fact that
blocked while port B remains open, only the right they originally were used in steel mills. Their internal
piston moves. The left piston can be actuated the parts, except for being larger, are the same as indus
same way. In addition, one piston can move before trial cylinders.
Thamotensl a pratoetod by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any cptic&l, otoctione, or other means is iUegsl without pefmtssion.
134 Lesson Nine

Fig.9-5. A positional cylinder

Positioning piston retracted Positioning piston fully extended

Actuating piston retracted Actuating piston fully retracted
1.

Blocked Blocked
fluid fluid

Positioning piston retracted Positioning piston fully extended

Actuating piston extended Actuatingpiston fully extended

Blocked Blocked
fluid Long-stroke cycle fluid Short-stroke cycle

9.17 Cylinders that have heads threaded onto the
body are used widely in food machinery and packing
equipment. With the heads threaded on,they have no
protruding comers or bolts. Their spacesaving and
streamlined shape makes them easy to keep clean.
9.18 Onfc-piece welded cylinders are similar in
design to the threaded-head type. They are used in
construction equipment, farm equipment, and other
mobile equipment where cylinders are seldom
repaired. They are mass-produced, and when they
become worn out they are simply discarded and
replaced with new units.
Piston Rings and Seais
9.20 Various types of piston rings and seals are
used in hydraulic cylinders. Soft or cast iron piston
rings are used for high-speed or fast-cycling cylinders
that have shock loading. They are not as efficient as
formed rings,but they have a longer life. Double-V or
cup-shaped seals face away from each other, and
allow less fluid slippage than the cast iron rings. O-
ring seals are used for lighter-duty applications and
usually give good service.
Rod Packings

9.19 The piston rods of cylinders used for jig and
fixture clamping devices must not rotate or turn.
Other applications also require restricted rod rotation.
For these applications, the cylinder rods are either
specially shaped (square or flattened) or fitted with an
intemai or extemal device that prevents rotation.
9.21 Rod packings may be in the form of a multi
ple-V, U-cup, rope or solid ring, split ring, or O-ring.
The various configurations and materials are fur
nished for different applications by the manufacturers.
Before selecting rod packings, consult your plant
engineer, maintenance foreman,or supervisor.

This motorial is pnXected by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, dectionic, or other moons is lllogal without poimission.
 Programmed Exercises 135

9-1. The actuating device used to convert 9-1. CYLINDER

fluid pressure into straight-line
mechanical force is the hydraulic Ref: 9.01

9-2. A double-acting cylinder can exert 9-2. TWO

force in directionfs^.
Ref: 9.05

9-3. A cylinder that can exert force in one 9-3. SINGLE-ACTING

direction only is called a(n1
cylinder. Ref: 9.07

9-4. A pull-type cylinder works on the 9-4. IN or RETRACTING

stroke.
Ref: 9.08

9-5. The rod diameter of a ram cylinder is 9-5. PISTON

almost equal to the diame
ter. Ref: 9.11

9-6. Must the two pistons in a two-piston 9-6. NO

cylinder move in unison?
Ref: 9.13

9-7. A Dositional cvlinder has 9-7. ONE

extended rod(s).
Ref: 9.14

9-8. The piston rods of jig or fixture cylin 9-8. MUST NOT
ders be allowed to rotate.
Ref: 9.19

This material is protected liy U.S. CopyriBht law. Copying by any optical, etectionic, or ottier moons is illegal without permission.
136 Lesson Nine
Fig.9-6. Fixed,centerline-mounted cylinders
Tie rods extended Centerllne lugs
N N
Cap flange(square) Cap flange(rectangular)
Cylinder Mounting
922 Cylinders are mounted in many diiferent ways.
Mounting techniques generally are divided into two broad
categories— and pivoted. The fixed class is further
divided into centerline and noncenterline mountings. Fig
ure 9-6 shows fixed cylinders that are centerline-mounted.
In fliis type of mounting,force is absorbed on the center-
line of the cylinder. The mounting may be done with
flanges, tie rods, or centerline lug mounts. As shown,
mountings that use flanges or tie rods can be done at
either end. This type of mounting is recommended for
heavy-duty applications and for cylinders that have long
strokes, because bending stress is prevented from devel
oping in the cylinder and the mounting framework.
Fig.9-7. Fixed,noncenterline-mounted cylinders
Side lugs Side-end angles
This malenal a pretoetsd by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optnl. oloctionic. or other means a tOegal without permasion.
Head flange(square) Head flange(rectangular)
9.23 Square flanges on the cap end are recom
mended for particularly heavy-duty pushing or thrust
applications. Front flange mounting on the rod end,
front mounting on the tie rods, or centerline lug
mounting are recommended for pulling or tension
loads. Rectangular flange mounts are recommended
for medium-duty applications. Any of the mountings
shown can be used for light-duty service.
9.24 Fixed, noncenterline-mounted cylinders are
pictured in Fig. 9-7. Cylinders mounted by this
method do not absorb force on the centerline of the
cylinder, and thus create off-center loading in the sup
porting structure. Mounting methods include the use
of lugs,feet, and side-tapped holes. The side-mounted
Side-end lugs Side tapped holes
lug method is the most durable in this group, and can Fig. 9-9. A cylinder performing work
be used for both thrust and tension loads. Side-mount
ed lugs frequently are provided with an integral key
Cylinder
or slot for firmer mounting. Sometimes, the front-end
or rod-end gland retainer plate is extended to form a
key. If they are not keyed, lugs should be doweled or 40001b
load
pinned at either end.

9.25 If the cylinder is mounted on a machine tool,

misalignment between machine and cylinder must be
Work tace
avoided. In addition, do not u.se cylinders with non-
centerline mountings for applications having large
forces. Cylinders with side-tapped mountings or end
mountings should be used for light-load applications. Selecting a Cylinder

9.26 Pivoted cylinder mountings, like those shown

in Fig. 9-8, are mountings that absorb force on the
centerline of the cylinder. However, the cylinders are
trunnion-mounted or clevis-mounted and have no
rigid support. This type of mounting is used when the
cylinder must swing or pivot as it strokes, or when
accurate alignment is not possible. In these applica
tions, the rod-end connection must also be pivoted to
prevent the piston rod from bending or binding.
9.27 The types of pivoted cylinder mountings
called trunnions consist of small cylindrical rods or
shafts that protrude from some point on the cylinder.
Head or rod-end trunnion mounts are recommended
for thrust loads. Cap trunnion or fixed clevis mount
ings are recommended for tension loads, and center-
mounted trunnions are recommended for light loads.
During operations, cylinders should not be allowed to
pivot too far because the piston rod can become bent.
Trunnions and clevis pins must be lubricated to
ensure free movement.
9.28 When you select a hydraulic cylinder for a
particular application, you must consider many fac
tors. If you have to replace an existing cylinder, you
probably will know the pressure and flow capacities
of the system. If the application requires a larger
cylinder, you must know whether or not the pump and
the hydraulic lines are large enough to handle the
extra flow requirements.
9.29 If you are installing a new cylinder in an exist
ing system, the procedure is slightly different. First,
check the instructions to find out if the cylinder can
withstand the system pressure in the shop. Next, find
out how much force the cylinder must exert and how
far and how fast it must travel. Then determine whether
the system can deliver the required fluid quantity.
9.30 For example, suppose you want to move a
4000-lb load (see Fig. 9-9)through a distance of 12 in.
at a velocity (speed) of 120 fl/min. The system pressure
is 1000 psi and the capacity is 20 gpm.

Fig. 9-8. Pivoted cylinder mountings

Head or
rod end

Cap trunnion intermediate fixed trunnion Cap fixed clevis Head trunnion

ThA mAtefial a protecIM by U S Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other rT>ear« a illegal wthoul permASion
138 Lesson Nine

W
Table 9-1. Hydraulic cylinder data
Cap end displacement Approximate cylinder force (lb)

Cylinder Piston Gallons per Fluid pressure(psi)

bore (In.) area(In2) foot of stroke 100 250 300 500 800 1000 1200 1500 2250 2500

IV2 1.767 0.0918 176.7 441.8 530.1 883.5 1414 1767 2120 2650 3976 4418
2 3.142 0.1632 314.2 785.5 942.6 1571 2514 3142 3770 4713 7070 7855
2V2 4.909 0.2550 490.9 1227 1473 2454 3927 4909 5891 7364 — —

3V4 8.296 0.4309 829.6 2074 2489 4148 6637 8296 9955 12444 18670 —

4 12.566 0.6528 1257 3142 3770 6283 10050 12566 15079 18850 —
—

5 19.635 1.020 1963 4908 5890 9817 15708 19635 23562 —

— —

6 28.274 1.468 2827 7068 8482 14137 22619 28274 33928 — — —

8 50.266 2.611 5027 12566 15079 25133 40213 50266 — — — —

10 78.540 4.080 7854 19635 23562 39270 62832 — —

—
— -

9.31 The first step is to select a cylinder large
enough to move the load.(For example, assume the
fluid will act on the total area of the cap end of the
piston.) Cylinder manufacturers have different charts
as well as various formulas that can be used when
selecting cylinders. Table 9-1 shows the amount of
force that pistons can exert when different fluid pres
sures act on them.In addition, it shows the piston area
and the volume of fluid required for each foot of pis
ton travel.
9.32 According to Table 9-1, a 2V2-in. diameter
piston with a fluid pressure of 1000 psi can exert
4909 lb of force. However,the losses in fluid pressure
in the hydraulic system must be considered in the
selection. If there were a 200-psi pressure drop
between the pump and the piston suiface, only 800
psi would act on the piston. This means that the 21/2-
in. diameter piston would exert only 3927 lb of force.
This is not enough to move the load, so a 3i/4-in.
diameter cylinder must be used.
taken into account. Of course, in overall calculations,
friction must be considered.
9.34 Another of the cylinder calculations deals
with piston acceleration. The example states that the
piston must move the 4000-lb load at a speed of 120
ft/min, or 2 ft/s. When calculating the cylinder
requirements to obtain the 120-ft/min speed, the
friction between the load and the surface it rests on,
as well as the piston acceleration, must be consid
ered.
9.35 The load shown in Fig. 9-9 is a sliding one,
and friction initially resists movement of the
weight. First, assume that the coefficient of starting
friction is 15%. (Frictional coefficients for most
materials can be found in reference manuals.) The
friction resisting the movement of the 4000-lb load
is then 0.15 x 4000, or 600 lb. This means the pis
ton must develop a force of 4600 lb to move the
4000-lb load.

9.33 If you do not have a reference table handy, you 9.36 When determining the total force required to
can calculate the amount offorce a cylinder can exert by start the load moving from an at-rest position, both
using the following equation: the acceleration factor and friction must be included
in the cylinder calculations. To determine the acceler
cylinder force(F)= piston area x fluid pressure ation factor, the 600-lb friction loss is deducted from
the 4000-lb load force, and the following calculation
If,for example,you have a 4-in. diameter cylinder in the is made:
storeroom,then:
acceleration factor = force ^ weight
F= 12.566 in2 x 800 psi = 10,053 lb
= 3400 lb-h 4000 lb
In this case, the cylinder in stock would be large
enough to do the job, if no other factors have to be = 0.85

This molcfial is piotoctod by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any apeicBl, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
 Cylinders 139

The acceleration force chart shown in Fig. 9-10 can acceleration force =(4000 lb x 1.00)+ 600 lb
also be used.
= 4600 lb.
9.37 When plotting the acceleration factor on Fig.
9-10, draw a vertical line upward from 0.85 on the Once the load is moving, the frictional resistance
decreases, and the total force needed to keep the load
acceleration factor axis and a horizontal line to the
moving is less than the starting force.
right from 120 ft/min on the velocity axis. The lines
should cross at a point about halfway between the two Flow Capacity
slanting lines marked S = 1 in. and S = 3/4 in. This
means that the 4000-lb load would accelerate from 9.39 Up to this point, you have considered cylin
zero to 120 ft/min in the first '/8 of an inch of piston der force and fluid pressure. The problem states that
travel. If you want to bring the load up to speed in the the 4000-lb load must be moved at a velocity of 2 ft/s.
first 3/4 of an inch of piston travel, the acceleration To calculate the required flow capacity, use the fol
factor changes to 1.00. lowing equation:

flow(gpm)= cylinder fluid volume(gal)

9.38 The next step in determining the total cylin
der force required is to multiply the load times the X velocity (ft/s) x 60 s
acceleration factor and then add the frictional resis
tance: acceleration force =(load x acceleration factor) Assume that the cylinder travel is 12 in. Referring to
+ frictional resistance. So: Table 9-1, you see that the cylinder fluid volume for a

Fig.9-10. Acceleration force chart

300
FOR HORIZONTAL MOTION
To accelerate or decelerate
To accelerate load and overcome friction
S = V,in
To decelerate load and friction

FOR VERTICAL MOTION

Acceleration upward or deceleration downward F = Wg + W S = 3/^ in
Acceleration downward or deceleration upward F = Wg - W
F = Force S = 1in.

W = Weight (lb)
^ 100
f = Friction load
g = Force factor
S = l3/.i in

Acceleration or
deceleration distance

0.015 0.025 0.10 0.20 0.30

Acceleration force factor 0.85

This mslerial is pretsctod by U.S.Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is illegal without permissioo.
4-in. diameter cylinder is 0.6528 gallons per foot of
stroke. The piston velocity is given as 2 ft/s. Substi
tuting the.se values into the equation results in the fol
lowing:
flow - 0.6528 gal x 2 ft/s x 60 s = 78.34 gpm
Because the original system supplies 20 gpm, a larger
pump or an accumulator is required. You also may
consider using a smaller cylinder to save pumping
energy.
Cushioning
9.40 Nearly all cylinders can be obtained with a
cushioning device. This is a way of reducing the
shock on the piston and any attached load as the
cylinder approaches the end of its stroke. Cushioning
the piston reduces wear on equipment and the possi
bility of mechanical or hydraulic shock when the pis
ton stops suddenly. Cushioning devices usually are
referred to as spears or sleeves and are shown in Fig.
9-11. They work as follows.
9.41 As the piston rod approaches the end of its
stroke, the cushion spear or sleeve enters the cushion
port. This reduces the opening through which the
fluid leaves the cylinder on the way back to the reser
voir. The shape of the spear determines how quickly
the flow passage is closed, and how much the piston
Fig.9-11. Cylinder cushioning devices
Check valves
This maiensi is CKdoOM By U S Copynghi law Copying by any optical, electmrc. or other maarts is illegal without permission
velocity is reduced. When the passage is clo.sed, any
fluid remaining in the cylinder is forced out through a
needle-valve or check-valve restriction in the cap.
The selection of the shape of the spear and the size of
the needle-valve restriction is based on the require
ments of the application. Cushioning information is
available from hydraulic cylinder manufacturers.
9.42 Various other devices may be used to slow
the .speed of a moving cylinder pi.ston. The devices
commonly used are described in Lesson Seven and
include needle valves, fixed orifices, check valves,
and pilot-operated control and relief valves. Control is
usually accomplished in the discharge lines, and is
referred to as meier-out control.
Piston Rod Strength
9.43 Most hydraulic cylinders are available with
more than one piston rod length or diameter. The cor
rect rod diameters for general applications usually are
furnished for standard cylinders at rated loads. For
applications with long strokes, stronger rods and sup
ports may be required. Most manufacturers furnish
graphs or charts that allow you to select the proper
rod diameters for different cylinder-mounting, rod-
support, and guiding conditions. Frequently, guided
rod ends or connections furnish a sufficient amount of
support for the piston rod, thereby eliminating the
need for selecting special piston rods.
Cushion ports
Bushing sleeve Spear
 Cylinders 141

Fig.9-12. cylinder applications

Straight-line
1st class lever 2nd class lever 3rd class lever Toggle thrust increased

r ■^

Straight push

Straight-line motion Straight-line motion Horizontal-parallel Practically continuous

multiplied 2:1 in two directions motion rotary motion

Motion transferred
to a distant point

Fast rotary motion Four positive positions Engine bearing Trammel plate
using steep screw nut with two cylinders

Cylinder Applications less than hi in. and forces of a few pounds to

heavy-duty hydraulic presses exerting many tons
9.44 Hydraulic cylinders are used to perform a of force. Figure 9-12 shows schematically a few
great variety of jobs requiring linear actuation. examples of cylinder applications.
They range from small actuators with bores of

Thi* matenal is pmtaelod by U.S. CopyrigM law. Copying by any optical, elocbonic, or othsr moons is illegal without petmission.
142 Programmed Exercises

9-9. The two methods of mounting cylinders 9-9. FIXED, PIVOTED

in Dosition are the and
mounting techniques. Ref: 9.22

9-10. What type of fixed cylinder mounting 9-10. NONCENTERLINE

produces off-center loading in the sup
porting structure? Ref: 9.24

9-11. When cylinders are mounted on 9-11. ALIGNED

machine tools, they must be
properly. Ref: 9.25

9-12. Trunnion-mounted or clevis-mounted 9-12. PIVOTED

cylinders are classed as being
cylinder mountings. Ref: 9.26

9-13. SYSTEM PRESSURE. FLOW

9-13. List four things you must know in order
CAPACITY, PUMP CAPACITY,
to select the proper cylinder for an
HYDRAULIC LINE SIZE
existing system.
Ref: 9.28

9-14. You can calculate the amount of force 9-14. PISTON AREA; FLUID PRESSURE
a cylinder exerts by multiplying
times Ref: 9.33

9-15. When calculating the force required to 9-15. ACCELERATION

move a lost, starting friction and the
factor must be taken into Ref: 9.36
account.

9-16. Hydraulic or mechanical shock is pre 9.16. CUSHIONING

vented in a cylinder by using a(n) W
device. Ref: 9.40

This motorial b protocted by U. S. CepyrigW bw. Copying by any opticaJ, elsetninie, or other ffloans b illegal without permbsion.
 Self-Check Quiz 143

Answer the following questions by marking an "X"

in the box next to the best answer.

9-1. Hydraulic cylinders convert fluid force into 9-6. The end caps or heads of most Industrial
hydraulic cylinders are held In place by
□ a. rotary motion
□ b. straight-line motion □ a. threads
□ c. hydraulic pressure □ b. tie rods
□ d. horsepower □ c. flanges
□ d. welding
9-2. In a double-acting cylinder, the thrust Is
9-7. Cylinders that move heavy thrust loads usual
□ a. greater when the piston retracts the ly are furnished with
piston rod Into the cylinder
□ b. greater when the piston forces the □ a. square flanges
piston rod out of the cylinder □ b. rectangular flanges
□ c. the same regardless of which way □ c. clevis pins
the piston moves □ d. cap trunnions
□ d. too small to be measured
9-8. To select the proper hydraulic cylinder for use
9-3. A double-end rod cylinder has a piston sur in an existing system, you must know all of
face area that Is the following EXCEPT

□ a. equal on both sides □ a. system pressure

□ b. less than the rod diameter □ b. pump capacity
□ c. greater on the rod side than on the □ c. flow capacity
cap side □ d. piston speed
□ d. determined by the stroke
9-9. To determine the total cylinder force, you
9-4. Which of the following Is true of a ram cylln- must multiply the load times the acceleration
der? factor and add the

□ a. Its rod diameter Is larger than the □ a. fluid viscosity

piston diameter □ b. system relief pressure
□ b. It Is a double-acting cylinder □ c. frictlonal resistance
□ c. It usually does not require piston □ d. pump horsepower
seals
□ d. It can exert force In either direction 9-10. What is the purpose of the cushioning device
used with a hydraulic cylinder?
9-5. The pistons of a two-piston cylinder always
move □ a. Prevent piston overtravel
□ b. Prevent mechanical shock
□ a. In the same direction □ c. Control acceleration
□ b. Independently □ d. Increase piston speed
□ c. In unison
□ d. In graduated steps

This material is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optlcol, electronic, or other means is illegal without permission.
144 Lesson Nine

SUMMARY

Hydraulic cyiinders have many appiications in ram is a single-acting cylinder with a rod diameter
industry and probably are used in a variety of that is almost as large as the piston diameter. The
ways in your plant. There are single-acting and telescoping cylinder is different from other cyiin
double-acting cyiinders, two-piston and double- ders. it has from two to six retractable sleeves,
end rod cyiinders, ram cyiinders and telescoping similar in nature to a spyglass in the way the
cyiinders. Ail have similar components and ail sleeves nest together.
operate in a similar manner.
The method used to mount a cylinder has a lot to
The names of cyiinders may be similar, but each do with its successful operation. Mounting may
type has something that makes it different from the be fixed or pivoted,fixed mountings may be cen-
others. A double-acting cylinder can exert force in teriine or noncenteriine. Fixed, centeriine mount
either direction; a double-end rod cylinder has a ings are best suited for heavy-duty applications
piston rod extending out of both ends. A two-pis- and for cyiinders that have long strokes. Pivoted
ton cylinder is similar to a double-end rod cylinder, cylinder mountings are recommended where the
its two pistons can move independently or in uni cylinder must pivot as it strokes, or where accu
son.The positional cylinder is also a two-piston rate alignment is not possible. This type of
cylinder, but it has only one extended rod. mounting absorbs the force on the cylinder's cen
teriine.
Single-acting cylinders have a power stroke in
one direction only, usually on the out stroke. The

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

9-6. b. Tie rods. Ref: 9.15
9-1. b. Straight-line motion. Ref:9.01
9-7. a. Square flanges. Ref:9.23
9-2. b. Greater when the piston forces the
piston rod out of the cylinder. 9-8. d. Piston speed. Ref:9.28
Ref: 9.05
9-9. c. Frictional resistance. Ref: 9.38
9-3. a. Equal on both sides. Ref: 9.06
9-10. b. Prevent mechanical shock.
9-4. c. it usually does not require piston Ref: 9.40
seals. Ref: 9.11

9-5. b. Independently. Ref: 9.13

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 9-1. Parker-Hannifin Figure 9-8. Parker-Hannifin

Figure 9-6. Parker-Hannifin Figure 9-10. Parker-Hannifin
Figure 9-7. Parker-Hannifin Figure 9-11. Miller Fluid Power Div., Fiick-Ready Corp.

This matarial is pnitscted by U. S. Copyrisht law. Copying by any optical, electionic, or other meens is Illegal without permission.
UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDRAUUCS

Lesson Ten

Hydraulic Motors

\o-

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

J] Hydraulic Motors

TOPICS

Hydraulic Motors Gear Motors

Motor Classification Vane Motors
Rating and Selection Factors Piston Motors
Hydraulic-Motor Construction Rotary Actuators

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain the classification of hydraulic motors.
• Demonstrate how the torque of a hydraulic motor is
calculated.
• Calculate the horsepower output of a hydraulic motor.
Discuss cost factors and other considerations affect
ing motor selection.
Describe the construction of a hydraulic motor.
Explain the operating principles of a gear motor, a
vane motor, and a piston motor.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Hydraulic motor 10.01 a motor that converts the Pressure range 10.11 the range of operating
movement and pressure of hydraulic fluid into the pressures from the minimum needed to turn a
energy of a rotating shaft hydraulic motor to the maximum the motor can
Positive-displacement motor 10.06 a motor that withstand without suffering damage
has a mechanical seal between the inlet and out Torque 10.13 the twisting effect that causes a
let ports piece of equipment to rotate

Th,a maieriai a proieelM by U S Copyngm law Copying by any optical, eiectfonc, o' oths' meant it illegal without pemtittion

In this Lesson, you will study hydraulic motors and rotary actuators, and how to
calculate the forces they exert. In addition to describing the methods used to
calculate the forces exerted by hydraulic motors, this Lesson describes the
internal components of the motors, and explains their functions and operating
characteristics.
Hydraulic motors are motors that are operated by hydraulic systems. They pro
vide many useful functions in industry, including drives for conveyors, forkllft
trucks, power steering devices, machine tools, plastic Injection molding
machines, die casting machines,and mining machinery.
Hydraulic Motors
10.01 Hydraulic motors convert the movement
(kinetic energy) and pressure (potential energy) of a
stream of hydraulic fluid into the continuous moving
energy of a rotating shaft. The energy output of the
shaft is at the point where the motor is connected to
the machine or device to be operated. The pressure
of the fluid admitted to the motor determines its
force or torque output. The flow rate of the fluid
determines the speed and mechanical horsepower
output.
10.02 The general construction of hydraulic
motors is similar to that of hydraulic pumps. How
ever,some changes are made so that the mechanisms
can operate as motors and be more efficient. Effi
ciency is important because energy losses that occur
in the system and in the hydraulic pump affect motor
operation. To make sure that the pump delivers as
much fluid to the motor as possible, the volumetric
efficiency of the pump is usually higher than its
mechanical efficiency.
10.03 Because a motor's mechanical output should
be as great as possible, motors are designed for
greater mechanical and total overall efficiency than
pumps. In applications where the mechanical output
is adequate, some pumps and motors are identical.
Interchangeable components are lower in cost, which
offsets somewhat any increased operating costs due to
lower mechanical efficiency.
10.04 Hydraulic motors also differ from hydraulic
pumps in their operation. In order to operate properly,
motors need a starting or breakaway torque large
enough to start rotation while fully loaded. This means
overcoming the total starting friction within the motor
and the connected load. The motor must also overcome
This material Is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means a illegal without permission.
147
starting inertia while it is building up speed. More
torque is required to start moving from a dead stop than
to keep the motor moving against a load.
Motor Classification
10.05 Hydraulic motors are classified by the driving
elements and by the principle of operation. Motors
classified according to elements or mechanisms
include piston motors (rotary and axial), gear motors,
and vane motors.
10.06 Hydraulic motors are all of the positive-dis
placement type, which means that they have a
mechanical seal somewhere between the inlet and
outlet ports. This seal can be the gears, vanes, or the
valve plate of piston motors, and prevents internal
fluid leakage or slippage. However, the shaft output
of motors varies with hydraulic flow and pressure.
Nonpositive energy converters such as turbines are
not used as hydraulic motors because they can allow
fluid flow without doing any work.
10.07 Hydraulic motors, like hydraulic pumps, do
not deliver smooth rotary movement. Because of their
construction, they have an intermittent or pulsating
shaft output motion. However, the pulsations are so
small that the practical effect is one of relatively
smooth motion and constant torque.
10.08 Positive-displacement motors may be either
the fixed-displacement or variable-displacement
type. The graphic symbols for hydraulic motors are
shown in Fig. 10-1 on the next page. Do not con
fuse these symbols with pump symbols. Motor sym
bols have arrows that point toward the center of the
circle, while pump symbols have arrows pointing
away from the center. Differences in construction
help to identify each type easily. The shaft output
148 Lesson Ten

Fig.10-1. Graphic symbols for hydraulic motors

000 000 Unidirectional

Fixed-displacement
Bidirectional Unidirectional

Variable-displacement
Bidirectional

Rotary actuator

speed of a fixed-displacement motor can be Rating and Selection Factors

changed only by changing the pressure and flow
rate of the hydraulic fluid that turns the motor. The 10.10 Before studying the internal construction of a
shaft output speed of a variable-displacement motor hydraulic motor, take a look at some of the factors
can be changed by altering the physical arrange that affect the rating and selection of a motor for an
ment of the motor's mechanism. This alteration is application. A hydraulic motor is evaluated on its
done with a built-in control device that may operate overall performance, operational problems, and
manually or automatically. speed. Other selection factors often considered
include installation cost, operating and maintenance
10.09 Variable-displacement motors are more com cost, mechanical and volumetric efficiency, pressure
plex and less efficient than fixed-displacement range, speed range, starting torque, estimated service
motors. For this reason, most hydraulic motors are of life, size and weight, mounting requirements, and
the fixed-displacement type. Fixed-displacement noise. Some of these factors for different motors are
motors can have variable output speed through the shown in Table 10-1. They are discussed briefly in the
use of flow-regulating controls. following paragraphs.

Table 10-1. Hydraulic motor comparisons

Radial-piston Axial-piston
Gear-on- Gear-within- Constant Variable Constant Variable
gear gear Vane volume volume volume volume

Pressure range (psi) 100-1000 100-2000 100-2500 100-3000 100-3000 100-5000 100-5000
Speed range(rpm) 10-3000 10-5000 10-4000 10-2000 10-2000 10-3600 10-3000
Running torque
(% of theoretical) 80-85 80-85 85-95 90 90-95 90-95 90-95
Stalled or starting
torque(% of
theoretical) 70-80 75-85 75-90 80-90 80-90 85-95 85-95
Running volumetric
efficiency(%) 80-90 85-90 88-94 90-98 90-98 93-98 93-98
Ability to handle dirt
(filtration level, ii) 200-400 200-300 100-300 20-200 20-200 20-200 20-200
Estimated life, full
load (hr, based
on bearing) 2000-5000 2000-5000 3000-0000 7000-15,000 7000-15,000 7000-15,000 7000-15,000
Estimated life, half
load (hr, based
on t}earing) 5000-10,000 5000-10,000 7000-15,000 15,000-25,000 15,000-25,000 15,000-25,000 15,000-25,000

This material is protected by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optiCBl. electronic, or ether moons is illegal witlwut permission.
 Hydraulic Motors 149

10.11 A hydraulic motor is rated by its pressure Fig. 10-2. Calculating torque
range. This range spans the operating pressures of
the motor, from the minimum pressure required to
turn the motor to the maximum pressure it can with Torque Torque & 30 lb X 30 in.
= 900 ib-ln.
stand without damage or excessive internal leakage.
Motors usually are designed with a pressure range
wide enough to be serviceable and still be efficient.
Motor pressure ratings vary from ICQ to 5000 psi.
Remember that the operating pressure of a motor is 30 in. lever arm
the pump pressure of the hydraulic system minus the Force 30(b
line losses.

10.12 The speed range of a hydraulic motor varies

from 10 to 5000 rpm, depending on the motor type torque is the force necessary to stop the motor. For
and design. The selection of an operating speed is most hydraulic motors, the stalling and starting
determined by the application. The actual motor torques are nearly equal.
speed will be governed by the fluid flow rate. The
maximum speed must not be exceeded without the 10.16 An ideal motor is defined as having no
manufacturer's approval. power losses due to friction and leakages and,conse
quently, is 100% efficient. This is not true in actual
10.13 The torque of a motor is the twisting effect practice, of course, but hydraulic motors are quite
that causes a piece of equipment to rotate. When a efficient and system design frequently is based on
force is applied to a lever connected to any object, as ideal machines. The mechanical horsepower output
shown in Fig. 10-2, the input force is multiplied by of a hydraulic motor is calculated according to the
the distance from the application point to the pivot following equation:
point. When calculating the torque of a motor,the fol
lowing equation is used: torque (lb - in.) x shaft speed (rpm)
hp =
63,025
torque = 0.16 x displacement(in^)
Substituting the data from the previous problem, and
X psi X efficiency factor. assuming a motor speed of 2000 rpm:

10.14 For example, suppose you want to calculate 228 lb - in. X 2000 rpm
= 7.2 hp (out).
the torque of a motor with a fluid pressure difference 63,025
of 1000 psi between inlet and outlet, a displacement
of 1.5 in^, and a 95% efficiency factor. Substitute 10.17 The hydraulic horsepower input supplied to
these figures into the equation above: the motor can be calculated if you know the flow
(gpm) and the pressure difference (psi). Since there
torque = 0.16 x 1.5 x 1000 x 0.95 = 228 Ib-in.

If the hydraulic motor turns a wheel 48 in. in diameter Fig. 10-3. Calculating the resulting force
(24-in. radius), as shown in Fig. 10-3, the resulting
force at the rim of the wheel is approximately 9.5 lb
i
(228 Ib-in. -r- 24 in.).
Force
/ Torque^ 24 in. \
10.15 Motor torque is divided into three separate
groups: starting torque, running torque, and stalling
1
fry lever arm

j
torque. The starting torque is the turning force the
motor exerts from a dead stop. Running torque is 24 in.
exerted when the motor is running, and changes = 9.6 lb

whenever there is a change in fluid pressure. Stalling

Tht$ motonal a protoctod by U.S. Copynght btw. Copytng by any optical, electronic, or other moons is illogal without permission.
150 Lesson Ten

are 231 cubic inches per gallon, this value must be

added to the formula for calculating flow,as follows: motor displacement
volumetric efficiency =
fluid input
owtgpm)-
flow 231inVgal
( ml- displacement(in^)x shaft speed(rpm) For example, calculate the volumetric efficiency of a
hydraulic motor with a displacement of 2.8 in^, oper
ating at 1200 rpm with a fluid flow of 16 gpm. Both
1.5x2000 values must be given in the same units (gallons or
= 12.987 gpm
231 cubic inches):

To determine input horsepower, use the following 2.8 in^ xl200 rpm
volumetric efficiency =
equation: 16 gpm X 231 in !gal
gpm X psi
hp =
1714 3360
~ 3696
12.987x1000
= 7.577 hp (in.)
1714 = 91% (approximately)

10.18 The overall efficiency of a hydraulic motor is Note that actual fluid input is always higher than the
calculated as follows:
oretical displacement because of internal fluid leak
age. That is, volumetric efficiency can never be
„ ^. output hp 100%.
overall efficiency = —
input hp
Because the input and output horsepower must be mea 10.20 When selecting a replacement motor for an
sured, the actual calculations are omitted here. Howev existing system, you must give careful considera
er, the overall efficiency of hydraulic motors ranges tion to the type of fluid used in the system. The vis
from 50 to 95%,depending on the type of motor. cosity, viscosity index, volatility, resistance to
foaming, oxidation and corrosion resistance, and
10.19 The volumetric efficiency is determined in effect on seals must be taken into account. Because
the following manner: the fluid temperature at the motor inlet is usually

This material it protected by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electronic, or other means is Illegal without permission.

higher than at the pump inlet, internal leakage is
expected to be higher through a motor than the
leakage through an identical pump. The higher leak
age rate results from higher temperature, which
causes a lower viscosity.
10.21 The size, weight, and mounting requirements
of a motor are frequently factors that determine motor
selection. Motors are usually compact in order to fit
in small spaces. Variable-displacement motors are
comparatively large and heavy. Overall motor dimen
sions,shape,type of mounting,shaft connections, and
piping connections usually are given in the manufac
turer's catalog.
10.22 Motor manufacturers normally specify limi
tations on the applications or uses of a motor. They
also indicate limitations on motor-operating temper
atures, and specify minimum requirements of fluid
filtration.
10.23 The reliability and service life of a motor in
an installation chiefly depend on how well the motor
is matched to the load it drives. Reliability and ser
vice life also depend on the construction of the motor
and how well (how clean) both the system and fluid
are maintained,The service life of motors is similar to
that of pumps, ranging from 1000 hr for some to
This material is protoctod by U. 8. Copyright law. Copying by any opCieaJ, otoctronic, or other means is illegal without pomtission.
Hydraulic Motors 151
15,000 hr for others. Service life is related to the load
cycles and maintenance of the system.
10.24 Although not as important as horsepower and
torque ratings, cost also influences motor selection. In
the past, only the initial purchase price was consid
ered, plus mounting, plumbing, and shaft-connection
costs. Now, energy efficiency, service, and replace
ment costs are always considered along with the pur
chase price, even though these may be included in
separate budgets.
Hydraulic-Motor Construction
10.25 The construction of most hydraulic motors
includes several basic motor designs, such as gear,
vane, axial-piston, and rotary-piston types. Each of
these is a constant-displacement motor, and each
functions by changing the volume of its fluid cham
ber. As fluid under pressure moves through the motor,
its moving energy is transferred to the revolving shaft
of the motor. High-pressure fluid is kept from leaking
to the low-pressure side of the motor by close-fitting
parts that effectively seal the passages between the
moving parts. Different types of pumps use different
arrangements to change the volume of the fluid cham
ber and reduce internal leakage or slippage, but all
operate according to similar principles.
152 Programmed Exercises

10-1. All hydraulic motors have dis 10-1. POSITIVE

placement.
Ref: 10.06

10-2. The shaft speed of a fixed, positive-dis 10-2. FLOW RATE

placement motor can be changed by
varyino the of the hvdraulic Ref: 10.08
fluid.

10-3. The pressure range for most hydraulic 10-3. 100; 5000
motors varies from to
psi. Ref:10.11

10-4. Name the three kinds of motor torque. 10-4. STARTING TORQUE, RUNNING
TORQUE,STALLING TORQUE

Ref: 10.15

10-5. When selecting a replacement motor 10-5. FLUID

for a system, always make sure it is
compatible with the system's Ref: 10.20

10-6. The service life of a hydraulic motor is 10-6. HOURS

measured in
Ref: 10.23

10-7. A hydraulic motor functions by chang 10-7. FLUID CHAMBER

ing the volume of its
Ref: 10.25

10-8. As fluid under pressure moves through 10-8. REVOLVING SHAFT

the motor, its moving energy is trans
ferred to the of the motor. Ref: 10.25

Thb material is protected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying l>y any optical, electronic,or other means is illegal without permission.
 Fig. 10-4. External gear motor

End cover

Bearing

Gear Motors
10.26 Hydraulic gear motors can be grouped into three
classifications — e.v/^r/ja/, internal, and nonseparaied.
Although different in construction, their methods of oper
ation are similar. In the external gear motor shown in Fig.
10-4, hydraulic fluid under high pressure enters the inlet
side of the motor. Because the fluid cannot pass between
the teeth of the spur gears, the pressure forces the fluid to
flow around the gears to the motor outlet, which causes
external gear motor. The outer gear shown in Fig.
10-5 revolves within the housing and meshes with
the inner gear at one side of the motor. At the oppo
site side of the motor, the inner and outer gears are
separated by the stationary crescent-shaped piece
which is usually a part of the casing. The close tol
erance between the crescent and the gear teeth
forms a seal between the inlet and outlet ports and
directs the flow of hydraulic fluid through the
motor.

the gears to rotate. The gear that is keyed to the output

shaft of the motor transmits the rotary motion of the gear 10.30 During operation, hydraulic fluid under high
to the shaft. The low-pressure fluid is returned to the pressure enters the motor inlet port through the end
reservoir as more fluid is admitted to the motor.

10.27 The basic parts of the external gear motor are Fig. 10-5. Internal gear motor (separated)
the two gears, the housing, and the end covers. The
gears are mounted on shafts that are supported by
sleeve or antifriction bearings. The output shaft that Fluid outlet || a || Fluid ports || ■ || Fluid inlet
extends from the housing is furnished with a seal to
prevent leakage of hydraulic fluid.

10.28 Variations of the spur-gear motor use helical

or herringbone gears. These gears provide a smoother
motor action than spur gears because several of the
gear teeth are exposed to the fluid at the inlet opening
at the same time. To offset the end thrust developed
by helical gears, herringbone gears are used. The
opposing tooth angles of the herringbone gear balance Inner gear
the end thrust and maintain a smooth power flow.
Oil grooves
10.29 The motor action in an internal gear motor Outer gear
Crescent
with a separator develops in the same way as in an

This material is proioclod by U. S Copyright law Copyirtg by any optical, electronic, or other moans Is illegal withojl permission.
154 Lesson Ten
Fig. 10-6. Internal gear motor (nonseparated)
F uid out
caps and flows into the spaces between the teeth. The
incoming fluid pressure exerts force on the gear teeth,
causing rotation. As the fluid reaches the discharge
end of the crescent, its pressure is reduced consider
ably, and it does not exert any turning force on the
gear teeth. After it has done its work, the fluid is dis
charged into the outlet port and returned to the reser-
10.31 The internal gear pump in Fig. 10-6 is made
without the crescent separator. To prevent the fluid
from flowing through the motor, the internal gear is
made with one less tooth than the external gear and
acts as the seal. In this type of motor, the external
Fig. 10-7. Vane motor
This material is protected try U. S. Copyright taw. Copying by any optical, electronic, or cither means is Illegal withojt permission
gear rotates independently within the motor hous
ing. The internal gear rotates in the same direction,
but is mounted on the motor shaft. The inlet and
outlet ports are again located in the end caps of the
housing.
10.32 Inlet fluid entering the housing exerts force
on the exposed teeth, causing rotation. As the gears
rotate, they carry the fluid through the motor from the
inlet to the outlet side. As the fluid passes about
halfway through the motor, the pressure starts to
decline and has little effect on the rotary motion of
the gears.
10.33 Gear motors, like gear pumps, may have
special end or wear plates to help maintain the pres
sure seal and reduce internal leakage. Pump leakage
may be drained away from the seal plates through a
drilled hole to the outlet line or through a separate
return line to the reservoir. Usually, a small amount
of the fluid is left in the motor to prevent it from
drying out completely during shutoff or shutdown
periods.
Vane Motors
10.34 Vane motors (see Fig. 10-7) are similar to
vane pumps. Basically, they consist of a rotor with
radial slots mounted on a shaft that is located in the
Housing
 Hydraulic Motors 155

Fig.10-8. An axial-piston motor

Keeper plate

Discharge port Oil seal

Cam plate
hJLa ha L

Drive shaft

Inlet port
iHI I I

Dram port

Barrel

Piston Piston shoe

center of an out-of-round or elliptical cam ring. The
cam ring shown is constructed with two crescent-
shaped chambers and is known as a balanced motor
because fluid acts-equally on both sides of the rotor.
The vanes that slide in and out can be either spring-
loaded or pressure-loaded.
10.35 Operation of the vane motor is similar to
operation of the gear motor. Hydraulic fluid under
pressure is admitted through the inlet port chamber
of the motor. Incoming fluid exerts a force on the
vanes in the inlet chamber,causing the rotor to turn.
Hydraulic fluid passing from the inlet port to the
outlet port loses its pressure about halfway through
the motor chamber, and is discharged from the
motor and returned to the reservoir. The motor
shown has two inlets, outlets, and motor chambers,
and is an example of a balanced motor. Motors
made with only one motor chamber are called
unbalanced motors.
10.36 The balanced vane motor described in the pre
ceding paragraph has a rigidly mounted cam ring and,
therefore, a fixed displacement. Some vane motors
have a movable cam ring, which allows them to have a
variable displacement. Shifting of the cam ring to one
side or the other side of the center position determines
the speed at which the rotor starts and rotates.
10.37 Variable-displacement motors are used only
when there is no other way to vary the torque and
speed of the motor. They are unbalanced and have
higher slippage rates than fixed-displacement motors.
In addition, they are much more expensive to install
and maintain. The operating and running characteris
tics of gear and vane motors are shown in Table 10-1
on page 148.
Piston Motors
10.38 The action of an axial-piston motor is shown
in Fig. 10-8. Hydraulic fluid under pressure pushes
the piston to the right. The action of the piston caus
es the piston barrel to rotate. This rotation is created
by the cam plate at the rear of the pistons. As the
piston barrel rotates, succeeding pistons are moved
into position at the inlet port and receive hydraulic
fluid. The force developed on the piston depends on
the pressure of the fluid, while the speed of the pis
ton depends on the flow rate of the fluid.

This material is protected tiy U. S. Copyright law. Copying l>y any optical, electronic, or other means Is illegal without permission.
156 Lesson Ten
Fig.10-9. A radial-piston motor
Hollow piston
va ve bbck
Distributor
housing
Outlet
10.39 After the piston completes its stroke, the fluid
pressure in the piston is spent. The fluid then passes
through the discharge port and is returned to the reser
voir. The fluid flow in axial-piston motors is controlled
by the inlet and outlet port configurations. Axial-piston
motors are made in fixed-displacement and variable-
displacement versions. Displacement is adjusted by
manually or automatically changing the angle of the
swash plate.
10.40 The construction of the radial-piston motor
pictured in Fig. 10-9 is similar to that of radial-pis
ton pumps with the same configuration. The pistons
are mounted radially around an eccentric, five-sided
valve block. The pistons bear against the valve
block, which in turn causes the motor shaft to rotate
when pressurized fluid is admitted into the inlet
port.
10.41 When the radial-piston motor is in opera
tion, high-pressure fluid enters the inlet port and is
directed to the rotating valve. The valve directs fluid
through the valve block to a piston in the motor
housing. Huid on the upper part of the piston causes
it to move inward, shifting the position of the valve
This tnolerisl Is protoeled by U. S. CopyriBhl law. Copying by any optical, otectionic, or other trreans is illegal without pofmission.
Output shaft
Working force
Fluid direction
block. The shifting valve block in turn causes the
eccentric and the rotary valve to rotate. Because the
eccentric is part of the motor shaft, the motor shaft
also rotates.
10.42 When the piston is extended and the fluid can
do no more work,the rotary allows the fluid from the
piston to return to the reservoir. The valve body con
tinues to shift its position, and the fluid is at almost
zero pressure when it is forced from the piston into
the discharge line.
Rotary Actuators
10.43 Rotary actuators are similar in some respects
to rotary motors. However, they are designed to
move in an arc that is not a full revolution. Usually,
movement ranges from about 90 to 330°. The amount
of available rotation varies with the manufacturer and
the application. Rotary actuators have high torque,
are relatively simple in construction, and are easy to
mount. Their applications include the operation of
levers and partial rotation of a drive. Their main
source of power is through rotary vane or axial-pis-
ton units.
 Hydraulic Motors 157

10.44 The vane-type rotary actuator in Fig. 10-10 Fig.10-10. Vane-type rotary actuator
closely resembles a vane motor. The output shaft is
connected directly to the rotor. The rotor and vanes
can be moved back and forth by directing fluid to one Outet

of two inlet ports. Fluid entering the inlet port passes

through the rotor to the other side, balancing the work
and causing the shaft to rotate. Some actuators have a
single vane and can rotate through an almost com
plete revolution. Some actuators are equipped with
spring-return devices to reset them.

10.45 Piston-type actuators are made by several

manufacturers. Two piston-type rotary actuators are
shown in Fig. 10-11. Most piston actuators use a
hydraulic cylinder connected to either a lever or
rotating plate. Others use a gear or spline arrange
ment to change reciprocating motion into rotary
motion.

Fig. 10-11. Piston-type rotary actuators

Piston Fluid pressure

Fluid
4
4

////////'///.. ::i ii
y
nnim
n
o|
pressure ■
'!/// // • 'i /l;///// ///!

Guide rod

Rack-and-pinion actuator Helical spline actuator

This material is protected by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, electmnie, or other means is iliegai without permission.
158 Programmed Exercises

10-9. Rotation in an Internal gear motor Is 10-9. GEAR TEETH

caused by fluid pressure acting on the
Ref; 10.30

10-10. Gear motor may be supplied with 10-10. END or WEAR

plates to help maintain the
pressure and reduce Internal leaks. Ref: 10.33

10-11. A vane motor made with two motor 10-11. BALANCED

chambers Is called afnl
motor. Ref: 10.34

10-12. A vane motor with a movable cam ring 10-12. VARIABLE

has a displacement.
Ref: 10.36

10-13. Variable-displacement vane motors 10-13. SLIPPAGE

have hloher Internal than
fixed-displacement motors. Ref: 10.37

10-14. The reciprocating motion of an axlal- 10-14. CAM PLATE

plston motor Is converted to rotary
motion bv the Ref: 10.38

10-15. For axlal-plston motors, displacement 10-15. SWASH PLATE

Is adjusted by changing the angle of
the Ref: 10.39

10-16. Rotary actuators move In an arc that Is 10-16. REVOLUTION

less than a full
Ref: 10.43

This maierial is preteetsd by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, olectninic. or othor moans is illogal without pormission.
 Self-Check Quiz 159

Answer the following questions by marking an"X"

in the box next to the best answer.

10-1. The speed of a hydraulic motor Is determined 10-6. The service life of a hydraulic motor Is given
by the fluid's In

□ a. pressure □ a. foot-pounds
□ b. viscosity □ b. hours of operation
□ c. flow rate □ c. pounds per square Inch
□ d. temperature □ d. revolutions per minute

10-2. All hvdraullc motors are motors. 10-7. The pressure of the hydraulic fluid entering
an Internal gear motor acts on the
□ a. centrifugal
□ b. positive-displacement □ a. wear plate
□ c. turbine □ b. separating crescent
□ d. negative-displacement □ c. gear teeth
□ d. housing
10-3. The maximum fluid pressure that a motor can
withstand Is defined by 10-8. Gear motors frequently are equipped with
wear plates to prevent
□ a. Its pressure range
□ b. the relief valve setting □ a. Internal leakage
□ c. the pressure of the system □ b. bearing wear
□ d. Its speed range □ c. housing wear
□ d. rotor wear
10-4. The force exerted by a hydraulic motor while
operating normally Is called 10-9. Which of the following characteristics applies
to variable-displacement hydraulic motors?
□ a. starting torque
□ b. running torque □ a. Economical operation
□ c. stalling torque □ b. High slippage rates
□ d. horsepower □ c. Balanced design
□ d. Compact size
10-5. When a new hydraulic motor Is Installed In an
existing system, Its compatibility must be 10-10. How far can vane-type rotary actuators
checked against all of the following EXCEPT rotate?
the
□ a. Several revolutions
□ a. fluid's viscosity Index □ b. One full revolution
□ b. fluid's resistance to foaming □ c. Just under one revolution
□ c. effect the fluid has on the seals □ d. Just a few degrees
□ d. piping material

This matsriBl is pnstected by U. S. Copyright law. Copying by any optical, olectionic, or othor moans is illegal without pormission.
160 Lesson Ten

SUMMARY

Hydraulic motors are useful In Industry for a All hydraulic motors operate In a similar way,
number of jobs. These motors are similar In even though their construction differs. Gear
construction to hydraulic pumps, but are pumps have wear plates to help maintain the
more efficient. All hydraulic motors are of the pressure seal and reduce Internal leakage.
positive-displacement type. Within this broad Vane motors have either spring-loaded or
category are gear, vane, and piston motors. pressure-loaded vanes. The rotor rotates
The motors may be fixed, displacement or when the hydraulic fluid exerts a force on the
variable-displacement types. vanes. Piston motors are driven when
hydraulic fluid under pressure pushes the
Hydraulic motors are rated according to their pistons, causing other components In the
pressure speed,torque, and horsepower. motor to move. Rotary actuators are similar
Installation requirements, motor size, and to rotary motors, but do not make a full rota
weight are other factors In hydraullc-motor- tion. They are powered by rotary vane or
selectlon. How well you Install and maintain axlal-plston units.
the motor Is critical to Its reliability and ser
vice life.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

10-1. c. Flow rate. Ref: 10.01 10-6. b. Hours of operation. Ref: 10.23

10-2. b. Positive-displacement. 10-7. c. Gear teeth. Ref: 10.30

Ref: 10.06
10-8. a. Intemal leakage. Ref: 10.33
10-3. a. its pressure range. Ref: 10.11
10-9. b. High slippage rates. Ref: 10.37
10-4. b. Running torque. Ref: 10.15
10-10. c. Just under one revolution.
10-5, d. Piping material. Ref: 10.20 Ref: 10.43

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 10-7. Parker-Hannifin Figure 10-9. Hydraulics Div., Houdaille Industries, Inc.
Figure 10-8. DYNEX Div., Applied Power Industries, Inc. Rgure 10-10. Hydraulics Div., Houdaille Industries, Inc.

This msierisl it ptotoded by U.S. Copyright low. Copying by any optical, olectionic, or othor moons is itlsgal wittwut permission.