Understanding Basic

Pneumatics

Editor:

Linda Warner

Graphic Design:

Robert A. Ravelo

Contributor:

James M. Benson,P.E.
Associate Professor
Department of Industrial & Engineering Technology
Murray State University

TPC Training Systems 750 Lake cook Road Buffalo Grove, Illinois 60089 U.S.A 847/808-4000
Table of Contents

Lesson One Pneumatic Principles.

Lesson Two Reciprocating Compressors.

Lesson Three Rotary Compressors.

Lesson Four Primary Air Treatment.

Lesson Five Secondary Air Treatment.

Lesson Six Piping, Hoses, and Fittings.

Lesson Seven Directional Control Valves.

Lesson Eight Pressure-Control Valves.

Lesson Nine Pneumatic Cylinders.

Lesson Ten Pneumatic Motors and Rotary Actuators.

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Lesson One

Pneumatic
Principles
L

c o^

Training Systems
 Lesson

Pneumatic Principles

TOPICS

Fluid Power Systems Laws of Pneumatics

Pneumatic Systems Transmission of Pneumatic Fluid Power
Force, Weight, and Mass Pneumatic Leverage
Pressure Air Properties
Work and Energy Air Flow in Pipes
Diffusion and Dispersion Viscosity of Air
Separation of Gases and Liquids Bernoulli's Law
Compressibility Components of Pneumatic Power Systems

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should t>e able to...

• Explain how force is transmitted in a pneumatic Explain pneumatic leverage.

system. Briefly explain the physical laws affecting the Ijehav-
• Calculate force and work. ior of a confined gas.
• List two factors that affect the results of pressure
calculations.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Pneumatic system 1.01 a system that uses a Pressure 1.10 amount of force (lb) exerted on an
gas to transmit force object or substance, divided by the area (in2) over
Force 1.04 a push or pull exerted on an object to which the force is exerted
change its position or movement Streamline (laminar)flow 1.38 movement of air
Density 1.08 weight of an object for a specific vol layers in nearly parallel lines
ume or unit of measure Dynamic viscosity 1.42 viscosity of air mole
cules; air's resistance to flow

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Specific pneumatic components vary in construction and appearance—and are
used for many different applications. However,the basic working principles that
determine the operation and action of a pneumatic system remain the same.
This Lesson outlines some of these operating principles.

A familiarity with the principles behind the operation of pneumatic equipment

should help you to know just how much work a device can do for you. Under
standing the principles of a pneumatic system can also help you solve some of
the operating problems that arise. That same understanding should enable you
to take corrective action before a failure or breakdown occurs.

Fluid Power Systems
for operating hot die casting and plastic molding
1.01 All industrial plants use a fluid power sys
tem of one type or another. Work is performed by a
fluid under pressure in the system. A fluid power
system may function as part of a process, such as
heating or cooling, or it may be used as a secondary
service system, such as compressed air. A fluid can
be either a liquid, such as oil or water, or a gas.
Compressed air is the gas most often found in
industrial applications, but nitrogen and carbon
dioxide are also used. A fluid power system that
uses a liquid in order to transmit force is called a
hydraulic system, and was discussed in Unit 307. A
system that uses a gas for transmitting force is
called a pneumatic system. The word pneumatic is
derived from the Greek word for an unseen gas.
Originally pneumatic referred only to the flow of
air. Now it includes the flow of any gas in a system
under pressure.
Pneumatic Systems
1.02 Some of the ways the pneumatic systems
perform work include operating pneumatic tools,
linear motion devices, door openers, and rotary
motion devices. Pneumatic hoisting equipment may
be found in heavy fabricating environments, and
pneumatic conveyors are used in the processing of
raw materials. Pneumatic systems are also used to
control flow valves in chemical process equipment
and in large air-conditioning systems. In more
sophisticated systems, pneumatics are used to oper
ate sequencing control valves in much the same way
as electrical relays.
other clamping devices; for movable locating stops;
machines, and also for supplying air used in manufac
turing processes. Although the pieces of pneumatic
equipment just described are different from each
other, they all convert compressed air into work.
Before discussing pneumatic systems and their opera
tion, let's review some laws of force and motion, their
relation to pneumatic principles, and how they are
used.
Force, Weight,and Mass
1.04 K force is a push or a pull exerted on an
object to change its position or movement. This
includes starting, stopping, and changing its speed
or direction of movement. In a pneumatic system,
force must be present at all times for the system to
function. This force is exerted by compressed air.
1.05 As shown in Fig. 1-1, a compressor takes air
at atmospheric pressure, compresses it, and stores it in
a tank. The air in the tank flows into the air lines that
run from the tank to the equipment. Pressure is devel-
Fig. 1-1. Force in a pneumatic system
Compressor

1.03 The pneumatic system in an industrial plant

usually handles compressed air. Compressed air is
used for operating portable air tools, such as drills,
wrenches, and chipping tools, for vises, chucks, and
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6 Lesson One
Fig. 1-2. Determining pressure
100 b
= 12.5
100(b
Oped by the resistance of the system components and
the compressor discharge valves. When the equipment
is in use, the force of the high-pressure air has to be
sufficient to overcome the resistance to airflow
offered by the piping and to drive the equipment that
does the work of the system. The greater the system's
work load,the more force is needed.
1.06 An object or substance has weight as a result
of the gravitational force or pull on the object. In a
pneumatic system, the compressor, tank, lines, all of
the components, and even the air in the system have
weight. This is true whether the air is held in the tank
or is moving through the system.
1.07 All objects and substances have mass. Mass
represents the amount of matter in an object, and its
inertia^ or resistance to movement. An object's mass
determines its weight on earth or in any other gravita
tional field. An object's inertia determines how much
force is needed to lift or move the object or to change
its speed or direction of movement.
1.08 The density of an object is its mass for a
specific volume or unit of measure. The density of a
cubic foot of "dry" air at atmospheric pressure and
a temperature of 60°F is 0.076 lb. This is more com
monly expressed as 0.076 Ib/ft^. The density of
"wet" air at atmospheric pressure, with 100% rela
tive humidity, and a temperature of 60°F is 0.075
lb/ft3. Humid air is less dense than dry air because
the water vapor will not allow the air to compress as
much.As a result, humid air weighs less. Air having
a density of 0.076 Ib/ft^ requires approximately 13.2
ft3 of air to equal one pound.
ThbimbKidtepfatoctodbyU.S.CepyiigMlaw. Ck(>ytag by <myop6e«d.«l«tionk;orolh«m#«mblegd without pomtteslon.
1.09 As you know, air is very light compared to
water or hydraulic fluid. Its relatively low density
makes it suitable for long-distance and high-speed
control applications. Also, because of its low
weight and inertia, it will not cause pneumatic
shocks as hydraulic fluid does when a valve is
closed quickly.
Pressure
1.10 Pressure is the amount of force (in pounds)
exerted on an object or a substance, divided by the
area (in square inches) over which this force is
exerted. Although pressures are measured and spec
ified in different ways, the use of pounds per square
inch (psi) is the most common. If a 100-lb force is
applied to an area of 8 in^ (Fig. 1-2), the resulting
pressure is 12.5 psi. If the pressure (in psi) on a cer
tain area (square inches) is known, the total force
(in pounds) exerted by the pressure is equal to the
pressure multiplied by the area.
1.11 Pneumatic systems deal with three kinds of
pressure: atmospheric, below atmospheric, and
pneumatic system pressure. Atmospheric pressure at w
sea level equals 14.7 psi; pressure is lower above
sea level, and higher below sea level. A difference
in pressure also allows air to pass through a com
pressor's intake filter, and into the cylinder. This
occurs when the compressor is on the intake stroke,
and pressure in the cylinder is below atmospheric.
1.12 The absence of air (complete or partial), indi
cating below atmospheric pressure, is often referred
to as a vacuum^ or partial vacuuuL For some applica
tions, it may also be called a negative or suction pres
sure. Vacuum is measured with the aid of a column of
mercury or with special gauges. When all the air
above the column is evacuated, atmospheric pressure
is exerted on the pool of mercury below the tube. This
pressure raises the column to a height of approximate
ly 30 in. In most applications a vacuum is measured
in inches of mercury instead of psi. However, pneu
matic pressure acting within a pneumatic system is
measined in psi.
1.13 Most pressure gauges in a pneumatic sys
tem measure only pressure that is higher than the
atmospheric pressure surrounding them. When dis
connected, a pressure gauge reads zero pounds per
square inch, gauge (0 psig). A reading of 250 on a
 Pneumatic Principles 7

pneumatic pressure gauge tells you that the air Force(F)= Pressure x Piston area
pressure is 250 psi above atmospheric. Add atmos
pheric pressure to this gauge pressure, and the
total pressure is 264.7 pounds per square inch,
absolute (psia). Although absolute pressure read
ings are important in some pneumatic calculations,
the distinction between psig and psia is usually
unimportant in the average pneumatic system. As a Work(W) = Force x Piston travel
result, gauge pressure readings are usually
expressed in psi. = lb X in.

Work and Energy = in.-lb.

1.14 Work takes place when a force (in pounds or To convert to foot-pounds, divide by 12:
newtons) moves through a distance (in inches, feet,
or meters). The amount of work done is expressed
in the English system of measurement in foot 12^^ ~ pounds
pounds or inch-pounds, as shown in the following
equation: 1.16 Power is defined as the amount of work (foot
pounds) done in a given length of time (seconds or
Work = Force (pounds) x Distance (feet or minutes), or foot-pounds per minute. The following
inches) equation will give you the amount of power:

- foot-pounds or inch-pounds.
Power(P)=^

1.15 In a pneumatic system, the force in pounds

Foot - pounds
is exerted by air pressure acting on the area of a
moving piston in a cylinder, as shown in Fig. 1-3. Seconds (or Minutes).
As the piston moves, the pneumatic force acts
through the length of the stroke. You can determine Since the work in the above equation is given in foot
the work done by the piston by using the following pounds, if you wish to know the answer in inch-
equations: pounds, you should multiply by 12.

Fig. 1-3. Comparison of pneumatic and mechanical work

Area of piston

Mechanical work Pneumat c work

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8 Lesson One

1.17 For the amount of power calculated to be Diffusion and Dispersion

meaningful, it must be compared with a unit of mea
surement. The common unit of power measurement is 1.20 Diffusion can be described as the rapid inter
horsepower, calculated as follows: mingling of the molecules of one gas with another.
This should not be confused with evaporation, which
Ih ^ 33,000 ft-lb is the changing of a liquid to a gas. To prevent com
" 1 miiL pressed gases from rapidly diffusing into the sur
rounding air, they must be stored in closed contain
Or,alternatively: ers.

1 hp = 550 ft-lb 1.21 Dispersion can be described as the temporaiy

1 s.
1.18 To use power and do work, energy must be
expended. The Law of Conservation of Energy states
that "Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can
only be transformed." Therefore, we use one kind of
energy to get other kinds of energy. Some of this
energy does useful work. Some of it only overcomes
friction. The energy that overcomes friction is not
lost, but is changed into heat energy.
1.19 The types of energy used in pneumatic sys
tems include the following:
• electrical energy, which operates the
compressor motor
• pneumatic energy, which is produced by
the compressor
• heat energy, produced by friction in the
compressor motor, the compressor, the
moving air, and the moving piston.
• kinetic energy, produced when the com
pressed air is lifting or moving an object
• potential energy, which the lifted or
moved object now has
• heat energy, produced by friction in the
compressor motor, the compressor, the
moving air, and the moving piston.
mixing of liquid particles with a gas. When air is
compressed, compressor lubricating oil is picked up
by the moving air in the compressor and dispersed in
fine particles that remain suspended in the air for a
time. If enough heat is generated in the compressor,
some (tf the oil evaporates and is diffused in the air.
Most of the large particles of oil dispersed in com
pressed air drop out when the air goes around sharp
comers, or blows against a flat plate or through a
screen, or when it comes to rest in a tank. Finely dis
persed oil particles and oil or water vapor that have
been diffused into the air are more difhcult to remove.
Separation of Gases and Liquids
1.22 Although diffusion and dispersion should be
kept to a minimum, liquids (especially water) con
stantly evaporate into the surrounding gases. Because
liquids are heavier than gases, they do not mix readi
ly. Therefore, when air and suspended water or oil are
put in the same tank, or flow through the air lines, the
water or oil will settle out and flow to the lowest
places. That is why water usually collects at the bot
tom of a vertical air line, where it should exit through
a drain valve.
The programmed Exercises on the next page will
tell you how well you understand the material you
have just read. Before starting the exercises,
remove the REVEAL KEY from the back of the
book. Read the instructions printed on the Reveal
Key. Follow these instructions as you work
through the Programmed Exercises.

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 Programmed Exercises 9

1-1 The "fluid" In a fluid power system can 1-1. GAS, LIQUID
be either a(n) or a{n)
Ref: 1.01

1 -2. In a pneumatic system, the force that 1-2. COMPRESSED AIR

does the work is usually supplied in the
form of . Ref: 1.04

1 -3. The pressure In a compressed air sys 1-3. DISCHARGE

tem is caused by the resistance of the
components and the compressor Ref: 1.05
valves.

1-4. The amount of force required to move 1-4. INERTIA

an object is determined by the object's
Ref: 1.07

1 -5. Gauge pressure (psig) indicates air 1-5. ABOVE

pressure atmospheric
pressure. Ref: 1.13

1-6. The amount of work done by a cylinder 1-6. 500

having a 10 in^ piston area and a 12 in.
stroke when operated at 50 psi equals Ref: 1.15, Fig. 1-3
foot-pounds.

1-7. Power is calculated by dividing the 1-7. TIME(IT TOOK TO DO THE WORK)
amount of work done by the
Ref: 1.16

1-8. The mechanical energy in a com 1-8. COMPRESSOR

pressed air system is produced by the
Ref: 1.19

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10 Lesson One

Compressibility and after compression. This equation can also be writ

ten as:

1.23 Unlike liquids, which are virtually incom

pressible, air is readily compressible and can be P2 _ P, _ V2
stored in large quantities in relatively small contain p."V, p, - V,
ers. The more the air is compressed, the higher its
pressure becomes. The higher the pressure in a con To allow for the effects of atmospheric pressure,
tainer, the stronger the container must be. always remember to convert from gauge pressure
before solving the problem, then convert back to
Laws of Pneumatics gauge pressure ajier solving it:

1.24 One of the more well-known physical laws Psia = psig + 14.7 psi
that govem the behavior of pneumatic systems is Pas
cal's Law. Pascal's Law states that when a gas is con and
fined under pressure in a closed container, the pres
sure is transmitted equally in all directions by the gas. Psig = psia - 14.7 psi.
This is shown in Rg. 1-4. If the container is flexible,
it will assume a spherical (balloon) shape. Most com 1.26 Usually a compression problem like the one
pressed-gas tanks are long cylinders with spherical above is stated as follows: What is the gauge pressure
ends to contain the pressure more effectively. With of 10 ft^ of air at 25.3 psig when compressed to 5 ft^?
this design, a pressure vessel can be made from thin The problem would be solved like this:
ner sheets of steel without sacrificing safety.
25.3 psig + 14.7 psi =40 psia
1.25 The basic relationship between the pressure
V in
of a gas and its volume is given in Boyle's Law, P2 = Pi X ^^"y =
which states: "The absolute pressure of a confined
quantity of gas varies inversely with its volume,if its
temperature does not change." This means that if 10 Psig = psia -14.7 psi
ft3 of air at 14.7 psia is compressed to 1 ft^, air pres
sure will rise to 147.0 psia, as long as air temperature =(80 psia)-(14.7 psi)= 65.3 psig.
remains the same. Rgure 1-5 shows this relationship,
which can be calculated as follows: Remember that the pressures should always be calcu
lated on the basis of absolute pressures instead of
P,xV, = P2XV2 gauge pressures. Otherwise you would get a much
different—and incorrect—answer.
where Pi and P2 are the pressures before and after
compression ,and Vi and V2 are the volumes before 1.27 Another physical law dealing with heat is
Charles' Law. It states: "If the volume of a confined
quantity of gas remains the same, the change in the
pressure of the gas varies directly with a change in
Fig. 1-4. Action of confined air pressure the absolute temperature (T) of the gas." This is cal
culated by using the following equation:

p,= Pi X L
^1

Pressure
1.28 Charles's Law also states: "If the pressure of
a confined quantity of gas remains the same, the
change in the volume (V) of the gas varies directly
V
with a change in the temperature of the gas," as given
in the equation:
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Fig. 1-5. Boyle's Law
P,XV,= P2XV2
14.7 psi X lOftS = 147 psi X1 ftS
V, - V,x^ h
1.29 In both of the above equations, the tempera
ture is stated as absolute temperature. Absolute tem
perature is used when applying Charles' Law in order
to avoid the confusion that might occur with degrees
Fahrenheit or Celsius. Absolute temperature begins at
absolute zero, which is found at -460°F, or CR (zero
degrees Rankine). Rankine was the scientist who dis
covered absolute zero. On this basis, 0°F equals
460'*R and 60^ equals 520°R (460°R + 60°F).
1.30 Because air cannot be compressed without its
temperature changing, Boyle's and Charles' Laws do
not operate separately in a real pneumatic system.
They operate together, according to the Ideal Gas Law
expressed by the equation:
P, xV, _ P, xV,
Note that this equation uses absolute pressure (psia) and
absolute temperatures(°R)in its calculations. The equa
tion also shows that the pressure, volume, and tempera
ture of the second state of a gas are equal to the pres
sure, volume, and temperature of the first state. In actual
practice, however, other factors such as humidity, heat
of friction, and efficiency losses all affect the gas. The
Ideal Gas Law is still used as a design equation.
Transmission of Pneumatic Fluid Power
1.31 Using compressed air to do work requires the
application of all the points covered so far. As shown in
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Pneumatic Principles 11
Fig. 1-6. Transmission of force
Fig. 1-6A, if a force of 10 lb is applied to piston 1, it is
transmitted through the air in the cylinder to piston 2.
Pascal's Law states that pressure developed in confined
gas is equal at every p>oint touched by the gas. Therefore
the internal air pressure developed by piston I pushes
on piston 2. If each piston's area is the same, the force
developed on piston 2 is the same as the force applied to
piston 1 (if frictional losses are not considered).
1.32 The single cylinder in Fig. 1-6A has been
replaced by two individual cylinders in Fig. I-6B.
Both cylinders have the same diameter and are con
nected with a suitable air line. The conditions present
in Fig. 1-6A have not changed because the pneumatic
system has not changed. The force applied to piston 1
is transmitted through the fluid (gas) to piston 2.
Pneumatic Leverage
1.33 A similar arrangement of two pistons connect
ed by an air line is shown in Fig. 1-7 on the following
page. However,the pistons are placed in a vertical posi
tion and are of different sizes. If a force of 100 lb is
applied to piston 1, the force is distributed over the 10
in2 area of the piston. A pneumatic pressure of 10 psi
(100 lb ^ 10 in2) builds up under piston 1 and through
out the system,including the 50 in^ area under piston 2.
The 10 psi pneumatic pressure exerts a maximum total
force of 500 lb on piston 2(10 psi x 50 in^). This
increase in force is pneumatic leverage or force and
occurs in all similar applications.
1.34 If the 500 lb force is applied against piston 2,
the output force on piston 1 is only 100 lb. The calcu
lations remain the same:
Fig. 1-7. Unequal piston areas
^ Piston 1 Piston 2
rrn ioin2(iooib) 50 in2(500 lb)
5001b^50in2= 10 psi
10 psi X 10 in2 = 100 lb
In this instance, the pneumatic leverage (or force) is
decreased instead of increased.
1.35 There is another principle of leverage that
also must be remembered. That is, for every force
increase, there is a corresponding movement
decrease. If piston 1 in Fig. 1-7 moves 5 in., it dis
places 50 in? of air (5 in. x 10 in^ = 50 in^) under the
cylinder. The 50 in^ of air is transmitted through the
system to piston 2. The 50 in^ of air acts on the 50-
in2 area of piston 2, causing it to move 1 in.(50 in^ -r
50 in2 = 1 in.).
1.36 The example in Fig. 1-7 shows that for a 5 to
1 (5:1) pressure increase, there is a directly opposite
(1:5) travel decrease. The same proportion exists for
any leverage ratio. If the original force is applied to
the large piston instead of to the small piston, the
force exerted on the small piston decreases, but its
amount of travel increases.
Air Properties
1.37 Up to now, we have discussed how air is
lighter (less dense) than a liquid and will diffuse into
another gas; that water vajx)r and oil vapor will dif
fuse into air; and that oil particles can be suspended
in air. We have also discussed the compressibility of
air and the pressure-volume-temperature relation-
ships of a confined quantity of air. To understand
This matsnal is protsctsd by U. S. Copynght law
Fig. 1-8. Streamline flow
how well and how quickly air will transmit force and
movement, you have to know something about air
and how it flows.
Air Flow in Pipes
1.38 Streamline or laminarflow is the ideal type
of airflow in a pneumatic system because the air
layers move in nearly parallel lines (Fig. 1-8A).
Like all fluids, the layer of air next to the surface
of the pipe moves the slowest because of the fric
tion between the fluid and the pipe. The layer of
moving fluid (air) next to the outermost layer
moves a little faster, and so on, until the fluid lay
ers nearest the center of the flow passage move the
fastest. Figure 1-8B shows the greatest velocity of
flow near the center of the pipe.
1.39 Turbulent flow conditions usually occur
because the flow passage is too small for the desired
flow velocity of the air. The density and viscosity of
the air also affect turbulent flow, but not as much as
the flow passage and the flow velocity. Rough or
irregularly formed air passages, sudden enlargement
or reduction in the diameter of the flow passages, and
sudden changes in the direction of flow should all be
avoided. When air must pass through a passage of
reduced size, the restriction
restrictior should be smooth and
gradual,
gradual.
1.40 Turbulent flow heats the air, wastes power
by requiring higher air pressure, and can damage
the flow passages and ports in the pneumatic
equipment.
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 Pneumatic Principles 13

Viscosity of Air a compressor (2) to compress room air

and deliver it under pressure
1.41 The viscosity of air is its resistance to flow,
because it is a measure of the air's internal friction. an aftercooler(3)for the compressed air
In more specific terms, it is a measure of the resis
tance to one layer of moving air in a flow passage a separator (4) to remove condensed
sliding over another (laminar flow). water and oil from the air

1.42 The viscosity of air is referred to as dynamic a pressure switch (5) to start and stop the
viscosity. This is a measure of the activity of air mol compressor as required
ecules with increases in temperature. As the tempera
ture increases, the molecules bump into each other a relief valve (6) that functions if the
much more frequently while they are moving. This pressure switch fails
means they will have greater resistance to flow and
also a higher dynamic viscosity. a tank (7)to store the compressed air

Bernoulli's Law a filter, pressure regulator, and lubricator

assembly (8) to prepare the air for use
1.43 Compressed air in a pneumatic system pos
sesses two types of energy, kinetic and potential. a directional control valve setup, with
Kinetic energy is present when the air is moving, and safety features(9)
potential energy is a result of the air pressure.
Bernoulli's Law states that, if air velocity increases,
the kinetic energy of the air also increases, while the
Fig. 1-9. Illustration of Bernoulli's Law
total energy (potential energy + kinetic energy) of the
air remains constant. If the kinetic energy increases
and the total energy remains the same, the potential
energy of the air moving in a reduced flow passage is
reduced. If the potential energy is reduced, the pres
sure of the air is also reduced, as shown in Fig. 1-9.

Components of Pneumatic Power System

1.44 Many varieties of pneumatic systems are

used in industrial plants. Briefly described, a pneu
matic system is a piping circuit in which air under
Fig. 1-10. A basic pneumatic system
controlled pressure is used to transmit force to do
work. It is often called an open system because it
takes in air at atmospheric pressure, and exhausts air
to the atmosphere when work is done.

1.45 A basic pneumatic system (Fig. 1-10) is usu Compressor

ally modified by the addition of other components, Directional
, control
which enable the system to perform a greater range valve
of work and to function more reliably. The following
components, shown in Fig. 1-11 on the following
page, make up the modified basic pneumatic power
system: Piston rod

• an intake filter and silencer (1) to clean Actuating unit

the air being used by the system
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Fig. 1-11. A modified basic pneumatic system

an actuating unit (10) at each work sta includes drip legs and dirt traps with
tion where necessary. These can be cylin valves for removing contaminants.
ders, motors, or air-operated pumps.
The following Lessons will cover these components
piping to transmit the compressed air in greater detail.
through the system. The piping also

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 Pneumatic Principles 15

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16 Programmed Exercises

1-9. The equation x = Pg x V2 means 1-9. EQUAL or SAME

that even though the pressure and vol
ume of a gas change, their total product Ref: 1.25, Rg. 1-5
is aiwavs

1-10. Charles' Law says that if the volume of T2

1-10. TEMPERATURE P2 = PiX —
a gas is unchanged, its pressure will T.
vary with its Ref: 1.27

1-11. If a 100 lb force is applied to one of two 1-11. 100

equal-sized pistons, the second piston
will produce ib of force. Ref: 1.31, Fig. 1-6

1-12. What would the output force be if a 50 1-12. 375 LB OF FORCE

Ib force is applied to a piston having an
area of 10 in2 and transferred to a pis Ref: 1.33, Fig. 1-7
ton having an area of 75 in 2?

1-13. For every increase in pneumatic force 1-13. DECREASE

in a pneumatic system,there is a(n)
in travel. REF: 1.35, FIG. 1-7

1-14. The ideal airflow in a pneumatic sys 1-14. STREAMLINE

tem is called airflow.
Ref: 1.38, FIG. 1-8

1-15. The viscosity of air is a measure of the 1-15. INTERNAL FRICTION

air's
Ref: 1.41

1-16. In a compressed air system,the total 1-16. CONSTANT

energy (kinetic and potential) always
remains Ref: 1.43, Rg. 1-9

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 Self-Check Quiz 17

Answer the following questions by marking an''X"

in the box next to the best answer.

1 -1. In a pneumatic system, the compressed air 1-6. Using the equation x Vi = P2 x V2, find P2
provides the force to of Pi = 100 (psig), Vi = 100, V2 = 10.
(Remember to do ail calculations in psia)
□ a. cool the compressor
□ b. perform work □ a. 1000 (psig)
□ c. control the dew point □ b. 1132 (psig)
□ d. lubricate the tools □ c. 11,470 (psig)
□ d. 14,700 (psig)
1 -2. The inertia of an object is its
1 -7. What happens when heat is applied to gas
□ a. veiocity contained in a cylinder?
□ b. density
□ c. specific gravity □ a. The pressure increases
□ d, resistance to movement □ b. The volume increases
□ c. The cylinder expands
1-3. The abbreviation PSIG means □ d. The mass decreases

□ a. pounds per square inch, gauge 1 -8. The force that permits a small amount of
□ b. pressure per square inch, gauge pressure to move a larger object is called
□ c. pressure signal, indicating gauge
□ d. pound signal, indicating gauge □ a. power differential
□ b. power ratio
1 -4. The amount of work done by a pneumatic □ c. pneumatic leverage
cylinder is equal to the force (lb) times the □ d. pneumatic power

□ a. pressure 1-9. If the small piston in a pneumatic system hav

□ b. length of time ing 2.5-to-1 leverage increase travels 5 in.,
□ c. piston area how far wili the large piston travel?
□ d. piston travel
□ a 12.5 in.
1 -5. What type of energy is produced by an air □ b. 5 in.
compressor? □ c. 2.5 in.
□ d. 2 in.
□ a. Electrical
□ b. Kinetic 1 -10. Bernoulli's principle states that the total ener
□ c. Pneumatic gy (potential + kinetic) of a gas in a
□ d. Dynamic pneumatic system always

□ a. fluctuates
□ b. increases
□ c. decreases
□ d. remains constant

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18 Lesson One

OSiOipa|r::;;gi|SiiS^
Pneumatic systems use a gas under pressure
(such as compressed air) to transmit force. A
force is a push or puii exerted on an object to
change its position or movement. The more
work the system does,the more force must be
suppiied.
Force in a pneumatic system is equal to the pres
sure(psi)times the piston area(square inches).
The work done by the piston is equal to the prod
uct of the pounds of force times the distance the
piston travels. Power is the amount of work(foot
pounds)divided by the time it took to do H. Power
is generally measured in horsepower.
The behavior of a gas in a pneumatic system is
described in several weii-known physical laws.
They state that a pressurized gas confined in a
closed container has the following characteris
tics: 1.) it transmits pressure equally in ail direc
tions. 2.) At a constant temperature, its pressure
varies inversely with its volume.3.) At a constant
volume,its pressure varies directly with its tem
perature. 4.) At a constant pressure,its volume
varies directly with its temperature. When you
perform calculations using the equations given in
this Lesson, use absolute temperature and pres
sure, and remember that other factors can affect
the behavior of the gas.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

1-1. b. Perform work. Ret: 1.01 1-6. b. 1132(psig). Ref: 1.25, Rg.1-5

1-2. d. Resistance to movement. 1-7. a. The pressure increases.

Ref: 1.07 Ref: 1.27

1-3. a. Pounds per square inch, gauge. 1-8. c. Pneumatic leverage.

Ref: 1.13 Ref: 1.33, Rg. 1-7

1-4. d. Piston travel. Ref: 1.15, Rg. 1-3 1-9. d. 2 in. Ref: 1.35,1.36

1-5. c. Pneumatic. Ref: 1.19 1-10. d. Remains constant.

Ref: 1.43, Rg. 1-9

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 UNDERSTANDING BASICPNEUMATICS

Lesson Ty\fo

Reciprocating -

Compressors m

tr.

VO:
m--
■*%' fS.

•p:
 Lesson

Reciprocating Compressors

TOPICS

Compressor Operation Horsepower Cooling Requirements

Compressor Classification Compressor Lubrication
Positive-Dlspiacement Compressors Noniubricated Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor Operation Compressor Controls
Single- and Doubie-Acting Compressors Compressor Accessories
Compressor Construction Advantages of Reciprocating Compressors

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Differentiate l^etween a positive-displacement com Identify the cooling arrangements for reciprocating
pressor and a dynamic compressor. compressors.
• Describe the operation of a reciprocating Compare the operation of compressor controls in
compressor. large and small units.
• List one advantage of using a multistage compressor.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Single-acting compressor 2.10 a compressor Counterflow 2.24 heat exchanger design where
that compresses air at only one end of a cylinder cooling water and air flow in opposite directions
Intercooling 2.16 cooling air between compres Parallel flow 2.24 heat exchanger design where
sor stages cooling water and air flow in the same direction
Aftercooling 2.16 cooling air after it leaves the Unloading 2.32 relieving all intemal pressure
compressor from the compressor

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Before air can be used to perform work in a pneumatic system it must be given
potentiai energy in the form of pressure. The compressor takes air in at atmos
pheric pressure and reduces its voiume,thus increasing its pressure.
industry uses many types of air compressors. Compressors are ciassified by
construction, pressure, and appiication requirements. This Lesson describes
the different types of reciprocating compressors and the ways in which they
operate. Some of the operational problems that occur with reciprocating com
pressors also occur with other types of compressors. Other compressors are
discussed in the next Lesson.
Compressor Operation
2.01 An air compressor functions by creating a
partial vacuum at its inlet. This causes air at atmos
pheric pressure to flow through the inlet filter into the
compressor. The compressor reduces the air's volume,
increasing air pressure. The compressed air flows
through the compressor discharge valves into a stor
age tank. The compressor operates only when tank
pressure is low. When tank pressure reaches a preset
pressure level, the compressor shuts off. Air is pre
vented from flowing back through the compressor by
the discharge valves.
2.02 Air lines connect the storage tank to the loca
tions where compressed air is used. When line pres
sure is lower than tank pressure, air flows into the air
line. When pressure is equalized between the air lines
and the tank, no more air will flow into the lines. At
this point the system is "charged up."
2.03 A compressor with a capacity only slightly
above the pressure requirements of the system is
selected to eliminate unnecessary work. In this way,
the compressor operates only during short periods of
time when the pressure drops or when the system is
started up. The system pressure can drop below set
pressure when more air is used than the compressor
has been delivering. During this time a compressor
delivers replacement air instead of rebuilding the sup
ply pressure.
Compressor Classification
2.04 Compressors can be classified into two sep
arate types, positive displacement and dynamic.
The two types differ in their basic principle of
operation. Positive-displacement compressors con
fine the air within a closed space and compress it
by decreasing the volume of the space. By contrast.
TMainatsrialbpiDMctadbyU.S.CepyrigMlaw. Copymg by any optkal,«leeMnic, or oSwrmMmbiOegal without p«ani3«ian.
21
dynamic compressors accelerate the air with rapid
ly turning rotor blades. This increase in airflow
causes the air pressure to be raised slightly. Each
type of compressor can be further classified by its
construction.
. Positive-Displacement Compressors
2.05 Positive-displacement compressors that are
capable of compressing air to comparatively high
pressures are commonly used in pneumatic power
systems. These may be reciprocating piston, rotary
sliding vane, hehcal screw, liquid piston, impeller, or
diaphragm-type compressors. All of these compres
sors except the reciprocating compressor will be
described in Lesson Three.
Reciprocating Compressor Operation
2.06 Reciprocating compressors are manufactured
in many varieties, and are usually driven by electric
motors. The motors can be connected to the compres
sor directly or by V-belts or speed reducers. In some
older installations, compressors are driven by a recip
rocating steam engine. Portable compressors and
many large compressors are driven by internal com
bustion engines. Regardless of the type of compressor
in the plant, it is important to keep on file detailed
specifications and test data for the prime mover and
the compressor itself.
2.07 A reciprocating or piston compressor, as
shown in Fig. 2-1 on the following page, operates in
the following manner: The compressor crankshaft is
rotated or driven by an electric motor or other prime
mover. The crankshaft and connecting rod convert
this rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The pis
ton is attached to the connecting rod by a pin, which
permits independent movement of the piston and
connecting rod. The piston is moved back and forth
Fig. 2-1. A reciprocating compressor while the piston travels in and out. The head end of
the cylinder is closed and contains the intake and dis
charge valves.

2.08 As the piston moves back (or toward the

crankshaft) it creates enough negative pressure to per
mit air at atmospheric pressure to open the valves and
push air into the expanding space. As the piston com
Piston pin pletes its stroke and starts returning, the intake valves
close. As the piston returns, it compresses the air in
Connecting the cylinder. When it has almost completed its stroke,
rod it has compressed the air to a pressure high enough to
force the discharge valves open. Air discharged from
the cylinder at this point is at the discharge pressure
of the compressor.

2.09 Intake and discharge valve, shown in Fig. 2-2,

Crankshaft
in the cylinder by the connecting rod and rotating
crankshaft. The rod end of the cylinder is open,
allowing the connecting rod to move back and forth
may be of the feather, disk (or plate), or channel
design. The construction of each valve diifers slightly,
but the operation of all is similar. Valve parts include a
valve seat, movable valve, and guard or stop plate. The
movable valve is frequently held against the seat by a
spring. During operation the spring holds the valve in

Fig. 2-2. Three types of compressor air valves

Channel

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 Reciprocating Compressors 23

contact with the seat. As the air is compressed in the Fig. 2-3. Single- and double-acting com
cylinder, it forces the valve open, and air discharges to pressor cylinder arrangements
the receiver. When the piston reverses its stroke, the
spring and discharge pressure close the valve, prevent
ing air from returning to the cylinder.

Single- and Doubie-Acting Compressors

2.10 Compressors classified according to their A. Single acting

of>eration include single or double acting, and single
Valves rCrosshead-
stage or multistage. A compressor that compresses air
at only one end of a cylinder, as in Fig. 2-3A, is called
a single-acting compressor. A compressor that com
presses air at both ends of a cylinder, as in Fig. 2-3B,
is called a double-acting or crosshead compressor.
B. Double acting or crosshead

2.11 In a crosshead compressor, the connecting

rod is linked to the piston through a crosshead and
piston rod arrangement. The rod end of the cylinder
can be sealed off, allowing the piston to compress air
in both ends of the cylinder. The crosshead supports
the piston rod and keeps it aligned in the center of the
cylinder seal. The suction valves and discharge valves
are usually mounted on the side of the cylinder
instead of on the top as they are on the single-acting
compressor.
2.12 The terms single-stage or multistage describe
the number of steps (stages) that a reciprocating com
pressor uses to compress air to its final pressure. A
compressor that draws in air at atmospheric pressure
and compresses it to its final pressure in one stroke, as
in Fig. 2-4A, is called a single-stage compressor. A
compressor that draws in air at atmospheric pressure
and compresses it in two or more strokes (Fig. 2-4B),
is called a multistage compressor. A simple multistage
compressor can be constructed with two or three
cylinders, each with a different piston diameter.
2.13 Single-stage compressors are more economi
cal for pressures below 100 psi, but multistage com
pressors are more economical to operate when the
compressor's rated pressure is higher than 100 psi.
The operating time of the compressor must also be
taken into account. Single-stage compressors can be
used economically at pressures up to 125 psi when
operated about two hours a day. Multistage compres
sors are recommended for 80 to 100 psig operation

Fig. 2-4. Single-stage and multistage compressors

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24 Lesson Two

2.17 Compressors themselves can also be cooled.

Compressor cooling is accomplished with either
Table 2-1. Approxunate horsepower
(100f^/min delivery rate) water or air depending on the application. Air cooling
is less costly initially because less equipment is need
Piessure(psi) Horsepower
ed, But water cooling is more economical because it
Single-stage 60 16 is more efficient. Air cooling generally limited to
80 20
100 22
smaller compressors(below 25 hp)and water cooling
to the larger units.
Two-stage 60 15
80 17
100 19
2.18 A typical two-stage, air-cooled compressor is
125 21 shown Fig. 2-6A. It has a large first-stage cylinder
and a small second-stage cylinder. The cooling fins on
the cylinder walls and head improve the umt's effi
ciency. They are part of the cylinder and head them
for 8 to 10 hours a day and for 60 to 80 psig opera selves. In this way, the heat from within the cylinder
tion for 12 to 24 hours a day. Table 2-1 the horse is conducted directly to the cooling surfaces. Heat
power requirements of single-stage and multistage fi'om the fins is then transmitted to the surrounding air
compressors. by convection and radiation.

Compressor Construction 2.19 A typical two-stage, water-cooled compressor

2.14 Reciprocating compressors are also identified
by the way their cylinders are arranged, as shown in
Fig. 2-5. These include: Vertical, V or Y, W,Horizon
tal, Angle or L, and Semiradial. Double-acting com
pressors are manufactured in most of the arrange
ments shown, but single-acting compressors are usu
ally made only in the first three arrangements.
Horsepower Cooling Requirements
2.15 As you read in Lesson One, when air is com
pressed, its temperature increases. Table 2-1 indicates
that 22 hp are needed to produce 100 ft^ of com
pressed air at 100 psi in one minute in a one-cylinder,
single-stage compressor. Simultaneously, the air tem
perature inside the compressor would rise to about
400°F. If, also during one minute, this amount of air
were compressed in two stages instead of one, and if
the air were cooled between the first and second
stage, only 19 hp would be required.
2.16 Less power is needed to compress the air
because cooling between stages reduces the volume
of air that is compressed in the second stage. When a
compressor has more than one stage, air is usually
cooled after it has been discharged from the first stage
and before it is compressed in the next stage. This is
called intercooling. If the air is cooled after it leaves
the compressor,it is said to pass through an afiervool-
er. These devices are discussed later.
Thtonatorinltaprotoet«lbyU.S.Copytighllaw. Copying by Miyop«iaJ.oloetrc*iie; or ofhormoaw to Bagal without pomteton.
is also shown in Fig. 2-6B. Note the water passages
cast into the cylinders and heads of the compressor.
This two-stage compressor has one large first-stage
cylinder on each side of the compressor,and a slightly
smaller second-stage cylinder in the middle. Heat
generated within the cylinder is conducted directly to
the water in the passages.
2.20 The two-stage, water-cooled compressor in
Fig. 2-6 is also furnished with an intercooler mount
ed between the first and second stages to cool the air
between stages. Several types of intercoolers are
manufactured for compressors. They may be air
cooled or water cooled, depending on the compressor
application.
2.21 Air-cooled intercoolers usually consist of one
or more lengths of finned tubing, as in Fig. 2-7 on
page 26, connecting the first and second stages of the
compressor. Hot compressed air passing through the
tube gives up its heat to the tubing, which in turn
transfers it to the cooling fins. Because the fins spread
the heat over a larger suiface area, the transfer rate is
much better than with the small surface area of the
tube alone.
2.22 The amount of cooling obtained depends on
the amount and temperature of the compressed air, the
length of tubing, the number of fins, and the tempera
ture and speed of the cooling air moving over the tub
ing. To aid in transferring the heat from the tubes.
 Reciprocating Compressors 25

Fig. 2-5. Types of reciprocating compressor construction

Vertical

Fig. 2-6. Two-stage air compressors

A. Air coo ed

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most air-cooled compressors have a fan mounted on Fig. 2-7. Intercoolers
the compressor crankshaft. This fan is usually cast as
a part of the compressor flywheel, and it forces air
over the fins while the compressor is running.

2.23 The water-cooled intercooler in Fig. 2-7 is

simply a shell-and-tube heat exchanger consisting of a
bundle of tubes mounted in a shell. Cooling water is
connected to pass through the shell, and compressed
air is connected to flow through the tubes. The hot
discharge air transfers its heat to the tubes and then to
the water. Some heat exchangers are connected in the
opposite manner, with the water running through the Air coo ed
tubes and the air passing through the shell.

2.24 Whatever arrangement is used, the fluid and

gas usually flow in opposite directions, commonly
described as counterflow. Air entering the heat
exchanger is cooled by liquid that is leaving. As the air
moves further through the heat exchanger, it is cooled
by cooler water. Finally, just before the air leaves the
heat exchanger, it is being cooled by the inlet water
just entering the heat exchanger. This is a more effi
cient way of transferring heat than parallel flow,
where the water and air flow in the same direction.
Intercooer
Liquid cooled
2.25 As in air cooling, the amount of heat trans
ferred in the heat exchanger depends on the amount of
air cooled, the amount of water used, how hot the air
is, how cool the water is, and the size of the heat Fig. 2-8. Air-cooled liquid radiator
exchanger. Caution must be used with a water-cooled
intercooler. The air must not be cooled to a tempera
ture where the water vapior in the air condenses. If it is,
water forming in the intercooler can be carried into the
compressor high-pressure stage and cause damage.

2.26 If a suitable supply of cooling water is not

available, and air cooling is not sufficient, a water-
cooled compressor can be used in combination with a
water-cooled intercooler and air-cooled water radiator,
as in Fig. 2-8. Cooling water from the compressor is
circulated through a finned cooling radiator like the
one used in automobiles. Air is blown through the
radiator by a fan to remove the heat from the water.
The amoimt of cooling obtained in the compressor and
the intercooler depends on the amount of heat that can
be removed by the air-cooled radiator. The amoimt of
heat removed depends on the size of the radiator, the
temperature difference between the cooling water and
the air, the flow rate of cooling water, and the amount
of cooling air forced through the radiator.
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27 Programmed Exercises

2-1. As a compressor increases the air pres 2-1. VOLUME

sure. it also reduces the air
Ref: 2.01

2-2. What are the two classifications of air 2-2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT.
compressors when distinguished by DYNAMIC
their operating principles?
Ref: 2.04

2-3. Name the two methods used to 2-3. DIRECT DRIVEN, V-BELT DRIVEN
connect the compressor drive to the
compressor. Ref: 2.06

2-4. The movable part of a discharge valve 2-4. SPRING

is held in place by afnl
Ref: 2.09, Fig. 2-2

2-5. A compressor that compresses air in 2-5. MULTISTAGE

more than one step is called a(n)
comoressor. Ref: 2.12, Fig. 2-4

2-6. Cooling the air between stages in a 2-6. HORSEPOWER

multistage compressor reduces the
reouirements. Ref: 2.15,2.16

2-7. Water-cooled intercoolers are usually 2-7. SHELL-AND-TUBE

heat exchanaers.
Ref: 2.23

2-8. The most efficient and commonly 2-8. COUNTERFLOW

found flow arrangement in a water-
cooled intercooler is Ref: 2.24

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28 Lesson Two
Compressor Lubrication
2.21 Proper compressor lubrication is very
important if the compressor is to have an efficient
service life. Because of the large amount of heat
generated in a compressor, the working surfaces of
the compressor must be protected with the proper
lubricating oil. All manufacturers recommend the
type and viscosity of oil to be used in their com
pressors. If the oil is too thin, it will not lubricate
properly and much of it will be carried away in the
compressed air. If it is too thick, it will not flow
properly and parts of the compressor will not be
lubricated sufficiently.
2.28 The two primary functions of compressor
lubricating oil are to reduce friction and to improve
the transfer of heat in the compressor. That is why
there are two kinds of lubrication in reciprocating
compressors: crankcase lubrication and cylinder-
wall (or piston-ring) lubrication. Each of these
types performs separate functions: crankcase lubri
cation oils all of the rotating parts in the lower por
tion of the compressor; cylinder-wall lubrication
prevents the piston rings from wearing, and
removes heat.
2.29 Compressor lubrication is usually accom
plished by splash or pressurized lubrication methods.
Many compressors rely on both of these methods at
the same time. The most common is splash lubrica
tion. Splash-lubricated reciprocating compressors
have dippers on the connecting rods that scoop lube
oil out of the crankcase. This oil is forced through
drilled oil passages in the connecting rods to the com
pressor bearings. The spray and fog created also lubri
cate the cylinder walls and piston rings.
2.30 Large or heavy-duty compressors rely main
ly on pressurized lubrication. Pressurized systems
use a gear pump to force oil through drilled passages
to bearings and pistons. In addition, some pressur
ized oil is sprayed onto the cylinder walls. Pressur
ized oil systems provide a more positive means of
lubrication, and they can also meter the oil to ensure
proper distribution. To ensure a proper oil condition
many large compressors have thermometers for mea
suring oil temperature and also heat exchangers for
cooling the oil when necessary. Many compressors
are also equipped with low oil pressure shut-off
switches.
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Noniubricated Compressors
2.31 If oil-free air is required, compressors are
used that require no lubrication or have only well-iso
lated bearing lubrication. Noniubricated compressors
are manufactured in both reciprocating piston and
rotary types. Reciprocating compressors ordinarily
have graphite- or Teflon®»-coated piston rings to seal
the cylinder. Small compressors use ringless pistons.
Bearings may be provided with oil seals to prevent
lubricating oil from getting into the air that is being
compressed.
Compressor Controls
2.32 When the compressor starts up, various elec
trical and pneumatic controls must operate. The larger
the compressor and pneumatic system, the more con
trols used. If an electric motor drives the compressor,
it must be started through a suitable electrical switch
without causing an overload. On large compressors,
this can only be done by unloading the compressor
(relieving all internal pressure) so it does not com
press air and is easier to start. When the compressor is
turning at sufdcient speed, the unloading controls are
deenergized, allowing the compressor to load up and
compress air. Small compressors usually do not
require cylinder unloading and are provided only with
a holding-type starting control and a high-starting-
torque motor.
2.33 Electrical and pneumatic controls used for
starting and stopping the compressor may also be
used to change compressor output. Controlling the
compressor operation to maintain a constant pressure
in the system can be done in several ways, as
described in the following paragraphs.
2.34 In small compressors up to 25 hp,system pres
sure is usually maintained by starting or stopping the
compression. When air is needed to raise the pressure
of the system, the compressor starts up. When the line
pressure is high enough, the compressor shuts off.
Starting and stopping are accomplished with a
diaphragm- or bellows-operated pressure switch that
starts the compressor motor whenever the air tank pres
sure drops below a preset cut-in pressure. When the
tank pressure reaches the preset cut-out pressure on the
switch, the motor stops. The switches are usually snap-
acting,to protect tiieir contacts from excessive wear.
 Reciprocating Compressors 29

2.38 On some reciprocating compressors, the

Fig. 2-9. Air-operated unloading valve
unloader pilot valve acts on the inlet valve of the com
pressor. By this method the compressor is prevented
form taking in any air, and no compressed air is deliv
Pilot air
ered to the system. When unloading the inlet valves, a
compressor may draw lubricating oil from the sump
into the system.

2.39 Compressors may also be equipped with a

mechanical centrifugal pressure release, which oper
ates independendy of the pressure switch that starts and
stops the compressor. When the compressor stops,
Actual pressure is vented from the compressor and any lines or
piston accessories ahead of the discharge line check valve.
During startup, the pressure release vents the compres
Unloading
fingers
sor until the proper rpm is reached. The release then
hliTiTfiilliiiTfliBj closes and the compressor delivers compressed air.

2.40 Other types of compressors use a hydraulic or

2.35 When two or more small compressors are
used in an installation to supply the volume of air
required, they can be started or stopped in any manner
to maintain system pressure. For example, they may
alternate (if more than two are used). Or, one may be
used all of the time, with the others being used when
high flow is needed. The variations of starting and
stopping are determined by the application and the air
requirements.
2.36 Another method of controlling pressure is
through the use of suction unloader valves. This is
done as follows. The unloader pilot valve (Fig. 2-9) is
connected to the air tank of the system and to the
unloading mechanism as shown. When the air tank
pressure reaches the set pressure on the pilot valve,
the pilot opens, pressurizing the space above an
unloading diaphragm or piston. The unloader piston
pushes the multifingered plimger down, opening the
suction valve. With the suction valve in the open posi
tion, air is circulated within the compressor, but is not
delivered to the system.
2.37 When the air pressure is reduced in the sys
tem, the pilot valve closes and exhausts the space
above the diaphragm. The safety spring raises the
unloader diaphragm and piston, and the discharge
valve again allows the compressor to deliver com
pressed air to the system. An electrically operated
solenoid valve may be used to unload the compressor
during startup.
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magnetic (electric) release imloader in place of a cen
trifugal pressure release. A hydraulic unloader operates
off the lubricating oil pressure. When the compressor
stops, or while it is starting up, a simple, normally open
three-way valve remains open, permitting system air to
hold the discharge valves open. When sufficient oil
pressure builds up, the three-way valve is closed and
air pressure is discharged to the receiver.
2.41 An electric or magnetic unloader operates by
means of a solenoid valve. The solenoid coil is deen-
ergized when the compressor motor stops at the end
of its pumping cycle. A normally open three-way
valve opens, permitting system air pressure to unload
the compressor as previously described. When the
compressor motor is started, the solenoid coil is ener
gized and the three-way valve slowly vents the
unloading system,loading the compressor.
2.42 Another type of magnetic unloader operates a
two-way valve, venting air pressure from a section of
piping between the compressor and the discharge
check valve. In this way, when the compressor is
starting, it does not have to immediately work against
high pressure in the discharge line.
2.43 Compressor output may also be varied by
changing the speed of the compressor. This is accom
plished by changing the speed of its prime mover.
However, it is usually more economical to use an
unloading mechanism, or simply to start and stop the
compressor. Usually, on-off controls are used when
30 Lesson Two
adequate air storage is available and the air require
ment is less than 75% of the deliveiy capacity of the
compressor.
Compressor Accessories
2.44 Other compressor accessory equipment
includes pressure gauges, safety devices, controls, ther
mometers, oil filters, cooling water controls, belt drives,
flywheels, pulleys, guards for moving parts, and,some
times,flexible discharge pipes.
2.45 An intake filter is an essential part of every
compressor. An intake filter removes the dirt from the
air and protects the moving parts of the compressor.
Filters are discussed in more detail in Lesson Four
and Five.
2.46 An oil-pressure safety device furnished with
many compressors is connected to the lubricating oil
system. Some devices unload the compressor when
ever lubricating oil pressures are below a predeter
mined level. If very low or no oil pressure exists, the
Thto inataiiiil b piotoctod by U.S.Copyright low. Copying by any eptieai,01001101110, or elhor moans bHogalwtVioutpennbsicn.
compressor will shut down. On nonpressuiized com
pressors, a warning light may be tumed on by a low-
oil-level switch when the oil level in the compressor
drops too low.
2.47 Most small and medium-size compressors
come equipped with air tanks, intake filters, pressure
regulators, intercoolers or aftercoolers, automatic
starting controls, and fittings and piping required to
make a complete package. Large compressors may
have some of these components mounted on them, but
usually the components are a part of the distribution
system in a plant.
Advantages of Reciprocating Compressors
2.48 Because of their all-around advantages, recip
rocating compressors are widely used in industrial
pneumatic power systems. These advantages include
good compression ratios, variety of sizes, low operat
ing cost, and high output in fl^/min/hp. They also can
be shut off or unloaded completely when their capaci
ty is not needed.
 Reciprocating Compressors 31

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32 Programmed Exercises

2-9. Cylinder-wall lubrication prevents piston 2-9. REMOVES HEAT

rings from wearing, and
Ref: 2.28

2-10. The two basic methods used to iubri- 2-10. SPLASH,PRESSURIZED

cate a compressor are iubri-
cation and iubrication. Ref: 2.29

2-11. The lubrication method that is used for 2-11. PRESSURIZED

heavy-duty compressors Is
Ref: 2.30

2-12. If oil-free air is required, compressors 2-12. NO; WELL-ISOLATED BEARING

are used that require lubrica
tion or have only lubrication. Ref: 2.31

2-13. A large compressor is started only 2-13. UNLOADED

when the compressor is
Ref: 2.32

2-14. PRESSURE SWITCH,SUCTION

UNLOADER VALVES,CENTRIFUGAL
2-14. Name at least two devices used to con
PRESSURE RELEASE, HYDRAULIC
trol pressure in a compressor. UNLOADER,ELECTRIC or MAGNET
IC UNLOADER
Ref: 2.34-2.41

2-15. An altemate way of causing compres 2-15. SPEED

sor output to vary is to change the
of the comoressor. Ref: 2.43

2-16. GOOD COMPRESSION RATIOS,

2-16. Name at least two advantages of VARIETY OF SIZES, LOW OPERAT
reciprocating compressors. ING COST,AND HIGH OUTPUT IN
FT3/MIN/HP.
Ref: 2.48

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 Self-Check Quiz 33

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

2-1. To be efficient, a positive displacement com 2-6. Of what benefit is the use of an intercooier in
pressor must decrease the air's a multistage compressor?

□ a. density □ a. Increases receiver capacity

□ b. temperature □ b. Decreases receiver capacity
□ c. pressure □ c. Increases horsepower requirements
□ d. volume □ d. Decreases horsepower requirements

2-2. Dynamic compressors increase air pressure 2-7. Air-cooled compressors are usually construct
by ed with

□ a. accelerating the air □ a. oversized pistons

□ b. reducing volume □ b. large oil reservoirs
□ c. increasing temperature □ c. cooling fins
□ d. using rotary screws □ d. positive fan cooling

2-3. The discharge valves of a compressor are 2-8. Water or liquid intercooiers are usually pat-
opened by temed after which of the following?

□ a. finger springs □ a. Finned radiators

□ b. disc springs □ b. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers
□ c. compressed air □ c. Evaporative coolers
□ d. suction pressure □ d. Automotive radiator

2-4. In which of the following ways are discharge 2-9. What lubrication method is used for heavy-
valves closed? duty compressors?

□ a. Gravity □ a. Gravity
□ b. Piston linkage □ b. Splash
□ c. Electrical impulse □ c. Pressurized
□ d. Spring action □ d. Brush

2-5. In multistage compressors, the required air 2-10. When a compressor is relieved of ail intemal
pressure is created by compressing the air in pressure, it is said to be

□ a. two or more unequal cylinders □ a. atmospheric ported

□ b. a double-acting compressor □ b. in neutral
□ c. one step □ c. safety vented
□ d. two or more equal cylinders □ d. unloaded

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34 Lesson Two

f'' ',, j" 'ri:ii:T:i!-^ m

Compressors are classified first by their method iarger units are generaiiy water cooied. Air can be
of operation,as either positive displacement or cooied between compressor stages by means of
dynamic. Compressors are aiso ciassified accord an intercooier, or after leaving the compressor, by
ing to whether they are single or double acting: passing through an aftercooier. intercooiers may
single stage or multistage; and according to their be air or water cooied.
arrangement of cyiinders.
The service life of a compressor is iargeiy depen
Both air and the compressor itseif must be cooied dent on proper lubrication.The iarge amount of
to prevent excessiveiy high internai temperatures. heat generated in a compressor makes proper
Smaii compressors are usuaiiy air cooied, whiie iubrication of the unit's working services essentiai.

Answers to Seif-Check Quiz

2-1. d. 2-6. d. Decreases horsepower

requirements. Ref:2.16
2-2. a
2-7. 0. Cooling fins. Ret: 2.18, Rg.2-6
2-3. c.

2-8. b. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers.

2-4. d. Ref: 2.23, Rg.2-7

2-5. a. 2-9. c. Pressurized. Ref: 2.30

Ret:2.12, Rg.2-4
2-10. d. Unloaded. Ref: 2.32

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 2-1. Quincy Compressor Oiv., Colt Industries Rgure 2-7. Quincy Compressor Div., Colt Industries Gardner-
Rgure 2-2. Gardner-Denver Co. Ingersoil-Rand Co. Denver Co.
Rgure 2-5. Quincy Compressor Div., Colt Industries Ingersotl- Rgure 2-8. Gardner-Denver Co.
Rand Co. Curtis Mfg. Co. Rgure 2-9. Ingersotl-Rand Co.
Rgure 2-6. Gardner-Denver Co. Quincy Compressor Div., Colt
Industries

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UNDERSTANDING BASICPNEUMATICS

Lesson Three

Ro^ry
Compressors

s* 3

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Rotary Compressors

TOPICS

Compressor Classification Axial-Flow Compressors

Vane Compressors Compressor Selection
Rotary-Screw Compressors System Capacity Requirements
Low-Pressure High-Voiume Compressors Compressor Capacity
Diaphragm Compressors Checking Compressor Capacity
Dynamic Compressors Accessories
Centrifugal Compressors Packaged Compressors

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Compare the power output of a single-stage vs a two- Describe four methods of controlling centrifugal com
stage vane compressor. pressor output.
• Describe the main types of positive-displacement Tell how to compensate for a low-speed drive in
rotary air compressors. rotary screw compressors.
• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of both
types of dynamic compressors.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Positive-displacement compressor 3.01 a com Acfm 3.34 actual cubic feet per minute;
pressor with mechanically separated inlet and compressor capacity measured at the intake
discharge ports when installed
Dynamic compressor 3.01 a compressor with no Scfm 3.34 standard cubic feet per minute; com
method of separating inlet and discharge ports; pressor capacity specified at standard intake
permit free passage of air when not running conditions
Impeller (or blower) 3.15 a type of compressor
designed for high air volume rather than high
pressure

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Although compressed air (over 100 psi) Is commonly used In Industry, many
plants use air at 50 to 75 psI, but require moderate to high flows. Some applica
tions require In air pressure of only 5 to 15 psi, but the air must be available in
large quantities, it would be wasteful and expensive to compress air to a high
pressure, and then reduce It to a lower level for low- or moderate-pressure
applications.

Low-pressure applications are often referred to as process applications. Exam

ples are cooling, heating, moving bulk materials, and aiding combustion.
Rotary-type compressors are usually used for such applications. Some types
are designed to supply large quantities of air at medium pressure, while others
supply only low-pressure process air. This Lesson covers the construction and
operating principles of rotary compressors.

Compressor Classification Each of these air compressors is discussed in more

3.01 Lesson Two pointed out that compressors are
classified as two separate types—positive displace
ment and dynamic. Rotary compressors with mechan
ically separated inlet and discharge ports are classi
fied as positive displacement. Dynamic compressors,
on the other hand, have no method of separating the
inlet and discharge ports, and permit free passage of
air when they are not running.
3.02 Positive-displacement rotary air compressors
include: sliding vane, dry screw, wet screw, liquid
ring, and impeller or lobe types. Dynamic compres
sors include centrifugal and axial flow types that are
similar to liquid pumps. Dynamic compressors use
several stages or steps, each consisting of an indepen
dent impeller, to achieve their operating pressures.
detail in this Lesson.
Vane Compressors
3.03 The sliding-vane compressor shown in Fig. 3-1
is a rotary, positive-displacement type of compressor.
This compressor is a compact unit. Although it is less
efficient than a piston compressor, it is still more effi
cient than any other rotary compressor. Sliding-vane
compressors closely resemble vane pumps, but they are
larger devices. The compressor consists of a rotor with
radial slots mounted off-center in a round casing. The
rotor is equipped with rectangular vanes that are placed
in the slots. As the rotor turns, the negative pressure
created by the vanes causes air to be drawn through the
inlet into the compressor. As the rotor continues to
turn, the vanes confine the air in a space that gets pro-

Fig. 3-1. A sliding-vane compressor

Second stage

Wi
First stage

Intercooer

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Fig. 3-2. A dry rotary-screw compressor
gressively smaller. Therefore, as the vanes approach the
discharge portion of the casing, the air is compressed.
It is then discharged to the receiver through the dis
charge port.
3.04 Single-stage vane compressors are capable of
developing up to 50 psi discharge pressure. Although
this is suitable for some applications, it may be low
for others. If higher pressure is needed, a two-stage
model is used. Two-stage compressors are capable of
pressures up to 125 psi. They may have a common
Fig. 3-3. A wet rotary-screw compressor
II
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drive shaft and be enclosed in a common housing, or
they may be independent units positioned on either
side of a common drive motor. Many two-stage com
pressors are also furnished with an intercooler (air or
water) between stages.
3.05 Vane compressors are smaller in physical size
than piston compressors having comparable discharge
pressure and flow capabilities. However, their operat
ing efficiency is also slightly lower. At 100 psi they
deliver slightly less than 4 cfm per hp, compared to
approximately 5 cffn per hp for piston compressors.
Their delivery in cfm per hp is higher than that of
dynamic compressors. Because most vane compres
sors operate at motor speeds of 1200 to 1800 rpm,
pressurized lubrication is required for the bearings
and other rotating parts.
Rotary-Screw Compressors
3.06 The dry rotary-screw positive-displacement
compressor shown in Fig. 3-2 is as compact as a rotary
compressor. At the same time, it provides more con
stant pressure than can be obtained from a piston com
pressor. The design of rotary-screw compressors is
quite different from that of other compressors. They
are constructed with two rotors; one with a concave
(female) profile and the other with a convex (male)
profile. The rotors may or may not have the same
number of lobes or blades, depending on the manufac
turer. The rotors are made of steel, aluminum alloys,
or other high-strength metals. The rotors mesh with an
approximate 0.003 in. (three one thousandths of an
 Rotary Compressors 39

inch) clearance between them. The rotors are driven, is sprayed into the inlet chamber and is carried along
and prevented from touching by a set of timing gears. by the air. The oil remains liquid as it passes through
the compressor, and is separated by the receiver or an
3.07 As the rotors revolve, a negative-pressure area oil separator.
is created at the inlet allowing air to be drawn into the
casing. Air entering the inlet is then trapped between 3.11 Both wet and dry rotary-screw compressors
the rotors and the casing. As the male and female are driven at high speeds. Where electric motors or
rotors mesh, the air is carried along in a progressively other lower-speed drives are used, a speed increaser is
smaller space until it is discharged. Successive pock used to bring the compressor up to an efficient operat
ets of air are picked up, compressed, and discharged ing range.
in this manner. Each cavity completes its discharge as
the following cavity begins discharging. This provides 3.12 The liquid-ring compressor (shown in Fig.
a smooth, continuous, and shock-free flow of air. 3-4) is a different type of rotary compressor.
Although it appears similar to a vane compressor, it
3.08 Single-stage compressors are powered by is quite different. The main components include a
motors as large as 75 hp, and produce approximately casing, an off-center drive shaft, a rotor with fixed
300 cfm at 50 psi. Two-stage compressors have small blades, and a liquid (usually water). During opera-
er second-stage screws fed by a direct flow passage lion the liquid is carried around the inside of the cas
from the first-stage discharge port. The second stage ing by the rotor blades. As the rotor turns, the liquid
may be driven directly from the drive source or from follows the contours of the casing. Because the rotor
the first-stage blower. The pressure range is about 150 and casing are not centered, the liquid forms a flexi
psi for two-stage compressors and 250 psi for three- ble interior compression chamber. As the rotor
stage compressors. Usually there is no intercooler, but blades pass the inlet port, air is drawn into the com
water-cooled or air-cooled intercoolers and screw pressor by the increasing size of the fluid-formed
compressors are available for various dry-type mod chamber. The chamber size begins to decrease near
els. Unlike piston or reciprocating compressors, screw the compressor outlet, and the air is discharged
compressors operate at speeds between 3000 and where the chamber is smallest.
12,000 rpm. Because of the high speeds, screw com
pressors are kept running continuously. When the sys 3.13 Liquid-ring compressors have capacities of
tem has reached its maximum pressure, the discharge up to 5000 cfm at 75 psi in single-stage models. The
line is unloaded by diverting compressed air back to same models can produce up to 10,000 cfm, but at
the atmosphere. lower pressure ranges (about 15 psi). Higher pres
sures, above 75 psi, can also be obtained, but at the
3.09 Dry rotary-screw compressors are generally
used in pneumatic power systems where comparative
ly large amounts of oil-fi^ee air are needed. They can
Fig. 3-4. A liquid-ring compressor
also supply large quantities of air at 80 to 120 psi and
use less floor space than a piston compressor. Dry
Compression
rotary-screw compressors are more economical to
Inlet port sector
install than a piston compressor, but have lower dis _Rotating liquid
(inlet sector) compressant
placements(3^2 to 33/4) cfm per hp and higher operat
ing costs. The close tolerances between the rotors and Discharge port
(Discharge
the casing, and their wedgelike action make them sus sector)
ceptible to dirt. Therefore, they must be well protect
ed by intake filters. Discharge j
port
(Discharge'
3.10 The wet rotary-screw compressor is similar in sector)
Inlet port
design and construction to the dry rotary-screw com
(Inlet sector)
pressor. However, as shown in Fig. 3-3, the wet type Compression
sector
does not use timing gears. One lobe powers the other.
To prevent wear, and also reduce air temperature, oil
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Fig. 3-5. One type of impeller compressor
Discharge
Impeliers—
cost of a reduction in capacity. Because they deliver
oil-free and dust-free air, these compressors have
been found to be very efficient for instrument and
control air. The cooling effect of the liquid on the air
being compressed contributes to their efficiency. Any
contaminated air entering the fluid chamber deposits
the contaminants on the surface of the liquid. TTie liq
uid remains sealed in the compressor, but can be
drained and flushed as required.
3.14 Liquid-ring compressors are usually directly
connected to an electric motor having nonnal motor
speeds of either 1750 or 3500 rpm. If a different com
pressor speed is required, it can be obtained through
the use of V-belts or speed reducers. Although these
compressors are compact in size, they are not as effi
cient as other types. Their capacity rating is approxi
mately 2 cfm per hp at 75 psi.
Low-Pressure High-Volume Compressors
3.15 The impeller compressor shown in Fig. 3-5 is
a low-pressure compressor. These compressors are
often referred to as blowers because they are designed
for high volume rather than high pressure. The units
are made up of a housing and two interlocking, timed,
gear-driven impellers. The impellers may have two,
three, or four lobes. The lobes can be straight, or have
a slight twist or helical configuration. The twist
smooths out the pressure pulsations at this discharge
point. The timing gears prevent the lobes from ever
coming in contact.
This material i» pioteciMj by U. S. CopyngH low
External
gears
3.16 Their operation can be compared to that of a
gear pump. As the impellers rotate, they create a
negative pressure at the intake, which draws air into
the housing. As they revolve, the impellers carry the
air along between the lobe and housing, toward the
discharge port. As the lobes mesh, the air is
squeezed out the discharge port. The impellers are
machined to very close tolerances, and have only
0.003 to 0.006 in. of clearance between them. To be
efficient, they must be operated at the recommended
rpm.
3.17 These compressors handle relatively large
amounts of air at pressures up to 10 psi. If higher
pressures are required, a second stage can be added to
increase the discharge pressure to 30 psi. Because of
their low pressure output, they are not often used in
pneumatic power systems. They are used to provide
process or instrument air whenever larger quantities at
lower pressures are required. The impellers require no
lubrication because they do not touch each other. In
addition, the air temperature does not increase much
and the unit therefore requires little or no cooling.
Diaphragm Compressors
3.18 Diaphragm compressors are used for many
different light-duty applications, and are classed as
positive-displacement compressors. The diaphragm of
the compressor, like the one shown in Fig. 3-6, is usu
ally connected to an eccentric drive by a piston and
connecting-rod arrangement.
Copying by any optical, electronic, or oVter means is ilegaJ wHhoul pecmraon.

Fig. 3-6. A diaphragm compressor
Valve plate
Diaphragm
Bearing
Eccentric drive
3.19 The diaphragm is made of a flexible, rein
forced rubber type material that is oil- and moisture-
resistant. The drive eccentric is fitted with a prelubri-
cated seal-for-life bearing. As the piston or diaphragm
plate travels downward, the diaphragm flexes inward.
Thismal«nal>ap(Ol»«edby U. S. Copyiight l»w. Copying by any
Rotary Compressors 41
drawing air into the pumping chamber. When the
diaphragm plate reverses its stroke, the diaphragm
flexes outward, forcing air through the discharge
valve. These compressors are not as efficient as other
types, but they do furnish small quantities (1 to 3 cfm)
of air at 30 to 40 psi.
Dynamic Compressors
3.20 Dynamic compressors are designed to deliver
large amounts of air (as high as 100,000 cfm) at pres
sures up to 125 psi. They are used primarily to provide
process air, but may also be used for ventilation. Their
minimum capacity of about 30(X) cfm makes them too
large for most pneumatic power systems. At the same
time, smaller units deliver air at pressures (25 to 30
psi) too low for compressed air systems. These low-
pressure types are usually classified as blowers, rather
than compressors. Dynamic compressors are more
compact and powerful than the blowers or fans used in
heating or ventilating installations, but are less effi
cient and more noisy. The two main types of dynamic
compressors are centrifugal and axial flow.
eioctronk, or other maana is iltegal wilboul permission.
42 Programmed Exercises

3-1. Name the five kinds of positive dis 3-1. SLIDING VANE, DRY SCREW,WET
placement rotary compressor. SCREW,LIQUID RING,IMPELLER

Ref: 3.02

3-2. A single-stage valve compressor can 3-2. 50

normally produce discharge pressures
of psi. Ref: 3.04

3-3. Dry rotary-screw positive-displacement 3-3. TWO

compressors have how many rotors?
Ref: 3.06, Rg.3-2

3-4. Single-stage dry rotary-screw com 3-4. 50

pressors normally produce discharge
pressures of psi. Ref: 3.08

3-5. The mating lobes of a wet rotary-screw 3-5. WITHOUT(One lobe powers the
compressor are driven by the power other).
source timino oears.
Ref: 3.10, Rg.3-3

3-6. The space where the air is com 3-6. LIQUID

pressed in a liquid-ring compressor is
formed by Ref: 3.12, Rg.3-4

3-7. Because of its low discharge pressure, 3-7. BLOWER

an impeller compressor is often
referred to as a Ref: 3.15

3-8. To prevent contact, the impellers of an 3-8. TIMED BY EXTERNAL GEARS

impeller compressor are
Ref: 3.15

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 Rotary Compressors 43

Centrifugal Compressors Fig. 3-7. A centrifugal compressor

3.21 One type of centrifugal compressor is shown

in Fig. 3-7. This is a three-stage compressor, and is
typical of many multistage compressors currently
being manufactured. The compressor consists of three
individual compressing impellers (of different sizes)
mounted on a speed increaser. The speed increaser is
mounted on a bedplate that also supports the power
source. The power source can be an electric motor,
internal combustion engine, or a steam or gas turbine.
Most centrifugal compressors are equipped with inter-
coolers and aftercoolers to prevent the air temperature
from increasing excessively. As with all centrifugal
compressors, the impellers of the three-stage com
pressor must rotate at high speeds to be efficient.

3.22 When the unit is running, air enters through a

large inlet passage on the bottom of the left end, just
before the first stage. The rotating first-stage impeller
reduces the pressure, allowing air to enter the inlet or
"eye" of the first stage. The speed of the impeller
imparts a high velocity to the air as it moves to the
out portion of the impeller housing. The air then
enters a diffuser that converts part of the velocity
(kinetic energy) into pressure (potential energy). The
air then moves into the inlet opening of the next stage,
where the same process takes place. The air pressure
increases approximately the same amount at each
stage. For example, if a three-stage unit compresses
the air to about 6 psi per stage, the discharge pressure
is approximately 18 psi.
3.23 Larger and more powerful compressors capa
ble of delivering 150,000 cfm at a discharge pressure
of above 150 psi are also available. These compres
sors are free from oil contamination, and use only a
small amount of floor area for the cfm delivered. Two
disadvantages of centrifugal compressors are that they
require more horsepower per cfm than other compres
sors, and that they operate at very high speeds (from
3000 to 12,000 rpm). However, they can deliver a
wide range of airflow at an almost constant discharge
pressure.
3.24 Single-stage and multistage centrifugal com
pressors are shown in Fig. 3-8 on the following page.
The construction of these compressors is quite different
from the ones previously discussed. They resemble cen
trifugal pumps in construction. Using intercoolers
between the various stages of multistage compressors
This mateiiaJ is prolecud by U. S. Copyrighl taw. Copywig by any optical, etsctronic. or other r
improves the compressor efficiency. It does so by reduc
ing the power needed to compress the air. Depending on
the application, the impellers have different shapes and
are classed as having radial or mixed flow. Many of the
mixed-flow and single-stage compressors are used as
pressure boosters or blowers.
3.25 Control of centrifugal compressor output varies,
but it can be grouped into four major methods: speed
variation, suction throttling, discharge throttling, and
recirculation. The most efficient method of the four is
speed variation. However, a disadvantage of this method
is that many compressors lose efficiency when the speed
is reduced too far below normal operating speeds.
3.26 Suction throttling is preferred to discharge
throttling, but either of these is more efficient than recir
culation. Suction throttling is accomplished by using a
butterfly valve or variable inlet vanes. A throttling valve
is used for discharge throttling. Some compressors use a
combination of suction/discharge throttling. Discharged
air can be recirculated to the suction inlet, but this
method is usually not efficient.
Axial-Flow Compressors
3.27 Figure 3-9 on the following page shows a
multistage axial-flow compressor, another type of
centrifugal compressor. It is capable of delivering a
i Segal without peirrassion.
 Fig. 3-8. Single-stage and multistage centrifugal compressors

Discharge

I I

relatively constant airflow at lower pressures (approxi Compressor Selection

mately 50 psi). Axial-flow compressors have several
rows of blades mounted on a rotor. The blades speed up
the air passing through them much like a fan does.
Rows of stationary diffuser blades are mounted
between the rotating blades. The stationary blades con
vert and increase some of the axial speed of the air at
about 3 psi of pressure per stage. The more stages there
are, the higher the discharge pressure is. Because of
their large-cfm, low-pressure delivery, most axial-flow
compressors are limited to process air applications.
3.28 You may not be called upon to choose a com
pressor for a particular application, or select its loca
tion, but these matters affect maintenance. Therefore,
it will be helpful for you to understand what goes into
making these decisions. The following considerations
are important when selecting a compressor for a par
ticular application:
• capacity in cfm

Fig. 3-9. A multistage axial-flow compressor

BiiPiiwSlifn
Discharge Stationary blades

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discharge temperature of compressed air
compressor operating pressure level
elevation of installation (altitude)
inlet temperature/hiunidity range
available cooling water/air
type of drive (electric, turbine, engines)
atmospheric conditions (corrosives, dust,
moisture)
discharge conditions (oil-free, chilled,
diy)
accessories (starting and capacity con
trols, filters, safety controls).
System Capacity Requirements
3.29 To some extent, the compressor requirements
of a plant are influenced by the sizes of existing com
pressors, their locations, the size and location of stor
age tanks, the size of the air line(s), and the plant's
points of maximum air use. A method for approximat
ing the amount of new or additional compressor
c£q>acity is to determine the total air use during any
peak 15 minute or half-hour period. Allow an addi
tional 5 to 10% capacity for leaks and unanticipated
increases in compressed-air requirements. Then select
a compressor that is equed to or slightly above the
required C2q)acity.
3.30 If you don't know the plant's air consump
tion, select several pieces of common equipment
located in the plant, and calculate or measure the
amount of air required by each piece. Multiply that
figure by the number of times per hour that the equip
ment is used. Multiply your answer times the number
of pieces like it in the plant. Although this may not be
exact, it will give a good approximate indication of
the amount of air required.
3.31 Another of the factors affecting system
capacity is compressor location. A centralized loca
tion is more convenient for servicing and maintain
ing the compressors. However, in a large plant, air
requirements are different at different locations. The
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Rotary Compressors 45
installation of compressors where the air is needed
{decentralized location) may be more economical.
The compressors should be located so they are supplied
with air that is as clean,cool, and dry as possible.
3.32 Another consideration affecting the location
of the compressor(s) is the amount of electric power
available (if it is driven by an electric motor). Also to
be considered are lighting, electrical convenience out
lets, ventilation, and water for cooling, if required.
Noise from the compressor should not be so loud as
to be objectionable in nearby plant areas, and the
floor must be able to support the compressor. Ideally,
each compressor should be installed in an enclosed,
well-ventilated room. This is easier in centralized
compressor stations.
3.33 Before selecting a compressor, the pressure
requirements of the pneumatic equipment used in the
plant must be determined. If most of the equipment
operates at 100 psi but some operates at 150 psi, a
compressor is required that cuts in at no less that 150
psi. Any pressure lower than this will starve the equip
ment. If 150 psi air is used only in one area, and in
small amounts,a separate compressor can be installed.
Compressor Capacity
3.34 Compressor capacity is usually specified in
terms of cubic feet per minute (cfm). Sometimes
more than just a cfm specification is required. When
this is the case, more definite capacity specifications
are used. These specifications include acjm (actual
cubic /eet per minute) and scfm (standard cubic /eet
per minute).
3.35 Acfin is also referred to as free air capacity.
The actual capacity is measured at the compressor
intake when installed. It includes the temperature,
atmospheric pressure, and humidity conditions of the
intake air at the compressor. The standard capacity
(scfm) is specified at standard intake conditions
including a temperature of 60°F, atmospheric pressure
of 14.7 psia, and dry air at 0% relative humidity. Most
manufacturers have charts to show the difference
between scfm and acfin for different conditions.
Checking Compressor Capacity
3.36 Many times after a compressor has been
installed and operating, it does not perform the way
 Table 3-1. Maxunum electric motor amperage draw
Alternating current
Direct current Single phase Three phase (squirrel cage)
horsepower 120 V I 240 V 115 V I 230 V 115 V I 230 V I 460 V
5.2 9.8 4.9 2
7.4 9.8 4.9 2.8
9.4 16 8 3.6
13.2 6.6 16 8 10.4 5.2
17 8.5 20 10 13.6 6.8
25 12.2 24 12 9.6
40 20 56 28 15.2
56 29 80 40 22
76 38 100 50 28
55 42
72 54
89 68
173 130

it should. When this occurs, the compressor capaci
ty should be checked. If compressor operating data
and specifications were obtained and verified at the
time of installation, they can be checked whenever
necessary. Usually, the first item to be checked is
the power output of the prime mover. If it is an
engine, its power output can be checked by several
different methods.
3.37 If the prime mover is an electric motor, the
amperage readings should be taken and compared
with those in Table 3-1. This shows the current
draw for different types and sizes of electric
motors. If the motor is drawing more than its name-
plate specifies, it is overloaded. It is also over
loaded if it is running hotter than the nameplate
specifies.

Fig. 3-10. Packaged compressors

Portable

Stationary

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3.38 If the compressor is delivering its rated output
and the motor is overloaded, it is possible that the com
pressor is also overloaded trying to produce the name-
plate capacity. When this happens, it reduces the ser
vice life of the compressor, and increases the operating
costs. Whenever the motor is overloaded, check the
acfm of the compressor. If the motor is not overloaded
but the compressor capacity is low,check the acfin.
Accessories
3.39 Basic compressor units (the part that actually
compresses air) require accessory components if they
are to function properly. Compressors are available as
basic units and as packaged units. Basic units are
packed without accessories or with only a few. Other
accessories are usually obtained separately and
installed as required by the user.
3.40 Accessory equipment usually required
includes the following:
starting and stopping switches
unloaders
intercooler and controls
compressor cooling connections
prime movers
lubrication systems
intake air filter
air receivers
abase.
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Rotary Compressors 47
3.41 Most of the accessory equipment has been
described in Lesson Two. Accessories such as
unloaders, lubricating equipment, and pressure con
trols can be mounted on several types of compres
sors. Other equipment is selected for use with a par
ticular compressor or group of compressors, and sub
stitutions should not be made without the approval of
the manufacturer. This other equipment includes
starter switches, unloader pilot valves, pilot relay
valves, intercoolers, prime movers, lubricating
pumps, intake filters, and discharge cushion cham
bers. Specific equipment is usually covered in the
maintenance and repair manuals furnished by the
compressor manufacturer.
Packaged Compressors
3.42 Packaged compressors, like the ones in Fig.
3-10, usually come mounted on a base or tank,
complete with all of the equipment and accessories
that enable the unit to operate independently. The
only requirement is connecting the service lines.
These base- or tank-mounted assemblies are
designed to be bolted to suitable foundations. In
some installations they are simply anchored to the
floor. Portable compressors are packaged units
mounted on a truck or trailer frame with wheels.
Packaged units that are furnished with electric
motors as prime movers are usually ready to be
"plugged in" and started.
3.43 Larger packaged compressors usually come
equipped with some means of cooling the com
pressed air and separating moisture and oil from the
air leaving the compressor. This is done before the
air reaches the receiver and the air lines of the sys
tem. Additional accessories are usually available as
optional equipment, and if ordered will usually be
installed by the manufacturer.
48 Programmed Exercises

3-9. The compressing Impellers of a three- 3-9. SPEED INCREASER

stage centrifugal compressor are
mounted on afn^ Ref:3.21

3-10. Most centrifugal compressors are 3-10. INTERCOOLERS; AFTERCOOLERS

eaulooed with and
to prevent excessive air temperatures. Ref: 3.21

3-11. To be efficient, the rotors in dynamic 3-11. HIGH speeds.

comoressors must rotate at
speeds. Ref: 3.21

3-12. The discharge pressure of a multistage 3-12. PRESSURE per STAGE

dynamic compressor is determined by
the number of stages and the Ref: 3.22
per

3-13. SPEED VARIATION. Suction and dis

3-13. The most efficient method of controlling
charge throttling and recirculation can
the output of centrifugal compressors is also be used.
by
Ref: 3.25

3-14. The rotating blades of axial-flow com 3-14. DIFFUSER

pressors are positioned between sta
tionary blades. Ref: 3.27, Rg.3-9

3-15. In plants having different compressed 3-15. SEVERAL

air requirements, it may be advanta
geous to install the compressor(s) in Ref: 3.31
locations(s1.

3-16. The term acfm may be referred to as 3-16. FREE AIR or ACTUAL CUBIC FEET
capacity. PER MINUTE

Ref: 3.34,3.35

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 Self-Check Quiz 49

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

3-1. What is the maximum discharge pressure of 3-6. What type of positive displacement compres
a single-stage siiding-vane compressor? sor is best suited for light-duty appiications?

□ a. 25 psi □ a. Dynamic
□ b. 50 psi □ b. Impeiier
□ c. 75 psi □ c. Diaphragm
□ d. 100 psi □ d. Axial flow

3-2. What type of compressor will deliver iarge 3-7. A centrifugai compressor is ciassified as a(n)
amounts of oii-free air at approximateiy 100
psi? □ a. pump compressor
□ b. axial-flow compressor
□ a. Dry rotary-screw □ c. dynamic compressor
□ b. Wet rotary-screw □ d. muitistage compressor
□ c. Reciprocating
□ d. Impeiier 3-8. The impeliers of centrifugai compressors
rotate at high speeds to ensure
3-3. The compressing lobes of a wet rotary-screw
compressor are driven without □ a. an even operating temperature
□ b. proper rotor balance
□ a. end piates □ c. positive speed control
□ b. an inlet housing □ d. efficient operation
□ c. timing gears
□ d. iubricating oii 3-9. The most efficient method of controlling the
output of a centrifugai compressor is by
3-4. Impeiier compressors are frequently referred
to as □ a. speed variation
□ b. suction throttling
□ a. interlocking compressors □ c. discharge throttling
□ b. blowers □ d. recirculation
□ c. lobe compressors
□ d. power compressors 3-10. The term used to describe the measured
capacity of a compressor after it is installed
3-5. Impeller compressors use the same operating is
principie as
□ a. standard cubic feet per minute
□ a. rotary-screw compressors □ b. actual cubic feet per minute
□ b. centrifugai compressors □ c. operating capacity
□ c. vane pumps □ d. installed capacity
□ d. gear pumps

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50 Lesson Three

Like reciprocating compressors, rotary compres Liquid-ring compressors are compact, but not as
sors are either positive dispiacement or dynamic. efficient as other rotary types. Nevertheless,their
Siiding vane, dry screw, wet screw, impeller ability to deliver oil-free, dust-free air makes them
(iobe), and iiquid-ring types are ail positive-dis- valuable for instrumentation and control systems,
piacement rotary air compressors. Axiai-fiow and impeller compressors(or blowers)deliver large
centrifugal compressors are types of dynamic air volume at pressures up to 10 psi, mostly for
units. process or instrument air applications.

Vane compressors are more compact-but less
efficient-4han piston compressors of the same
capacity. Most vane compressors operate at high
speeds(1200-1800 rpm). Screw compressors,
both wet and dry, operate at even higher speeds
(300 to 12,000 rpm). The dry type, whose rotors
are driven by timing gears provides oil-free air.
The wet type, in which one lobe powers another,
requires oii-spray lubrication.
Centrifugal compressors are also high-volume,
low-pressure units found in process-air and venti
lation applications. Centrifugal compressors, with
very high-speed operation, draw more horsepow
er per cfm than other types. But they can deliver a
wide range of airflow at an almost constant dis
charge pressure. Axiai-fiow units(a type of cen
trifugal compressor)deliver large-cfm, low-pres
sure air at almost constant pressure for process-
air applications.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

3-1. b. 50 psi. Ret:3.04 3-6. 0. Diaphragm. Ref: 3.18, Rg.3-6

3-2. a. Dry rotary-screw. Ref:3.09 3-7. 0. Dynamic compressor. Ref: 3.20

3-3. 0. Timing gears. Ref: 3.10, Fig. 3-3 3-8. d. Efficient operation. Ref: 3.21

3-4. b. Blowers. Ref: 3.15, Fig. 3-5 3-9. a. Speed variation. Ref: 3.25

3-5. d. Gear pumps. Ref: 3.16 3-10. b. Actual cubic feet per minute.
Ref: 3.34,3.35

Contributionsfrom the foiiowing sources are appreciated:

Rgure 3-1. Allis-Chalmers Rgure 3-6. Thomas Industries Inc., Air Power DIv.
Figure 3-2. Fairt)anks Morse DIv., Colt Ind. Rgure 3-7. Elliott DIv., Carrier Corp.
Rgure 3-3. Sullair Corp. Rgure 3-8. Allls-Chalmers
Rgure 3-4. Nash Engineering Co. Figure 3-9. Allls-Chalmers
Rgure 3-5. Dresser Industries, Inc. Figure 3-10. Sinks Mfg. Co.

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Lesson Four

Primary Air
Treatment

,r'..rrr
^ J

TPC Training SystemM

 Lesson

Primary Air Treatment

TOPICS

Air Treatment Dewpoint

Preliminary Filtering Moisture Separators
Relative Humidity Oil Scrubbers
Effects of Moisture Air Dryers
Water Removal Air Receivers

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Describe techniques for cleaning compressor filters. Describe aftercooler operation.

• Define relative humidity and dew point. Explain the functions of separators, oil scrubbers, and
• Explain the effects of temperature and pressure on air dryers.
the air's ability to hold moisture.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Relative humidity(RH) 4.06 the amount of water Moisture separator 4.26 a device that causes air
vapor suspended in the air at any time, compared and water particles to separate
with the amount of water vapor the air could hold Oil scrubber 4.30 a device, usually installed
if it were completely saturated between the aftercooler and the air receiver, that
Dewpoint 4.09, 4.23 the temperature at which removes oil and moisture from the system
water vapor condenses as it is cooled

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Treating or conditioning the air used in a pneumatic system is important if sys
tem components are to have a usefui service iife. Treating the air to remove
harmfui eiements is accompiished in severai ways. This Lesson describes the
methods used to condition air both before and after it ieaves the compressor.
Treatment inciudes fiitering, cooiing, removing moisture and oii, and storage.
This Lesson covers aii of the most important air treatment systems found in
industriai piants. Specific equipment may vary from one piant to another
because of differing air quality requirements. However, the material presented
in this Lesson is important to your overall understanding of pneumatic systems.
Knowledge of the equipment is the first step toward learning proper mainte
nance and troubleshooting procedures.
Air Treatment
4.01 The importance of air treatment is clear in
many applications because the air is taken from dirty
or contaminated surroimdings. In other cases, howev
er, the air is taken from apparently clean surround
ings, and the reasons for treating it may not seem so
obvious. Whatever the situation, all air contains some
contaminants. In addition, air always contains some
degree of moisture. This degree varies on different
days,and in different locations.
4.02 Treating the air to remove contaminants is the
job of certain accessories supplied with a compressor.
Some of these accessories are elaborate and complex
in nature. Others are simple. The amount of air treat
ment required depends on the application, and the
requirements of the plant. It is up to you to make sure
the air treatment equipment continues to function
properly.
Preliminary Fiitering
4.03 Before the surrounding air enters the com
pressor, it must pass through a filter to remove most
of the dirt and other solid contaminants. These filters
can be of the dry or wet type, depending on the com
pressor manufacturer and the application. The
amount of air handled and the type of compressor
also have a direct influence on the type of filter used
with a compressor.
4.04 Dry filters are made in different shapes and
configinations, as shown in Fig. 4-lA on the following
page. Most of them have a felt or cotton material
packed into a wire screen or other open retainer. Other
diy filters use replaceable or cartridge elements. All of
these filters can be cleaned. The recommended method
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53
of cleaning the packed type is to wash them in a rec
ommended solvent—never gasoline—and dry them
with compressed air. Most cartridge elements can be
blown out from the inside with compressed air. Some
can be washed with a mild detergent and dried. Many
cartridges simply are replaced with new elements.
4.05 Wet filters are slightly different in construc
tion and operation. The filter shown in Fig. 4-IB is
a maze air filter mounted in a shallow oil reservoir.
Air entering the top of the filter housing is directed
downward into the oil, and then upward through the
filter medium before passing into the intake pipe.
Any oil that is carried along with the air is trapped
in the filter, along with any dirt and dust or other
contaminants.
Relative Humidity
4.06 The amount of moisture or water vapor that
exists in free air depends on the temperature and
weather conditions. The amount of water vapor sus
pended at any time, compared with the amount of
water vapor the air could hold if it were completely
saturated, is referred to as relative humidity (RH).
When air is completely saturated with water vapor
and cannot hold any more moisture, its RH is 100%.
If the air holds only half the water it could if it were
saturated, its RH is 50%. The higher the temperature,
the more water vapor the air can hold.
4.07 For example, 1000 (or a room 10ft x 10ft x
10ft) of air at atmospheric pressure and 66°F can hold
about 1 lb (1 pt) of water when it is saturated. If the
same air is heated to 88°F, it can hold about 2 lb (2 pt
or 1 qt)of water vapor. If the 66''F saturated air is heat
ed to 88°F without adding any additional moisture,
then the RH at the higher temperature is 50%. A
Fig. 4-1. Intake air filters
moisture chart (Fig. 4-2) shows the amount of mois
ture that can be held in 1000 ft^ of air at different tem
peratures and humidity conditions.
4.08 Another factor that affects the amount of
water vapor that can be held by air is the pressure to
which the air is subjected. As the pressure of the air
increases, the air's ability to retain moisture decreas
es. This, of course, only applies if the temperature
remains constant. If the temperature increases as the
pressure increases, then the ability of the compressed
air to hold moisture also increases. This can be under
stood more easily by referring to Fig. 4-2.
4.09 One of the black lines shows how many
pounds of moisture 1000 ft^ of free air holds after it
has been compressed to 100 psi and cooled to 66^.
At this temperature and pressure, the air can only hold
about 0.13 lb of moisture. If the air temperature is
88T at 100 psi, the air can hold about 0.26 lb of
moisture. This means that air at atmospheric pressure
that holds 1 lb of moisture per 1000 ft^ at SST and
50% RH would lose about ^/4 pt (0.74 lb) of moisture
after it has been compressed to 100 psi at the same
temperature. The temperature at which the water
vapor condenses as it is cooled is called the dewpoint.
4.10 When the compressor is operating under
heavy load conditions, compressed air will not cool
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to the dewpoint temperature in the receiver or lines.
Instead, it remains in the air and passes through the
pneumatic equipment. As the air leaves the tool, it
expands suddenly and often is cooled to a tempera
ture that is below the dewpoint. At this time, the
moisture condenses and forms water in the pneumat
ic equipment. If the air cools below 32^, the water
might even freeze.
4.11 Under ordinary operating conditions, some
cooling takes place in the air receiver and lines, and
some of the water vajx)r condenses. If cooling is not
sufficient to condense the vapor, then some type of
external cooling is required. Otherwise, abnormal
amounts of water would be transmitted through the
pneumatic system. During ordinary use, however, a
small amount of moisture is still likely to condense
in the pneumatic tool or actuator.
Effects of Moisture
4.12 Rust and corrosion can occur whenever
moisture is present. This happens because of the
chemical reaction between iron and moisture. Mois
ture in the air can cause rust and corrosion in tanks,
air lines, and equipment, even if it does not con
dense as water. In addition, water mixing with impu
rities in the oil forms corrosive acids. These acids
corrode the inside surfaces of the pneumatic system.

Fig. 4-2. Moisture chart
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Pounds of moisture per 1000 ft^ of saturated free air
4.13 In addition to corrosion, water in compressed
air systems dilutes and washes away lubricants from
the operating surfaces of pneumatic equipment, caus
ing equipment to wear out. Water can also close small
passages in instruments and controls, making them
inoperative. Water in compressed air used for paint
spraying can dilute paints and lacquers and damage
the spraying equipment. For these reasons, water (liq
uid or vapor) should be removed from compressed air.
4.14 Oil picked up by the air while it is being
compressed can also close small passages in deli
cate equipment. Also, the oil picks up and holds
any small particles of dirt that may be present.
When dirty oil mixes with water, it emulsifies, and
loses its lubricating qualities. The high tempera
ture developed while the air is being compressed
changes the water and oil into sludge and acid. The
acids corrode the pneumatic equipment, and the
sludge combines with dirt in the air to form
deposits in the lines and equipment. These deposits
reduce the elTectiveness and life of the pneumatic
equipment.
4.15 Some oil is dispersed in the form of small
droplets or mist, while some is vaporized. Oil droplets
are easy to remove from compressed air, but fine
mists and vapors present a more difiicult problem. Oil
carried through the air lines and hoses can affect the
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Primary Air Treatment 55
■20psig
■90%
Opsig
(100%)
Dashed lines indicate percent saturation at0 pstg
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.
hose core. It is therefore important that oil and other
contaminants also be removed from the system.
Water Removal
4.16 There are several ways to remove water and
oil from compressed air. One of the most common
methods is to condense the water vapor. The liquid
can then be removed easily. Oil vapors can also be
condensed and then removed. Another way of
removing moisture is by circulating the air through
a dryer, which removes the water vapor fi-om the air
without condensing it. Unless really dry air is
required, most plants simply cool the air with an
aftercooler and remove the condensed vapor.
4.17 Aftercoolers are similar to the intercoolers
discussed in Lesson Two, and can be cooled by air
or water. Air-cooled aftercoolers can be simple
finned tubes or fan-cooled radiators, as shown in
Fig. 4-3 on the following page. The amount of air
that can be cooled depends on the size of the after-
cooler, the temperature difference between the
cooling air and the compressed air, and the speed at
which the air is moving. Because most air-cooled
aftercoolers use room air to cool compressed air,
they cannot lower the temperature of the air enough
to condense all of the water vapor. This means that
some water vapor (and some oil vapor) are still in
 Fig. 4-3. Air-cooled aftercoolers
the compressed air when it enters the air receiver
and the lines.
4.18 To remove any vapor that is condensed, mois-
ture separators must be installed on the aftercooler
and air receiver. Sometimes a single separator is used
for the aftercooler and tank.
4.19 Usually air cooling is more economical in
equipment cost, but water cooling is more economical
in operation because water removes heal from a cooling
surface much faster than air does. The size of the com-
pressor has a lot to do with the type of cooling used.
Fig. 4-4. Water-cooled aftercoolers
Water
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Usually, air cooling is economical for small and medi-
um-sized compressors with two stages that operate less
than eight hours a day. Water cooling is economical for
medium-sized, single-stage compressors operating
more than eight hours a day, and for larger compressors
or any that operate more than 10 hours a day.
4.20 Water-cooled aftercoolers are similar in con-
struction to the water-cooled intercoolers discussed
in Lesson Two. Basically, a water-cooled aftercooler
is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Other types are
available, but this is the most common. Its compo-
nents, as shown in Fig. 4-4, include a bundle of

tubes attached to a plate on each end. The whole
assembly is mounted in a shell. The shell has end
caps that cover the end plates. Usually cooling water
flows through the shell and around the tube bundle,
while compressed air flows through the tubes. The
air gives up its heat to the tubes, which transfer the
heat to the water flowing in the shell. In some appli
cations the heat exchanger is connected the opposite
way, with water flowing through the tubes and air
through the shell.
4.21 Most heat exchangers work on the counter-
flow principle. Hot air entering the cooler is first
cooled by the warm water leaving the heat exchanger.
As the air moves through the heat exchanger, it gives
up its heat to cooler water. Just before the air leaves
the heat exchanger, it is cooled by the inlet water
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Primary Air Treatment 57
entering the heat exchanger. This is the most efficient
way to operate heat exchangers.
4.22 With water-cooled heat exchangers, the
amount of cooling obtained depends on the amount of
air to be cooled, the amount of water used, the tem
perature difference between the air and water entering
the heat exchanger, and the size of the heat exchanger.
Because aftercoolers must remove as much moisture
as they can and also reduce the volume of the com
pressed air, they are usually quite large. Aftercoolers
operate at much higher pressures than intercoolers
and, therefore, are built with greater structural
strength. Typical aftercoolers may be placed horizon
tally or vertically, as in Fig. 4-4. The condensed mois
ture is collected by a separator at the end of the after-
cooler or at another collecting point.
58 Programmed Exercises

4-1. Contaminants In air include dirt and 4-1. MOISTURE

Ret:4.01

4-2. What are the two types of preliminary 4-2. WET,DRY

filters used with compressors?
Ref: 4.03

4-3. Some dry filters use packed felt or 4-3. REPLACEABLE or CARTRIDGE
cotton, and others use
elements. Ref:4.04

4-4. In a wet filter, dirt is collected in the oil, 4-4. FILTER

and in the .
Ref: 4.05

4-5. The amount of water vapor contained 4-5. RELATIVE HUMIDITY

In the air compared to what it could
hold if it were completely saturated is Ref: 4.06
called the .

4-6. The temperature at which water vapor 4-6. DEWPOINT

condenses as it is cooled is called its
Ref: 4.09

4-7. The most common method used to 4-7. CONDENSATION

remove vapor from compressed air is
Ref: 4.16

4-8. Aftercoolers that are used to condense 4-8. WATER,AIR

water vapor in compressed air are
cooled by or . Ref: 4.17, Rg.4-3

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 Primary Air Treatment 59

Dewpoint
Table 4-1.Effect of drying compressed air
4.23 If air is cooled to a low enough temperature,
the water vapor it contains will begin to condense into Air compressed to 100 psig, then expanded to 0 psig

droplets of liquid water. The temperature at which the Maximum

Cooled to water vapor Dewpoint
droplets start to form is called the dewpoint of the air. (IF) (Ib/1000ft3) (iF)
Dry air has a lower dewpoint than moist air and low- 88 0.26 +28
pressure air has a lower dewpoint than high-pressure 80 0.21 +23
air. However, compressed air cools as it expands. If it 72 0.16 +17

cools below the dewpoint, condensation forms.

37 0.06 -8
4.24 In order to avoid problems caused by conden 35 0.05 -12

sation when compressed air is used, the water content

must be reduced before the air expands. This drying is
accomplished by first cooling the compressed air
enough to condense some of the water vapor. The or by making sharp changes in the direction of flow.
condensation can then be removed as liquid water. A Others discharge the air stream against a flat surface.
small amount of water can be removed from moist air Some use a large chamber that does nothing but lower
by cooling the air in a simple water-cooled aftercool- the air velocity, allowing particles to drop to the bot
er. Greater drying requires cooling the air in a refrig tom. This is known as gravity separation.
erated air dryer, shown in Fig. 4-5. After drying, the
compressed air is allowed to warm up again before it 4.27 The action of different separators is shown in
is used. If the compressed air is dried enough, the Fig. 4-6 on the following page. Air with water in it
remaining moisture will not condense as the air enters near the top, and swirls around the outside of the
expands and cools during use. housing. The swirling action causes the heavier mois
ture and oil particles to be deposited on the outside
4.25 Table 4-1 shows how chilling compressed air
affects the dewpoint of the expanded air. The first two
columns show the effect of various amounts of cool Fig,4-5. Refrigerated air dryers
ing on the amount of water vapor that can remain in
the compressed air. The third column shows the
Heat exchanger
resulting dewpoint of the air after it expands to atmos
pheric pressure. For example, if air at 100 psig is
cooled to 35°F, excess moisture condenses out until
^ Moist air JT^
the amount of water vapor is reduced to 0.05 pounds
per 1000 cubic feet. Even though the cold compressed
air warms up again, it remains dry. When this dried Moisture separator
air expands to atmospheric pressure, it becomes cool
er. But if the temperature does not decrease to the
dewpoint listed in the third column of Table 4-1, none
of the remaining water vapor will condense.

Moisture Separators

4.26 The water and oil vapors that condense in the

aftercoolers must be removed. Much of the conden Refrigeration unit
sate, in the form of mist, is carried by the compressed
air stream as it flows through the aftercooler. Most RefrigeratkKi.
systems or aftercoolers have mechanical separators to conpres^r

remove the moisture. Most separators separate the

water particles from the air by causing the air to swirl.
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 Fig. 4-6. Moisture separators

i Deflector

wall. The particles then flow down into the moisture

trap at the bottom of the separator. The drier air stays WARNING

near the center and is discharged into the air line. Air
motion and flow path vary with each separator, but all Open drain plugs slowly to prevent air pres
are similar. Separators like this remove up to 95% of sure from spraying and spewing sludge and
the liquids from a stream of compressed air. water on you or on adjacent machinery. Wear
eye and face protection.
4.28 After the water and oil particles have been
separated from the compressed air, they have to be
removed from the separator. The separator in Fig. 4-7
closing the drain valve. The drain valve is positioned
includes a trap and float valve. The accumulation of
above the bottom so solid particles cannot lodge
liquid in the bowl lifts the float, which opens the drain
between the drain valve and its seat and prevent the
valve. When the liquid drains out, the float ball drops.
valve from closing. The accumulation of sludge and
solid particles is removed by opening the drain plug at
the bottom.

Fig. 4-7. Combination moisture separator and trap

4.29 The separators and traps just described are
designed to handle large air volumes and remove
large amounts of moisture from after-coolers. Con
densed liquids that accumulate in the compressed air
lines must also be separated and removed. This is
accomplished with a combination separator/filter
located near the air line discharge point. These sepa
rators are discussed in Lesson Five.

Oil Scrubbers

Separator
4.30 In many pneumatic systems, a liquid separa
tor alone will not remove enough moisture. For these
systems, an oil scrubber should be installed between
Trap float the aftercooler and the air receiver. An oil scrubber
also protects any high-performance air dryers or other
oil-free components.

4.31 Most oil scrubbers are quite large, but their

operation is simple. As shown in Fig. 4-8, air enters the
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 Primary Air Treatment 61

lower section of the scrubber. As the air is directed

Fig. 4-8. An oil scrubber
against an inverted dish-shaf)ed deflector, a slight pres
sure drop occurs, and much of the condensed moisture
or heavier particles drop to the bottom. The air then
passes through a perforated metal pan into the large bed
of metal ciuls. As the air stops suddenly and changes
direction on its way through the bed, fine particles of [Z^>Out
suspended liquid are deposited on the metal curls. The
liquid drips down through the pan into the bottom of the
scrubber, and is removed through a float trap.
Metallic
particle
4.32 Periodically, the scrubber must be depressur- maze

ized and thoroughly washed down with a commercial

Preliminary
degreasing solvent to remove excess oil accumula separation
tions from the surfaces of the curled metal in the bed.
In (=;>
The time for cleaning is determined by a pressure dif
ferential of 3 psi between the inlet pressure gauge and
the outlet pressure gauge. Aside from a filter, a scrub
ber is probably the only piece of equipment that can
remove dispersed and suspended particles of oil and
water from compressed air.

Air Dryers moisture, which settle to the bottom of the tank. The
air that is discharged is dry and clean.
4.33 Installations such as pneumatic gauges or
sensing devices that require a truly dry supply of air 4.36 A deliquescent dryer is less effective than a
usually have an air dryer installed in the system. refrigerant dryer in lowering the dewpoint of the air it
There are two types of air dryers manufactured: deli dries. However, a deliquescent dryer is able to handle
quescent, also known as chemical, and adsorption, larger volumes of air than most refrigerant dryers are
sometimes called regenerative.

4.34 Deliquescent. To some extent, the deliques Fig. 4-9. Deliquescent dryer
cent dryer shown in Fig. 4-9 resembles an oil scrub
ber. It gets its name from the action of the chemical Opening for
adding dessicant
agent (called a desiccant) that absorbs moismre. As
the chemical absorbs moisture, it slowly dissolves and
becomes a liquid itself. When the desiccant dissolves, c={> Air outlet
it is said to deliquesce.

4.35 During operation, moist, dirty air enters the

bottom part of the dryer and is dispersed in the tank
by an inverted, dish-shaped plate. At this point, some Dessicant
liquid and solid particles settle to the bottom. In the
intermediate section the air is predried as it passes
through the deliquescent mist settling from the bed Pred/ying
— Condensate
above it. This mist collects some of the finer vapors,
forming drops that are large enough to settle to the Air Inlet ciO
bottom of the dryer. The air then flows through the
desiccant materials in the bed, which attract moisture,
chemically removing it from the air. The moisture
wets the desiccant, dissolving it to form droplets of
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Fig. 4-10. Adsorption dryers 4.38 As the air passes through the desiccant bed,
moisture is attracted to the surfaces and pores of each
bead or granule of desiccant material. It is not
Wet air inlet
absorbed by the granules, but only held on the sur
face. This is called adsorption, and is caused by the
physical attraction that an unsaturated desiccant and
I Purge exhaust moisture have for each other.
to atmosphere

Dry air outlet
Purge valve
Dryer operating Dryer reactivating
built to handle. One of its disadvantages is that is
must be filled periodically as the desiccant dissolves.
4.37 Adsorption. An adsorption dryer is a little
more complicated than the other drying equipment
discussed so far. A simple arrangement with the con
necting piping is shown in Fig. 4-10. In a dual dryer
arrangement, only one dryer is used at a time. Air
entering the four-way valve is directed to the left
chamber. In the chamber, air passes downward
through a desiccant bed and then up through a return
tube in the center of the desiccant bed. It leaves the
dryer through another four-way valve and flows into
the compressed air line in a very dry condition.
Fig. 4-11. An air receiver
4.39 The cooler the air being dried, the more slow
ly it moves, and the more moisture is actually
removed from the air. This slow movement of air also
increases the capacity of the desiccant to adsorb mois
ture. Oil and other impurities must be removed from
the air before it passes through the desiccant bed, oth
erwise they would permanently clog up the minute
passages in each bead or granule.
4.40 In Fig. 4-10, while air is being dried in the
left chamber, the desiccant in the right chamber is
being regenerated. Regeneration takes place by sever
al methods, but all use heat air that flows through the
discharge line, through the desiccant, and out the inlet
pipe. When the bed is hot, the desiccant releases
moisture. Air passing through the bed carries away
almost as much moisture as it is capable of holding. If
the bed is healed electrically, then only a small stream
of air is required to carry away the moisture. After a
suitable length of time, the heat is turned off and the
hot desiccant bed is allowed to cool. After the bed is
cooled, the timer switches the left chamber to regen
eration and the right chamber to air drying.
Air Receivers
4.41 Air receivers similar to the one in Fig. 4-11
are used for a number of purposes. Most important is
their ability to store compressed air. When an air
receiver is selected for an application, it must be the
correct size for the volume of air in the system. This
allows the receiver to balance off available compres
sor capacity against much larger peak air-flow
demands that occur.

4.42 There will be short periods of peak flow in

any system during which the demand for air is
greater than the compressor can supply. During
these peak flow periods, air stored in the lines and
in the air receiver will keep the overall system pres
sure from dropping too low. If the receiver cannot
maintain system pressure for short periods of high
air usage, a second or larger receiver is required.
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 Primary Air Treatment 63

Fig.4-12. Nomograph for sizing an air receiver

Row time (minutes)

lO l\>

++ I I I I ! I !|
I llll
o S g t 3 S
3
Pressure drop = initial psi final psi
r

Receiver volume (fl^) \

\ J.
8 S 8
'I' I I
I I I I I |iiii|in|| I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I >
CO

8 § §S 8
A <n A
S 88i 8 8
Scfm saverage air flow(f^ /hnin) \
I
\
14.7 psi X time X scfm

\l
Volume s
pressure drop (psi)

Pivot line

4.43 The nomograph in Fig. 4-12 can be used to
determine the recommended receiver size for a system.
For example,suppose the system requires 40 scfm (.stan
dard cubicJect per minute of air at68T and 14.7 psi)for
10 minutes, widi an initial pressure of 1(X)psi and a min
imum pressure of70 psi(a 30 psi pressure drop).
4.44 The first step is to draw a line from the 10-
min point through the 40 scfm point to the pivot line.
From the pivot line draw a line to 30 psi on the pres
sure drop scale. The point where this line crosses the
receiver volume scale indicates the required receiver
volume of 200 ft^.

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64 Programmed Exercises

4-9. Water vapor in air begins to condense 4-9. DEWPOINT

when the air is cooled to its
Ref: 4.23

4-10. Compressed air can be dried by reduc 4-10. TEMPERATURE

ing its
Ref: 4.24

4-11. Condensed moisture is usually removed 4-11. MECHANICAL

from an aftercooler by a(n1
separator. Ref: 4.26

4-12. Moisture that is not removed by a sep 4-12. OIL SCRUBBER

arator can be extracted by directing the
air through a(n) Ref: 4.30

4-13. What are the two kinds of chemical air 4-13. DELIQUESCENT,ADSORPTION
dryers used in pneumatic systems?
Ref: 4.33

4-14. The type of chemical that absorbs 4-14. DESICCANT

moisture in a deliquescent air dryer is
called a(n) Ref: 4.34

4-15. The desiccant in an adsorption air 4-15. HEAT

dryer is regenerated by
Ref:4.40

4-16. The required size of the receiver in a 4-16. AIR FLOW TIME, AIR FLOW RATE,
compressed air system depends on the ALLOWABLE PRESSURE DROP
system's requirements of
. and Ref:4.43-4.44, Fig. 4-12

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 Self-Check Quiz 65

Answer the following questions by marking an"X"

in the box next to the best answer.

4-1. The most common contaminants in the air 4-6. Which of the following is the most common
are dirt and method of removing vapor from compressed
air?
□ a. carbon monoxide
□ b. water vapor □ a. Evaporation
□ c. carbon dioxide □ b. Freezing
□ d. sulfur dioxide □ c. Condensation
□ d. Gravity separation
4-2. When washing a primary air filter, be sure to
use 4-7. Which method of heat transfer is used in a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger?
□ a. gasoline
□ b. alcohol □ a. Parallel flow
□ c. naphtha □ b. Counterflow
□ d. a recommended solvent □ c. Perpendicular flow
□ d. Radiation
4-3. What term is used to compare the amount of
moisture in the air to what it could contain? 4-8. If all other factors are the same, the air that
has the lowest dewpoint is the air that has the
□ a. Condensation point
□ b. Dewpoint □ a. highest pressure
□ c. Relative humidity □ b. least water vapor
□ d. Evaporation point □ c. lowest temperature
□ d. greatest volume
4-4. The amount of moisture that can be held in
air decreases as the 4-9. Most pneumatic systems remove moisture
from the air stream by
□ a. pressure increases
□ b. pressure decreases □ a. mechanical separation
□ c. temperature increases □ b. aftercooling
□ d. relative humidity increases □ c. electrostatic precipitation
□ d. evaporation
4-5. What term best describes the condensation
temperature of water vapor? 4-10. What type of air dryer uses a chemical agent
that absorbs moisture from the air?
□ a. Dewpoint
□ b. Relative humidity □ a. Baffle
□ c. Condensation point □ b. Scrubber
□ d. Vaporization point □ c. Refrigerant
□ d. Deliquescent

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66 Lesson Four

^i jTh

-uliflJlii i ';

Primary air treatment for pneumatic systems separator does not remove enough moisture,an
usuaiiy begins by passing the air through a fiiter oii scrubber is used instead to remove suspend
to remove dirt and other soiids. Either wet or dry ed oii and water from the compressed air.
fiiters are used, depending on the compressor
and the appiication. Air dryers are used in appiications that require
totaiiy dry, ciean air. The two main types are
Most piants use aftercooiers to cooi the air and deiiquescent and adsorption dryers. The deii-
remove condensed vapor. Aftercooiers can be quescent type is especiaiiy good at handiing
air- or water-cooied. Most air-cooied aftercooiers iarge voiumes of air, but must be refiiied peri-
cannot condense 100% of the water vapor. To odicaliy. A duai-chamber adsorption dryer
remove additionai moisture, moisture separators regenerates the desiccant in one chamber whiie
are often instaiied between the aftercooier and air the other continues to function, thus maintain
receiver. In appiications where a moisture ing operation.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

4-1. b. Water vapor. Ref: 4.01 4-6. C. Condensation. Ref:4.16

4-2. d. A recommended solvent. Ref: 4.04 4-7. b. Counterflow. Ref: 4.20,4.21

4-3. 0. Relative humidity. Ref:4.06 4-8. b. Least water vapor. Ref:4.23

4-4. a. Pressure increases. 4-9. a. Mechanical separation. Ref:4.26

Ref: 4.08, Rg.4-2
4-10. d. Deliquescent. Ref:4.34, Rg.4-9
4-5. a. Dewpoint. Ref:4.09

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 4-1. Dolilnger Corp. Figure 4-7 The Johnson Corp.

Rgure 4-2. Gardner-Denver Co. Rgure 4-8. Van-Air Inc.
Figure 4-3. McQuay Inc.

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UNDERSTANDING BASIC PNEUMATICS

Lesson Five

Secondary
Air Treatment

fr.
,r'
. s

^O:
 Lesson

Secondary Air Treatment

TOPICS

Methods of Treatment Surface Filters

Contaminant Separation Depth Filters
Contaminant Filtration Adsorption Filters
Filter Classification and Rating Absorption Filters
Types of Media Lubricating the Air

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to.

• Describe the two main methods of contaminant List applications for the most common types of filter
separation. media.
• Explain how filters are classified. Identify system location for lubrication equipment
• List contaminant particle sizes and particle contami installation.
nation categories as they occur in filters.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Micron (or micrometer) 5.08 unit of metric mea Adsorption 5.02, 5.36 the process by which
surement used to describe the size of particles; moisture collects on the surface of a material, but
approximately 0.00004 in. (exactly 0.001 mm) is not absorbed by it
Dirt capacity 5.13 the ability of a filter to remove Absorption 5.02, 5.38 the process by which
contaminants moisture is drawn into the absorbing medium
Maximum allowable pressure drop 5.15 in a fil instead of collecting on the surface
ter, the pressure difference that would permit col
lected contaminant particles to pass through the
filter

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Although primary air treatment is important to ensure the proper operation of
the pneumatic system, it often does not clean the air thoroughly enough for
many of the pneumatic components. Components such as valves and actuators
require extremely clean air If they are to have a long service life. To protect such
equipment and increase its service life, secondary air treatment Is required.

Secondary air-treatment equipment is usually located near the component or

piece of equipment that the air system is operating. Some secondary equip
ment, such as filters and strainers, is similar to primary equipment. Other equip
ment,such as lubricators, is not. This Lesson discusses the equipment used for
secondary air treatment, and should help you to understand more thoroughly
its operation and the reasons for its use.

Methods of Treatment by aftercooling, scrubbing, and separating. It also

5.01 A clean air supply is not always available in
locations where air compressors must be installed. In
such cases, the air drawn in by the compressor may
contain smoke, dust, dirt, lint, moisture, and even
chemical fumes or vapors. In addition, the lubricating
systems of most compressors allow air to pick up
lubricating oil from the cylinder walls. This oil usual
ly has a number of additives in it to improve its lubri
cating qualities and make it last longer. When these
additives combine with dirt and moisture, they plug
up filters and small passages, reducing their efficiency
or even making them inoperative. Moisture also caus
es rust and corrosion. When moisture mixes with oil
at high temperatures, the oil deteriorates quite rapidly
and forms corrosive acids. Moisture, oil, and solid
contaminants build up in compressed air lines and
equipment and form corrosive sludges.
5.02 Lesson Four described how most of the
water and oil can be removed from compressed air
covered the removal of some dust and dirt at the
compressor intake. Dirt and dust that do enter the
system, as well as any moisture and oil, can be
removed in a number of ways. The most common
are separation and filtration. Two other filtration
methods, adsorption and absorption, are used for
some applications. Adsorption refers to the surface
collection of moisture, as when vapor collects on
glass. Absorption describes the drawing-in of mois
ture, such as occurs when a spionge draws in water.
Contaminant Separation
5.03 Contaminant separation in a pneumatic system
is accomplished by either of two methods. The first is
gravity separation, as shown in Fig. 5-1. Whenever a
moving stream of air is slowed down, the larger solid
and liquid particles suspended in the air settle out. This
occurs in several places in a compressed air system,
including large liquid separators, scrubbers, filters, and
receivers. It also occurs in the system piping. However,

Fig. 5-1. Two methods of contaminant separation

Gravity Centrifugal

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70 Lesson Five
Fig.5-2. lypes offilter media
Air flow.m
simple gravity separation takes time and removes only
larger particles from the air.
5.04 A quicker way to achieve contaminant separa
tion is through the use of centrifugal separation. When
rapidly moving air is swirled in a circular path, many
solid and liquid particles are thrown outward, as
shown in Fig. 5-1 on the previous page. This same
action occurs in the cyclone separators placed near
aftercoolers. It also occurs in large separators used
with dust collectors in plant exhaust systems. Cyclone
separators require high air velocity and a high-pressure
drop before they can remove small particles of dirt
effectively. As a result, they are usually used only as
intake filters for large centrifugal compressors. How
ever, they may also be used as prefilters for compres
sors in areas with a high concentration of dirt or dust.
5.05 Centrifugal separators are also sometimes
known as inertial separators because they depend on
the inertia of a heavy moving particle to aid in the
separation. The heavier a particle is, and the faster it
is moving,the more it tends to travel in a straight line.
Therefore, when it is moving in a circular path in a
centrifugal separator, it has a natural tendency to
move outward.
5.06 Inertial separators, however,also include non-
centrifugal types. Instead offollowing a circular path,
the airflow is made to change direction sharply sever
al times as it passes through the filter. As the air
changes direction, the heavier particles of contamina
tion tend to keep going in a straight line and impinge
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on (collide with or strike against) the directional baf
fles or vanes, and collect on them. This type of iner
tial separator is more properly called an impingement
separator.
5.07 Inertial separators are used mainly as prefilters
to pick up large dirt particles. This enables the more
efficient filters to pick up the small particles more
effectively. Cyclone and louver separators are also used
as filters for centrifugal blowers because they can
remove finer particles effectively without a high overall
pressure loss. Louver separators must be cleaned peri
odically by rinsing them with a cleaning solvent
Contaminant Fiitration
5.08 Before discussing filters in greater detail, it is
important for you to know the size of the particles
that can be removed by different strainers and filters.
The size of particles is measured in microns (also
called micrometers). A micron is approximately
0.00004 in. (exactly 0.(X)1 mm)in size, and is abbre
viated pt.
5.09 You may understand better how large a
micron is if you remember that there are about 25 ;< in
0.001 (one one-thousandth) in. Particles larger than
10 p(or 0.0004 in. or four ten-thousandths) are classi
fied as dust particles, and those between 0.1 and 10 p
are called cloud particles. Smoke particles range from
0.01 to 1.0 p in size. In addition to dust and cloud par
ticles, compressed air has very fine oil particles in the
O.Ol-to-0.8 p range. These particles are called
aerosols. Aerosols cannot be separated from com-
fn'essed air by aftercooling or the ordinaiy means of
separation. In fact, they cannot even be removed by
most filters.
5.10 Separators, strainers, and filters are identified
by the size of particles they will stop. This method is
used instead of identifying the sizes of the openings
themselves. Usually a strainer or filter will stop 98%
of the particles up to or larger than a certain size. The
2% that pass through may be long and slim, well
rounded, or shaped in such a manner that they are not
easily stopped.
Filter Classification and Rating w
5.11 There are two basic types of filters that
remove solid particles from ain surface and depth. As
 Secondary Air Treatment 71

shown in Fig. 5-2,surface filters collect particles on a Fig. 5-3. Filter capacity
single surface and depth filters collect particles on
several layers. The openings in a surface filter are
approximately all the same size. Surface filter open
ings are usually arranged in a regular pattern. The 1wS Surface
openings in depth filters usually are of many different o>
c filter
I
sizes, and are arranged irregularly, with the largest 3
73
1
1 Depth
openings on the outside and the smallest on the O 1 filter
a 1
inside. With this arrangement air flows first through Q.
i
i
the larger openings, and then through the smaller & 1
f

openings. In some applications the airflow enters the £

3
/
(_
/
center of the filter and the openings are reversed with Normal
filter
the larger ones on the inside. 0. capacity

5.12 For positive identification, a filter is given a
nominal rating and an absolute rating. A filter's nomi
nal rating is based on its ability to stop a great per
centage of particles of a given size(98%,95%,and so
on). If it stops 100% of a given particle size, this size
is referred to as its absolute rating. Remember, filter
ratings are usually based on their performance when
they are new, clean, and filtering a certain volume (in
cfm) of air. Most manufacturers publish rating charts
or tables that specify the nominal and absolute ratings
offilters at different airflow rates.
5.13 The ability of a filter to remove contaminant?;,
referred to as its dirt capacity^ depends on the
amount, size, type, and concentration of solid parti
cles in the air being treated. It also depends on the air
flow velocity through the filter and the maximum
allowable pressure drop across the filter. Large, coarse
particles can build up without causing a high filter
pressure drop. However, small, fine, or sticky parti
cles pack together and increase the pressure drop,
even with only thin buildups. The heavier the duty,
the quicker a filter will load up.
Contaminant accumulation
ence that would pennit the collected particles to pass
through the filter. This is called contaminant migration.
The maximum allowable pressure drop across a filter is
determined by the manufacturer's rating and filter medi
um used. Capacities of surface and depth filters are
compared in Rg.5-3.
5.16 Another type of particle contamination, abra
sion migration, occurs when the filter medium
becomes loose in its housing and allows previously
stopped particles to pass between the filtering medi
um and housing and into the system. Vibration is usu
ally the major cause of abrasion migration.
5.17 Medium migration occurs when part of the fil
ter medium itself breaks off and is carried along with
the air it is filtering. Contaminant release takes place
when the accumulated particles or part of the filter
move around on the surfaces of the filter medium.

5.14 The dirt capacity of a filter is also related to

the sizes of the openings it has compared to the sizes of
the dirt particles. Filters with large openings should
only be used to pick up large particles, while filters
with smaller openings should ody be used to pick up
the smaller particles. If a single filter element is used to
pick up particles of all sizes it will load up quickly and
require cleaning or replacing more frequently. Using a
single element is also an inefQdent method offiltering.
5.15 Filter capacity is also determined by the amount
of pressure drop through the filter. The maximum
allowable pressure drop of a filter is the pressure differ-
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5.18 Filter performance depends a great deal on
the shape, size, and arrangement of the openings in
the medium. The performance of a surface filter (Fig.
5-2) is usually limited to a narrow range because of
the regularly spaced openings. A depth filter has a
broader performance range because of the irregular
and varied openings. Because the depth filter has
smaller openings than the surface filter, it removes the
smaller particles, as well as the larger ones,irom the
air. A surface filter can also remove small particles
from the air, but not until it has a buildup of accumu
lated particles on its openings. For the most effective
use of the equipment, depth filters are used to remove
 Surface Filters
Fig. 5-4. Woven wire patterns

5.21 Usually, surface filters or strainers of wire

Square weave
small particles from compressed air and surface filters
are used for the larger particles.
mesh are used in pneumatic systems. They can be
placed to remove the larger particles either from free
air or from the compressed air in the lines of the sys
tem. Most strainers are made from stainless steel
wire, which is woven to contain a specified number of
openings in each square inch of area. This is called
the mesh of the cloth or screen. The wire diameter can
Dutch twill weave
vary slightly with different meshes to control the
strength of the strainer and the size of the openings.
Although strainers are economical and suitable for
some applications, they are limited as to the size of
particles that they can remove from the air.

Types of Media 5.22 Strainers that can retain small particles do so

5.19 The applications of surface and depth filters
sometimes seem to overlap. Many applications that
seem to require a surface filter use a depth filter. The
following materials are used mainly for surface fil-
only after they accumulate a lot of large particles.
When this happens, a large pressure drop occurs
across them, making them inefficient. Some of the
smaller sizes of strainers used in pneumatic systems
include:

Mesh Particle size

metal strainers (screens, woven metal
cloth, disks, or ribbons) 325 30 (0.0012 in.)

sintered metal powders 11 (0.0004 in.)

thin,felted fibers 6 (0.00025 in.)

thin membranes 1000 3.5 (0.00014 in.).

• woven cloth (single layer). Strainer wire may have a square weave or a Dutch
twill weave as shown in Fig. 5-4. The Dutch twill
5.20 Depth filters sometimes resemble surface fil weave is preferred for air filtration applications
ter media. The following materials are commonly because of its smaller openings and its more efficient
used for depth filters: operation.

• felted or matted nonmetallic fibers 5.23 Wire-mesh strainers are economically used as
intake filters on compressors that do not require thor
• closely packed nonmetallic fibers oughly clean air, and for applications where the air
supply is clean. Strainers used in the pressure line
• closely packed fine metallic wire or may be made of metal ribbons, disks, or plastic-
ribbons impregnated paper (Fig. 5-5).

oil bath filters 5.24 Ribbon elements are usually tapered, with the
thicker section on the outside and the thinner section
activated carbon and other desiccants on the inside. This means the smaller part of the open
ing is on the outside of the element. If the ribbon is
papers. flat, it may be made with spacers that control the
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 Secondary Air Treatment 73

Fig. 5-5. A strainer in cross section

Strainer
element

Gravity
settling
zone

amount of space between the bands of the ribbon.

Ribbons are usually designed to remove particles
larger than 40 // (0.0015 in.), such as dirt, rust, and
scale. Because a 40 ^ capacity is not considered suffi
cient for many applications, a strainer is usually
placed in the line just ahead of the filler.

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74 Programmed Exercises

5-1. Gravity contaminant separation takes 5-1. SLOWS DOWN

place when a moving stream of air
Ref: 5.03, Rg.5-1

5-2. Cyclone and louver separators remove 5-2. PRESSURE LOSS

fine particles without causing a high
Ref: 5.07

5-3. The size of a particle of contamination 5-3. MICRONS or MICROMETERS

is measured in
Ref: 5.08

5-4. Separators, strainers, and filters are 5-4. SIZE

Identified or rated by the of
particle they will stop.
Ref: 5.10

5-5. To obtain the most efficient use of fil 5-5. DEPTH

tering equipment, use both surface fil
ters and filters. Ref:5.18

5-6. Surface filters should be used to 5-6. LARGE

remove particles.
Ref: 5.21

5-7. The strainer-wire weave that is pre 5-7. DUTCH TWILL

ferred in air filtration applications for Its
more efficient operation is the Ref: 5.22
weave.

5-8. Ribbon elements usually have 5-8. TAPERED

cross section.
Ref: 5.24

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 Secondary Air Treatment 75

Depth Filters
Fig. 5-6. A wetted filter

5.25 Many types of depth filters are used in pneu

matic systems. The type of filter medium used depends
on the application. Common filter applications include:

• at the compressor intake to prevent large

Dry filter-
particles from entering the air compressor

• in some separators to collect moisture,

oil. and solid particles from the air after it
has been compressed
Wetted
fitter
• in air-line preparation stations,just before
the air is used by pneumatic equipment.

Depth air filters may be of the dry, wetted, or oil-bath

types.

Baffles
5.26 Dry filters. Dry filters rely on the filter medi
um to remove the particles from the air. Dry filters 4 * 4
have a lower initial cost but must be replaced periodi
cally. Actually, some may be cleaned, but most manu
facturers recommend replacement. The cost of the
replacement cartridge is low.

5.27 Wetted filters. Wetied filters (Fig. 5-6)

depend on a coating of oil to help collect and hold
contaminant particles that are removed from the air.
Wetted filters have a slightly higher initial cost than
dry filters, but they can be cleaned many times.
Although this increases their service costs, it may be
more economical than replacing a dry filter. One dis
advantage of this type is that air leaving the wetted
filter will always contain some oil.
5.28 Oil-bath filters. An oil-bath filter is actually
another type of wetted filter. Oil-bath filters deflect
the air through the top of an oil bath before directing
it through a filter medium. The filter medium, coated
with oil, holds the contaminant particles. Oil-bath fil
lers are very efficient for large airflows, and can
remove 100% of particles 3 ^ and larger. They can be
cleaned whenever necessary. This increases their ser
vice cost in a manner similar to that of wetted filters.
5.29 Intake filters of lubricated reciprocating com
pressors should remove 100% of particles above 10 pt.
For unlubricated or oil-free piston compressors, 100%
removal of particles above 5 pt is desirable. Dynamic
compressors and blowers sometimes require removal
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below 5 pi to reduce dust buildup on the impellers.
Similar particle removal is also desirable for vane and
screw compressors. The pressure drop through intake
filters should not exceed 1 psi.
5.30 Metal-powder filters are fused together by
sintering (heating) to form a porous metal structure.
Bronze is commonly used because it is corrosion-
resistant and easy to process and form. Even through
they are constructed with thick bodies, porous metal
filters are classed as surface filters. Most porous metal
filters remove particles above 25 pi (0.001 in),
although finer filters above 4 pi (0.00016 in) are avail
able. In addition, they also remove about 90% of free
moisture and some free oil from the air. If corrosion is
a problem, the element used should be made of stain
less steel or brass. Stainless steel is often used
because of its higher strength.
5.31 Other types of filters such as felted fibers,
packed metal wire, and papier may be considered as
either surface or depth filters. The actual construction
determines their designation. When they are used, the
filter cartridge is usually positioned in a metal hous
ing. In the housing, some form of swirling motion or
change in the direction of the air is used to separate
some of the larger solid and liquid particles mechani
cally. The remaining contaminants are then removed
by the filler.
5.32 Felted media are masses of fibers matted
together into a dense, porous structure. They have
interlocking fibers and are sometimes resin bonded.
Some felted filters are supported by perforated metal or
screen cores so they are able to withstand a high pres
sure drop. Smaller fibers provide finer filtration, and
when densely packed, act like surface filters. Wool or
hair fibers can remove particles over 10 // in size. Cel
lulose fibers can remove particles over 5 // in size.
5.33 Unfelted cotton, loose cellulose, or mineral
fibers may simply be packed into woven or knitted
bags and placed in canisters. Their micron-removal
ratings are not as good as felted fibers because they
Fig. 5-7. An adsorption filter
Automatic
drain float
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are not as closely packed. Their removal rating can be
improved by wetting, because the dust particles cling
more readily to the wet fibers.
5.34 Filter papers can be either used as depth filters
or combined with other filtering media. Filters assem
bled with pap>ers of dilferent porosities absorb liquid
and solid particles and are considered depth filters.
The filters may be manufactured in a pleated or ribbed
pattern, or they may be wound on a metal core. Conta
minant removal can include both oil and water vapors
and submicroscopic solid particles as small as 0.01
5.35 Many instrument or air control lines use
membrane filter media to maintain clean air. Mem
brane media are thin, porous sheets of cellulose
acetate or cellulose nitrate formed in one piece. They
are produced by evaporating the solvent from a solu
tion of these materials, leaving a large, thin, porous
sheet of material. They are very stable because they
are not fused or bonded together by artificial process
es. Membrane filters can remove solid particles as
small as 0.1 as well as some moisture.
Adsorption Filters
5.36 Many pneumatic systems are equipped with
adsorption filters. Usually these filters consist of an
agent (carbon, powdered chemicals, or chemical gran
ules) placed in a container. These units are similar to
desiccant dryers and are used to remove vapor from
the air. As pointed out earlier in this Lesson, adsorp
tion is the process by which moisture collects on the
surface of a material, but is not absorbed by it. Most
adsorption filters used in secondary treatment collect
vapors other than moisture. As a result, it is very diffi
cult to recondition the desiccants, and only the
replaceable types are used.
5.37 In some of the adsorption and wetted filters,
the moisture vapors collect on the surface of the
medium and form drops of moisture. When this
occurs, the vapor is said to coalesce. The drops then
settle to the bottom of the filter bowl or housing, as
shown in Fig. 5-7.
Absorption Filters
5.38 In addition to adsorption filters, some absorp
tion filters are used in pneumatic systems as well. The
absorption filter draws the moisture vapors into the
 Secondary Air Treatment 77

Fig. 5-8. Heavy lubricators

Oil-flow control
A Oil-flow control

-Fill plug
Sight tube
lllillll
II
Safety
screen

Porous
wick Ventun tube

Transparent
safety bowl

absorbing medium instead of just collecting it on the
surface. Many absorption filters use a chemical medi
um that changes color as it absorbs the moisture. This
allows the maintenance craftsman or the equipment
operator to see the condition of the filter and replace
elements when necessary. Filtration in most adsorp
tion and absorption filters is in the 0.5-and-above pi
range.
Lubricating the Air
5.39 After air has been compressed and cleaned, it
is still not ready for use in many pieces of compressed
air equipment. Most pneumatic power tools, controls,
and cylinders require luhriratrd air to reduce wear
and corrosion. Included are portable pneumatic tools
such as screwdrivers, impact wrenches, vibrators,
tampers, staplers, and hoists. Air cylinders and air
motors also require lubrication. Remember, some
pneumatic components will not tolerate any oil at all.
To achieve the addition of lubricating oil to the
airstream, lubricating devices are installed in the air
line. Most installations combine final filtration, regu
lation, and lubrication all at one point.
5.40 Although it may seem a little strange first to
remove all of the oil and moisture from the air, and
then put it back, remember that many processes
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require oil-free air. Also, pneumatic equipment that
requires lubricated air must have clean, water-free,
uncontaminated oil. Most of the compressor oil that is
removed is contaminated with dirt and moisture, and
would do more harm to the equipment than good.
Lubricators are classified into two basic types, heavy
and fine.
5.41 Heavy lubricators. Heavy lubricators sup
ply both a fine suspended oil mist and heavy
droplets of oil that provide a film of oil inside the air
lines. These units are sometimes called "oil-fog" or
"oil-mist" lubricators by the manufacturers. Heavy
lubricators should only be used for continuous or
high airflows.
5.42 Some of the different heavy pneumatic lubri
cators in use are shown in Fig. 5-8. The wick lubrica
tor shown uses a porous bronze wick that extends into
the oil sump. This wick becomes saturated through
capillary action, which draws oil out of the bowl and
up into the air passage. The air picks up the oil and
carries it into the main airstream.
5.43 Several variations of the wick lubricator are
manufactured by different companies. The amount of
oiling at any airflow rate can be controlled (in some
models) by adjusting the airflow with a secondary
78 Lesson Five

by a needle valve. Lubricators of this type usually do

Fig. 5-9. A fine lubricator
not have pressurized bowls. They can be filled while
in operation.

5.45 Fine lubricators. Fine lubricators provide

only a fine, suspended oil mist in the airstream. With
to* "- ■ •* • ■'75
- ■a ..
this type of lubrication, more positive lubrication is
available at greater distances from the lubricator.
These units are especially effective with complicated
piping systems and intermittent equipment operation.
Fine lubricating devices are also suitable for lubricat
ing more than one piece of equipment when the air is
supplied from one station.

Deflector- 5.46 Many fine lubricators are variations or

1 I 1 Air improved types of heavy lubricators. When they
operate, metered oil from the reservoir enters the oil-
mixing or measuring chamber and is atomized by a
small portion of air from the airstream. However,
instead of being directed to the discharge opening, it
is directed against a deflector (Fig. 5-9). The deflec
tor separates oil droplets larger than 2 /v from the
finer oil particles. The heavier oil drops back into the
reservoir, and the oil mist leaves the lubricator. As it
leaves, the mist mixes with the main airstream. Flow
guides or vanes are usually provided to vary the
amount of lubricating oil with the changes in airflow
through the lubricator.
bypass adjustment valve. Always use caution when
filling, adjusting, or working on these units. 5.47 Lubricators should be mounted after the pres-
sure-regul^^ valve. If the regulator governs airflow
5.44 Another type of heavy lubricator shown in for more than one piece of equipment, lubricators
Fig. 5-8 on the previous page uses metered drops of should be connected only to the equipment that
oil. With this typie there is no separate air bypass. Air requires lubrication. When installing the lubricator it
that enters the lubricator flows through a reduced- is important to select the proper type and size. The
diameter section called a venturi. The venturi amount of lubrication needed will determine the type.
increases the speed of the air while lowering its The size of lubricator depends on both the amount of
pressure. Oil is drawn into the measuring chamber lubricant and the intervals between filling. Lubrica
by the reduction in air pressure created by the ven tors vary in size from 1 oz to 5 gal models. There are
turi. As the oil drops enter the airstream they are also some models available that can be connected
atomized and carried to the tool. Oil flow is regulated directly to a pressurized oil supply.

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 Secondary Air Treatment 79

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80 Programmed Exercises

5-9. Name the three types of depth air filters. 5-9. DRY,WETTED,OIL BATH

Ref: 5.25

5-10. An efficient Intake filter for a reciprocat 5-10. 10(TEN)

ing compressor should remove 100% of
particles measuring more than Ref: 5.29
microns.

5-11. An adsorption filter removes vapor from 5-11. SURFACE

the air by collecting moisture on the
of the medium. Ref: 5.36

5-12. Chemlcal-medlum filters that change 5-12. ABSORPTION

color are of the type.
Ref: 5.38

5-13. Most pneumatic power tools require air 5-13. LUBRICATED

that Is compressed, cleaned, and
Ref: 5.39

5-14. The two basic types of air line lubrica 5-14. HEAVY, FINE
tors are termed and
Ref: 5.40

5-15. Heavy lubricators should be used only 5-15. CONTINUOUS, HIGH

for or airflows.
Ref: 5.41

5-16. Lubricating equipment should always 5-16. REGULATING

be placed after the
equipment. Ref: 5.47

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 Self-Check Quiz 81

Answer the following questions by marking an"X"

in the box next to the best answer.

5-1 What type of contaminant separation takes 5-6. What occurs when part of the filter medium
place when a stream of air Is slowed breaks off and Is carried along with the air?
down?
□ a. Medium migration
□ a. Inertial □ b. Contaminant migration
□ b. Centrifugal □ c. Contaminant release
□ c. Gravity □ d. Abrasion migration
□ d. Cyclone
5-7. The usual way to remove large particles from
5-2. Because of their ability to stop large particles, the air stream is by using a(n)
Inertial separators are used as
□ a. coalescing filter
□ a. prefilters □ b. absorption filter
□ b. final filters □ c. depth filter
□ c. surface filters □ d. surface filter
□ d. depth filters
5-8. Which type of filter primarily uses a medium
5-3. Contaminant particle size is measured by the that collects moisture on the medium
surface?
□ a. parts per million
□ b. milliliters □ a. Depth
□ c. microns □ b. Adsorption
□ d. atoms □ c. Absorption
□ d. Impingement
5-4. A strainer or filter is classified by the
5-9. What type of oil is used to lubricate
□ a. fluid it is used in pneumatic equipment?
□ b. size of particle it stops
□ c. size of the filter element □ a. Automotive
□ d. name of the manufacturer □ b. Diesel
□ c. Heated
5-5. If a filter stops 96% of particles of a given □ d. Uncontamlnated
size, that particle size determines Its
5-10. The best point in a pneumatic system to
□ a. dirt capacity place lubricating equipment Is after the
□ b. nominal rating
□ c. absolute rating □ a. receiver
□ d. migration point □ b. cooler
□ c. regulator
□ d. compressor

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82 Lesson Five

itli ■j&"- ;'■ ■ • '/ "■llV^," : ■W,?L

Secondary air-treatment equipment consists of fil arranged openings of different sizes, which
ters, separators, strainers, and lubricators. Sepa allows them to remove smaller particles as well as
rators are often used first to remove the larger larger ones. Dry depth filters rely on the filter
solid and liquid particles from the air. Simple medium to remove particles. Wetted filters use a
gravity separation is time-consuming and only coating of oil to help collect contaminants. Oil
removes large particles. Centrifugal, or inertiai, bath filters send the air through the top of an oil
separation is faster and somewhat more efficient. bath, then through an oil-coated filter medium.
In most cases, these types of separator are used
as intake filters and prefilters for other equipment. Adsorption filters use a filter medium on which
drops of moisture form, then settle to the bottom
Surface filters, or strainers, are often made of wire of the filter bowl. Absorption filters use a type of
mesh, although sintered metal powders and thin medium that absorbs moisture and must be
fibers, membranes, and cloth are also used. The replaced.
equal-sized openings on a surface filter are
arranged in a regular pattern. This type will effec After cleaning, air must sometimes be lubricated.
tively remove larger particles from compressed Heavy lubricators provide a fine oil mist and
air. heavy droplets of oil that lubricate the inside of
the air lines. Heavy lubricators are appropriate for
Depth filters are commonly made of felted, mat continuous or high airflow. Rne lubricators pro
ted, or closely packed nonmetaliic fibers, fine vide only a fine suspended oil mist, which can
metallic wire or ribbons, oil bath filters, activated reach equipment at greater distances from the
carbon, or paper. Depth filters have irregularly lubricator.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

5-1. C. Gravity. Ret: 5.03, Rg. 5-1 5-6. a. Medium migration. Ref: 5.17

5-2. a. Prefilters. Ref:5.07 5-7. d. Surface filter. Ref: 5.21

5-3. 0. Microns. Ref:5.08 5-8. b. Adsorption. Ref: 5.36

5-4. b. The size of particle it stops. 5-9. d. Uncontaminated. Ref: 5.40

Ref: 5.10
5-10. c. Regulator. Ref: 5.47
5-5. b. Nominal rating. Ref: 5.12

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 5-5. Parker-Hannlfin. Rgure 5-8. Master Pneumatic-Detroit inc. Parker-Hannifin

Figure 5-6. King Engineering Corp. Dyna-Quip
Rgure 5-7. Wilkerson Corp. Rgure 5-9. Wilkerson Corp.

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UNDERSTANDING BASICPNEUMATICS

Lesson Six

fHping, Hoses,
and Fhtings

V 3

\o-
 Lesson

^ Piping, Hoses, and Fittings

TOPICS

Piping Requirements Tubing Installation

Airflow Nonmetailic Tubing
Piping Hoses
Pipe Applications Hose Fittings
Metallic Tubing Quick-Disconnect Couplings
Tube Bending Hose Installation
Tube Fittings

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• State the importance of laminar flow. Discuss procedures for pipe, tube, and hose
• List the factors that affect pressure loss in a pipe. installation.
• State direction and amount of slope for compressor Describe safe working procedures for disconnecting
discharge pipes. air hoses.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Bursting pressure 6.14 the minimum pressure at Drain leg 6.22 piping fixture used to trap and
which a component begins to split apart eliminate water in the line
Safety factor 6.15 bursting pressure divided by Bend radius 6.29 measurement of a curve in tub
system operating pressure ing, from tubing centerline to the center of the
Free air 6.20 air at normal atmospheric pressure circle
(14.7 psi)

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 85

Piping plays an important role in a pneumatic system. The piping must not only
transfer compressed air to the various components of the system, but must
also keep the air clean, n must be strong enough to withstand system pres
sures, and durable enough to hold up under the external rigors of the plant
environment.

Like electric outlets in a home, sufficient air outlets are usually built into an
industrial pneumatic power system to allow for flexibility in arrangement of
work stations, in many cases, however, pneumatic piping systems must also be
expandable, as the need arises. This is an important consideration when deter
mining how the piping is to be joined together.

This Lesson describes some of the different types of pipe and hoses used in a
pneumatic system. It also describes common fittings and connections. The abil
ity to recognize these components, and knowledge of how they are used, will
help accelerate your overall understanding of pneumatic power requirements in
your plant.

Piping Requirements 6.02 When a compressed-air system is installed in

6.01 The air-distribution system is another impor
tant part of a pneumatic system. It includes all of the
pipes, hoses, valves, and fittings needed to connect all
the other components of the system together. From
the intake filter to the compressor, and on through the
coolers and separators to the equipment driven by the
air, piping is required. Numerous control lines con
nect the various control components of the air supply
system.
a plant, provision must be made for connecting aU of
the components (compressors, receivers, filters, sepa
rators, and lubricators) wherever they are needed.
Outlet lines, complete with drain legs and provisions
for installing additional equipment in the future,
should also be included. Figure 6-1 shows a typical
pneumatic piping system.
6.03 Usually, pneumatic piping systems consist of
combinations of pipe, tubing, hose, and fittings. These

Fig.6-1. A compressed-air piping system

Receiver

Valve

Auxiliary receiver
for intermittent
heavy loads

Drain leg

Automatic drain

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Fig. 6-2. Typical distribution systems

Central distribution Unit distribution

!ei:l!Plsl!il0iil8lP.lsliil=l!HI liPlallillirl Compressor Compressor

Shipping

Compressor Compressor

air lines should be free from leaks and excessively heat. To avoid turbulence, the inner walls of an air
high pressure drops. They also must be strong enough line should be smooth, and piping should not change
to withstand excessive system air pressure, pulsation, direction more frequently than necessary. The num
vibration, and other shocks. ber of fittings in the air line should be kept to a min
imum, and they should not restrict the flow.
Airflow
6.05 When selecting pipe for an air line, the
6.04 For air to flow efficiently in a pipe, it must sizes must be large enough so that the pressure
flow smoothly. This type of flow pattern is called drop between the air receiver and the farthest point
streamlined or laminar flow, as described earlier (in of use is no more than 10% of the compressor
Lesson One). Laminar airflow occurs if an air line is cutout pressure (5 to 10 psi). Inlet and discharge
large enough to handle the volume of air that flows lines, and fittings that connect the compressor to all
through it, and if the line is free from obstructions. components at the beginning of the system, should
When airflow velocity is increased or the air is also be large enough to deliver air efficiently to the
forced to flow through a smaller line, turbulence air receiver.
occurs. Turbulent flow wastes energy by creating
6.06 The size of an air line required for a particu
lar application depends on several things: the volume
of air transmitted, the system operating pressure, the
distance the air travels, and the number of bends and
Table 6-1. Airflow in pipes
fittings in the line. The size of the plant and the loca
Length in feet tion of the compressor(s) determine how far air has to
Volume
of air(cfm)
25-200 I 200-500 | 500-1000 be transmitted. Some plants use unit or localized sys
Nominal pipe diameter tems, while others use centralized or loop systems, as
30-60 1 1 IV shown in Fig. 6-2. In a loop system, auxiliary air
60-100 1 IV4 2V
receivers can be installed away from the compressor
100-200 vu IV2 2
200-500 2 2V2 3 to reduce the distance air travels during peak flows.
500-1000 2V2 3 3V This avoids excessive pressure drops, which would
1000-2000 2V2 4 4V
occur if the peak flow had to be supplied throughout
2000-4000 3V2 5 6
4000-8000 6 8 8 the entire system. Additional compressors may also
be installed to assist during peak flow periods.

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 Piping, Hoses, and Fittings 87

6.07 Because air is compressible, sizing of the Fig. 6-3. Typical pressure losses
lines is frequently not as critical as sizing hydraulic
lines. But fewer problems occur later if reasonable
care is taken when selecting the pipe size. The
approximate pipe sizes required to transmit com Receiver

pressed air at about 100 psi are given in Table 6-1.

•'} 80 psi (
'
Note the range of volume that can be handled by a
single pipe diameter. More specific data on the sizing Lubricator-
of pipe for compressed air can be obtained from 100 psi

design reference books.

Strainerl

6.08 When selecting the pipe size that will provide

minimum pressure drop, more than just the pipe diame 95 psi(
ter must be considered. The actual pressure losses that
take place in compressed air lines are shown in Fig. 6-3.
In a line with several fittings, valves, and other compo
nents, pressure gauges in various positions will have the
same reading if no air is being used. When air is used,
differences among the gauge readings down the line
show the pressure drops at each point. Pressure drops or walls and the compressed air. Table 6-2 gives the
losses cannot be eliminated, but with good system approximate pressure losses in psi for different vol
design they can be kept to a minimum. umes of air for 1000 ft of pipe. The losses shown
are stated for air in the pipe at 100 psi. For example,
6.09 Different size pipes have different pressure the pressure drop in 1000 ft of 1V2 in. pipe, for a
losses because of the friction between the inner pipe flow rate of 12.8 cfm (at 100 psi), is 2.86 psi. For a

Table 6-2. Pipe pressure losses(air at 100 psi)

Ft^ compressed Nominal pipe diameter (in inches)
air per min. V2 IV4
%
1.28 6.50 .99
2.56 25.9 3.90
3.84 58.5 9.01
5.12 —
16.0
6.41 —
25.1
7.68 —
36.2
8.96 —
49.3
10.24 —
64.5 0.19

11.52 0.24
—
82.8
12.81 0.30
15.82 0.46
0.66 0.21
19.23
0.91 0.28
22.40
1.19 0.37
25.62
1.85 0.58
31.64
2.67 0.84 0.20
38.44
3.64 i 1.14 0.27
44.80
4.75 , 1.50 0.35
51.24
5.98 1.89 0.46
57.65
7.42 2.34 0.55
63.28
10.7 3.36 0.79
76.88
14.5 4.55 1.09
89.60
19.0 5.89 1.42
102.5
24.1 7.6 1.80
115.3
29.8 9.3 2.21
128.1

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88 Lesson Six

Table 6-3. Pressure loss tfarough a fitting(in equivaleiit

feet of pipe kngtii)
Nominal Tee
pipe size Gate Standard Reducing through Globe
(in.) valve tee tee side outlet valve

Va 0.36 0.62 1.55 3.10 17.3

®/4 0.48 0.82 2.06 4.12 22.9
1 0.61 1.05 2.62 5.24 29.1
IV4 0.81 1.38 3.45 6.90 38.3
IV2 0.94 1.61 4.02 8.04 44.7
2 1.21 2.07 5.17 10.3 57.4
21/2 1.44 2.47 6.16 12.3 68.5
3 1.79 3.07 6.16 15.3 85.2
4 2.35 4.03 7.67 20.2 112
5 2.94 5.05 10.1 25.2 140
6 3.54 6.07 15.2 30.4 168

pipe 500 ft long, the pressure drop is half this value,
or 1.43 psi.
6.10 The amount of pressure loss in a pipe is
affected not only by the air-flow volume and the pipe
diameter, but also by the air pressure. The lower the
pressure, the greater the ratio between the pressure
loss and the optimal pressure level. These greater
losses occur because airflow at lower pressures is
affected more by friction with the walls of the piping
than is airflow at higher pressures. Pressure losses in
the line caused by fittings and restrictions are also
proportionately greater at lower pressures.
6.11 At the places where fittings are used in a pipe
line, the inside area of the flow channel is restricted
somewhat. In almost every case, the fitting causes a
pressure drop that is greater than an equal length of
straight pipe. For convenience, pressure drops through
fittings are calculated in equivalent lengths of straight
pipe, rather than in psi. Table 6-3 shows the effective
pipe lengths of different kinds of fittings for different
pipe diameters. Compare the differences between the
fittings and the valves. One or two fittings in a long
line will have little effect on the pressure drop, but
several fittings or valves in a short line can have a rel
atively great effect on the pressure drop.
Piping
6.12 Compressed air lines in most plants are con
structed of black steel pipe for the main headers. Sec
ondary and low-pressure applications use pressure-
rated hoses, metal tubing, and plastic tubing. Black
steel pipe is used because of its availability, strength,
readily available fittings, and ease of installation. Pipe
does not have the variety of sizes that tubing has, but
a large variety is not really required for a pneumatic
system.

Table 6-4. Strengtii of pipe 6.13 The nominal dimensions of Schedule 40

Schedule 40 pipe (standard) pipe, as well as its working pressure, burst
Nominal
pipe size Work Burst ing pressure, and area for some of the more common
O.D. I.D. Area pressure pressure
(in.)
(psi)
sizes are shown in Table 6-4. For stronger pipes the
(In.) (In.) (in.2) (psi)
wall thickness and inside diameter change, while the
Va 0.84 0.62 0.30 2055 12,330 outside diameter for each nominal pipe size remains
% 1.05 0.82 0.53 1760 10,560
1 1.32 1.05 0.86 1915 14,490 the same. This permits one size of pipe thread to be
IV4 1.66 1.38 1.49 1650 9980 used for all pipes having the same nominal size.
IV2 1.90 1.61 2.03 1520 9130
2 2.37 2.07 3.36 1340 8040
3 3.50 3.07 7.39 1490 8940 6.14 The bursting pressure of any element in a
compressed air system is a very critical design factor.

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Bursting pressure is the threshold value at which the
walls of the component begin to split apart. For
Schedule 40 black steel pipe, the bursting pressure is
much higher than the actual working pressure of most
compressed air systems. This provides a fairly high
safety factor in the operation of the system.
6.15 The safety factor is the ratio between the
bursting pressure and the system's operating pres-
sme. For example, if a 3 in. pipe is used to carry 250
psi air, the safety factor (SF) is calculated in this
memner:
Bursting pressure from Table 6-4
SF =
Working pressure of the system
8940 psi
250 psi
= 35.6
Although pneumatic pressures are much lower than
hydraulic pressures, a high safety factor is desirable.
Compressed air can be dangerous if allowed to
expand without suitable controls, as happens when an
air line bursts.
(Note: Schedule 40 pipe has an adequate safety fac
tor for most air lines up to 175 psi. But the pipe
must also be properly mounted and supported to pre
vent mechanical shock and vibration. When shocks,
vibration, higher pressure, corrosion, and other abus
es, such as bumping, are expected, a higher safety
factor can be obtained by using Schedule 80 (extra
strong) pipe. And with the thicker wall section of
Schedule 80 pipe, threaded connections are less like
ly to break.)
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Piping, Hoses,and Fittings 89
6.16 There are three methods of connecting pipes
in a pneumatic system: threading, welding, and flang
ing. Threaded 125 lb cast-iron fittings are actually
rated for 125 psi saturated-steam applications, but
they can be used for 125 psi air lines that are not sub
ject to shock, vibration, or bumping. The more
durable 150 lb malleable iron fittings are better suited
to air line use. They are stronger and more corrosion-
resistant. The 300 lb malleable iron fittings are most
suitable for rough service. They are approximately
twice as strong as the 150 lb fittings. Malleable iron
fittings can be identified by the letters MI or the num
bers 150 or 300 on them. Fittings used in compressed
air lines should be air-tested for possible leaks before
being installed in the system.
6.17 Air lines with welded fittings have less leak
age than lines with threaded fittings. They also have
reduced pressme drops. However, welded lines are
not as easy to install as lines with threaded fittings. It
is also harder to install additional outlets to a welded
system, when required to do so. Large air-distribution
systems are more often of the welded type than are
small systems, because large systems are not usually
changed after installation. Threaded adapters are
available for changing from welded piping to thread
ed piping at outlet points.
6.18 Flanged connections are mostly used for
medium- and large-sized piping and equipment. Large
compressors, aftercoolers, separators, and air
receivers are often equipped with flanges. Although
both iron and steel flanges are manufactured, only
steel flanges are recommended for pneumatic power
systems. Because they are stronger than cast iron,
they can take more abuse and do not crack as easily.
While there are several different classes (pressure rat
ings)for steel flanges, 150 lb and 300 lb are the ones
most commonly used.
90 Programmed Exercises

6-1. Name the three types of compressed 6-1. PIPE,TUBING, HOSE

air conductors used In a pneumatic pip
ing system. Ref:6.03

6-2. Air should flow through a pipe In a(n) 6-2. STREAMLINED or LAMINAR
pattern.
Ref: 6.04

6-3. The size of an air line should be select 6-3. PRESSURE

ed so only a small drop
occurs. Ref:6.05

6-4. VOLUME OF AIR, AIR PRESSURE,

6-4. Name at least four Items that affect
LENGTH OF PIPE. NUMBER OF FIT
pressure drop.
TINGS, NUMBER OF BENDS

Ref: 6.06

6-5. To reduce the distance air travels In a 6-5. AUXILIARY or EXTRA

laroe loop system. air
receivers are used. Ref: 6.06. FIG. 6-2

6-6. The lower the pressure in a pipe, the 6-6. LARGER

the pressure losses will be.
Ref: 6.10

6-7. Pressure losses through fittings and 6-7. FEET(or LENGTHS)

valves are qlven In terms of
of straight pipe. Ref: 6.11

6-8. Name the three methods used for con 6-8. THREADING,WELDING,FLANGING
necting pipe In a pneumatic system.
Ref:6.16

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 Piping, Hoses,and Fittings 91

Pipe Appiications
Fig.6-4. Drainage slope
6.19 Compressor-inlet piping should be large
enough so that the air velocity in the pipe does not
exceed 2500 fpm (Jeet per minute). Short intake lines
can be the same size as the compressor intake open Airflow
ing provided the intake flow velocity is not more than
2500 fpm. If the compressor intake line is more than
7 ft long, the intake pipe size should be one size larg 1 in. every 10 ft
er than the pipe with a velocity of 2500 fpm. When
determining the intake pipe length, be sure to include
the equivalent lengths of any fittings that you use.
Moisture drop
6.20 The actual velocity for intake airflow can be
obtained by dividing the compressor air capacity
(in cfm) by the area of the intake pipe in square feet
For example, if a 100 cftn compressor has a 2V2 in. a manually operated valve so that the water can be
inlet connection for a filter, the air velocity through a removed periodically.
2^/2 inch intake line is:
6.23 To eliminate water from distribution lines,
lOOcfin outlet points should always be taken off the top of the
Velocity =
0.0033 ft^ distribution lines. Additional water and other contami
nation can be removed fi^om the outlet line by the out
= 3030 ft per min
let drain legs. Outlet lines should be large enough to
handle the amount of air required by the tools.
This velocity is too high for an intake pipe longer
than 7 ft If the intake pipe size is increased to 3 in., 6.24 The familiar National Pipe Thread (NPT),
the air velocity is: used for water pipes, is also used for pneumatic pip
ing. Remember that an NPT has a spiral clearance
lOOcfin along the crest of the thread, and it seals against air
Velocity =
0.0051 ft^ leaks with flank-to-flank (side-to-side) contact, with
the aid of pipe compound (pipe dope). The compound
= 1960 ft per min
also reduces friction, prevents galling, and permits
more uniform tightening of the threaded connections.
This size is satisfactory. When connecting pipes,follow these procedures:

6.21 Piping is also used for compressor discharge, 1. Carefully deburr threaded pipe ends on the
distribution, and work-station lines. Piping is recom inside and outside to remove sharp edges and
mended over tubing for these applications, because it loose bits of metal.
is more economical and requires fewer supports. Be
sure, however, that the pipe is installed with more 2. Clean out all file chips and saw chips before
than the minimum number of supports.(Piping should assembling piping and fittings.
always be well-supported, wherever it is installed.)
3. Use pipe compounds sparingly and never on
6.22 When installed as compressor discharge and the thread ends.
distribution lines, all horizontal pipes should slope
approximately 1 in. for every 10 ft of pipe. The 4. Support long runs with str^s or hangers.
slope should be downward, in the direction of the
airflow, as shown in Fig. 6-4. This slope permits any 5. Provide unions or flanges to permit easy dis
water in the lines to flow to the drain legs, which are assembly, in case additional connections must
designed to collect it. Most drain legs are fitted with be made later.

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92 Lesson Six

usually large enough to provide sufficient airflow.

Table 6-5. Tubing size deslgiiafion(m inches) Whenever smaller tubes are connected to the threaded
openings, bushings are used in the pipe's threaded
Tube Wall Tube Tube Wall Tube
O.D. Uifcioiess I.D. O.D. thickness I.D.
hole to accommodate the change in size. Although
most sizes of tubing have high safe working pressures,
0.035 0.430 0.049 0.777
0.042 0.416 0.058 0.759
it is a good idea to check the strength of any tube
% ^/8
(0.500) 0.065 0.370 (0.875) 0.072 0.731 before you use it for other than normal applications.
0.072 0.356 0.095 0.685
0.095 0.310 0.109 0.657
0.035
Tube Bending
0.555 0.049 0.902
0.042 0.541 1 0.058 0.884
%
(0.625) 0.065 0.495 (1.000) 0.083 0.834 6.28 Metal tubing is easier to install than pipe
0.072 0.481 0.109 0.782
because it requires fewer connections. Most of the
0.095 0.435 0.120 0.760
0.049 0.652 0.049 1.152
necessary changes in direction are made by bending
®/4 0.065 0.620 IV4 0.058 1.134 the tube. Care must be used when bending tubing,
(0.750) 0.072 0.083 1.084
0.606 (1.250) because once it is bent, it cannot be straightened or
0.095 0.560 0.109 1.032
0.109 0.532 0.120 1.010
changed without deforming the tube.

6.29 Bending tools are used to bend the tube to the

6. Avoid unnecessary fittings and too many
joints.
Metallic Tubing
6.25 Metal tubing differs from pipe in several
important ways. First, it can be manufactiu'ed by a
drawing process, by welding, by extrusion, or by
rolling. Second, tubing has more accurate inside and
outside diameters and better surface finishes. Third,
tubing is made in many different diameters and wall
thicknesses. Last, tubing is made of stronger and
more flexible materials than pipe. T\ibing materials
include steel, stainless steel, copper, aluminum, and
brass. All metallic tubing is recommended for pneu
matic lines with pressures up to 250 psi.
proper radius. The minimum allowable bend radius for
several different sizes of tubes is shown in Fig. 6-5. A
bend radius smaller than the one shown is undesirable,
because it causes fiictional pressure losses in the line.
Thbing should be formed into a smooth bend that main
tains a round cross section. Always try to keep the
number of bends in a line to a minimum.
6.30 In addition to exercising care in bending or
forming a tube, observe the following precautions to
achieve tight tubing connections:
1. Cut tubing square and long enough to ensure
proper installation in the fitting.
2. Remove burrs fi'om the inside and outside
edges of the tube.

6.26 Tubing larger than 2 in. in diameter is seldom 3. Remove chips and dirt fi'om the tubing and
used in pneumatic power systems. Sizes with a less fitting.
than 5/8-in. outside diameter are usually preferred.
Smaller sizes of tubing are used for control lines and 4. Assemble the tube nuts and sleeves onto the
to make neat, close-fitting connections between differ tubing before flaring and before inserting the
ent pieces of equipment. Larger tubing is used for tube into the fitting.
finned, air-cooled compressor intercoolers and after-
coolers. Table 6-5 shows some of the sizes that are 5. Insert the tube carefully into the fitting.
manufactured. Note that the nominal tube size is the
same as its OD. 6. Tighten the nuts finger-tight.

6.27 The size of the tubing that connects pneumat 7. Tighten the connections carefully. If you are
ic components is determined by the size of the tapped uncertain about the quality of the connection,
holes in the equipment. These tapped openings are disassemble it and start over.

TlM(natMWisprotactodbyU.S.Cap)ffightbw. Copyiq by any apticd,alMXnnic. or o(harm«im to without pmnjtskia

 Piping, Hoses, and Fittings 93

Fig. 6-5. 1\ibe bending bends will all act to increase

flow losses and leakage.
Follow these general proce
Radius of bend (r) is Nominal tube Minimum bend dures and precautions when
measured from center- O.D., in. radius, In.
line of tube
installing tubing:
IV4
vu
Va 1V4 • Select tubing and fit
Correct
1V2 tings for flow, pres
% 1% sure, and service
% 2
1 3
requirements.
IVa 3V2
Wrinkled IV4 33/4 • Form lines with a
1^/8 5
minimum number of
IV2 5
Incorrect
bends.

• Protect the lines from

8. Clean each joint carefully, and use proper accidental damage.

welding or brazing procedures for permanent
Valves, filters, and other accessories
connections.
should be independently supported, and
Tube Fittings
not depend on the tubing for support.

Tubing assemblies should be installable

6.31 There are many types of pneumatic tube fit
tings available from various manufacturers. The fit
and removable without springing, bend
tings are designed to connect tubing to equipment ing, or damaging the tubing.
ports, and to connect pipe and hose fittings firmly,
without leakage. Most fittings have recommended Avoid connections in straight runs.
safe working pressures for various types of service.
Published maximum working pressures recommended Support long tubing runs with clamps or
for each type of service should be utilized in select hangers.
ing, installing, servicing, and replacing tube fittings.
All tube as.semblies should be installed
Some of the different fittings used with pneumatic
and removed with hand tools.
systems are shown in Fig. 6-6.

6.32 Fittings are designed to prevent air leaks at

connections and to protect the tube against damage. Fig. 6-6. Metal tube fittings
Flared fittings use long-shouldered nuts or support
sleeves for stability when vibration is likely to be
encountered. Both regular and inverted flared fittings,
as well as permanent fittings, are available in most tube
sizes up to 2 in. in diameter. Compression and threaded
sleeve fittings are available for tubing up to I in. in
diameter. Because they do not use flared ends, the pres
sure ratings for these latter types of fittings are lower.

Tubing Installation

6.33 Good tubing installation requires that bends be

made, and fittings selected, to minimize shock loads and
temperature changes. Too many,too few, or pooiiy located
CCD c&
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Nonmettalic Tubing Fig. 6-7. Plastic tube fittings

6.34 Nonmetallic
or plastic tubing can
be made of polyethyl-
ene, polypropylene, t
or polyvinyl chloride. J K'
The majority of plas-
tic tubing is limited to Brass compression
working pressures
below 100 psi, and to
temperatures below
190°F. However,
some kinds of tubing
can be used for pres
sures up to 145 psi at 190°F. The advantage of
plastic tubing is that it is resistant to chemical
attack and will not corrode. In addition, polyethyl
ene is available in colors. This can be helpful in
troubleshooting complicated systems. Nonrein-
forced nylon is also used for extreme temperature
applications (between -lOO'F and 225''F, and at
pressures up to 250 psi). Plastic or nylon tubing is
excellent for pilot control lines and low-pressure
lines that do not flex much.
6.35 Fittings for plastic tubing include brass
compression, compression, O-ring, and barbed
types (Fig. 6-7). Compression fittings support the
plastic tube, keeping it from collapsing when the
tube nut is tightened. Barbed fittings may be used
with or without a clamp, depending on line pres
sure. Always follow manufacturers' pressure/tem
perature recommendations for plastic tubing and
fittings when installing them in pneumatic sys-
Fig. 6-8. Air-hose construction
Reinforcement
Tubing support Sleeve
Nut ®'®Mnsert
i
{
t Compression
— O-ring
^ —Grab ring
O-rlng - Spacer
Hoses
6.36 In most plants air hoses are used for connecting
portable equipment to line-mounted air stations. These
hoses may be from 5 to 50 ft in length. Hoses are also
used for flexible connections between moving and non-
moving pieces of equipment. When used to connect
moving to nonmoving equipment, hoses provide insula
tion from shock, noise, and vibration. Hoses can also be
used for temporary connections, and for connections
that are made and broken frequently. However, hoses
should not be used to connect plant air lines permanent
ly, because hoses are not as durable as pipe.
6.37 An air hose (Fig. 6-8) consists of an inner tube
for transporting the air, a reinforcing layer of some kind,
and a cover that protects the reinforcement against wear
and damage. The inner tube is usually made of a syn
thetic rubber that resists oil, water, and heat. The rein
forcing material can be natural or synthetic yams or
fibers, metal wire braiding, or a combination. The rein
forcing material determines the strength of the hose. A
plastic, mbber, or synthetic cover is usually placed over
the reinforcing material to protect it from abrasion.
6.38 Most hoses are classed as low-pressure hoses,
which will withstand pressures up to 175 psi. Most of
these hoses range in size from b4 to ^/s-in. inside diame
ter, and have one or two reinforcing plies. Recommended
maximum operating temperatures can reach approxi
mately 200T depending on the material in the inner tube.

6.39 An air hose should be used to connect only one

piece of equipment to a plant air line. If it is necessary to
connect more than one piece of equipment, use a Y-con-
nner tube
nector and two separate hoses. Make sure you have
selected the proper size air hose. Selection factors must
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 Piping, Hoses, and Fittings 95

include the amount of air each tool requires, and its fre
Fig. 6-9. Hose fittings
quency of operation. If more than one tool requires air at
the same time, larger-diameter hoses may be needed.
Becaase air hose IDs are smaller than the same size of
pipe, the proper size air hose is usually one size larger
than the nominal size of the connecting pipe thread. If the
same size pipe and hose were used, the resulting pressure
drop could deprive an air tool of sufficient air pressure.

Hose Fittings

Reusable Permanent
6.40 Numerous types of permanent and reusable
hose fittings are available. A few of these are shown in
Fig. 6-9. A hose fitting basically consists of two parts.
One part grips the hose, while the other attaches the hose Safe working procedures require that hoses be depres-
assembly to the fitting. The part of the fitting that grips surized before they are disconnected, even when self-
the hose must be installed with sufficient clamping force sealing couplings are used.
on the hose to prevent it from blowing off. However, it
must not be so tight that it separates or cuts the rein WARNING
forcement between the inner tube and outer cover.
Use special care when disconnecting air
6.41 Reusable fittings are screwed together to attach lines. This is especially true if long, high-
them onto the hose, whereas permanent fittings are fac pressure air lines are involved. A blast of
tory assembled in special presses. Methods of assem escaping air can blow dirt or chips into your
bling reusable fittings vary with the different manufac eyes or face, causing severe injury. Always
turers. To ensure the highest possible safe working pres wear eye protection!
sure for the finished hose assembly, always follow the
manufacturer's instructions carefully.
Hose Installation
Quick-Disconnect Couplings
6.43 Because hoses are more flexible than pipe or
6.42 Quick-disconnect couplings are used for tubing, their installation procedures are easier. However,
quick connection and disconnection of pneumatic never stretch hoses between connections, or bend hoses
hoses without requiring shutoff valves. One part of sharply as shown in Fig. 6-10. In addition, position the
the coupling contains a leak-proof, spring-loaded hoses out of the way of traffic as much as possible, and
poppet or seal, while the other part contains a device clamp them to prevent accidental damage from rubbing
to open the poppet when the coupling is connected. and mishandling.

Fig.6-10. Hose installation techniques

Wrong

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96 Programmed Exercises

6-9. Compressor discharge lines should 6-9. ONE,TEN

slope away from the compressor at a
rate of in. for every Ret: 6.22, Rg.6-4
ft.

6-10. NPT, when used for pneumatic sys 6-10. PIPING COMPOUND
tems, seals against air leaks with flank-
to-flank contact and Ref: 6.24

6-11. When connecting pipes, you must 6-11. THREAD ENDS

NEVER apply piping compound to the
Ref:6.24

6-12. More accurate Inside and outside diam 6-12. METALLIC TUBING
eters are an advantaae of
Ref:6.25

6-13. Avoid using metallic tubing that has 6-13. STRAIGHTENED

been bent and then
Ref: 6.28

6-14. When an air hose Is connected to 6-14. LARGER

pneumatic piping, the hose should be
one size than the size of the Ref: 6.39
connecting pipe thread.

6-15. Hose fittings may be classed as perma 6-15. REUSABLE

nent and
Ref:6.40

6-16. The type of hose coupling that uses a 6-16. QUICK-DISCONNECT

spring-loaded poppet to seal off the
outlet when the hose Is removed Is Ref:6.42
called afnl coupling.

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 Self-Check Quiz 97

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

6-1. Turbulent airflow Is likely to result from a(n) 6-6. Which type of threaded fitting is probably the
best suited to all but heavy-duty air line
□ a. minimum number of pipe bends applications?
□ b. adequate-sized line
□ 0. large airflow velocity Increase □ a. 125-lb cast aluminum
□ d. Inadequate number of fittings □ b. 130-lb cast Iron
□ c. 150-lb malleable iron
6-2, The pressure drop between the air receiver □ d. 300-lb malleable Iron
and the farthest point of air use should be no
more than of the compressor 6-7. The rate of downward slope for compressed-
cutout pressure. air piping used for compressor distribution
lines should be
□ a. 5%
□ b. 10% □ a. 1 in. per ft
□ c. 15% □ b. 1 in. per 10 ft
□ d. 20% □ c. 1 In. per 100 ft
□ d. IftperlOOft
6-3. Excessive pressure drops occurring In a loop
system during peak flow may be avoided by 6-8. Long pipe runs should always be
the use of auxiliary
□ a. supported with hangers
□ a. compressors and fittings □ b. protected with compression fittings
□ b. fittings and air receivers □ c. thoroughly Insulated
□ c. air receivers and compressors □ d. on a 5® slope
□ d. air locks and booster valves
6-9. Most nonmetalllc tubing can be used for a
6-4. How does a change In air pressure in a pipe maximum of
affect the pressure losses?
□ a. 100 psi and 145®F
□ a. Increased pressure, no losses □ b. 100psland190°F
□ b. Increased pressure, higher losses □ c. 145 psI and 190®F
□ c. Decreased pressure, lower losses □ d. 145psland225°F
□ d. Decreased pressure, high losses
6-10 When disconnecting an air hose, make sure
6-5. The pressure loss through fittings and valves to take all of the following precautions
is calculated In terms of EXCEPT

□ a. feet of straight pipe □ a. depressurize the hose

□ b. feet per minute □ b. have a buddy present
□ c. pounds per square inch □ c. use the shutoff valve, if there is one
□ d. cubic feet per minute □ d. wear eye protection

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98 Lesson Six

?<l'!*Wilt?#&jiCii KfHAik K-i'^^i-,»m/^^

Pipes,tubing, hoses, valves,and all the fittings Metal tubing of less than ^/s-in. OD is preferred in
needed to connect these components,combine to pneumatic power systems. Correct tubing size is
form the air-distribution network of a pneumatic determined by the size of the tapped holes in the
system. For peak efficiency, piping should allow equipment to be connected. Any bends in the
the air to flow in a laminar pattern. To achieve tubing should be smooth,and you should avoid
this, pipe runs should not Include unnecessary making too many of them overall. Plastic tubing
turns,and the number of fittings should be kept is normally used where working pressures are
to a minimum.The pipe size must be large below ICQ psi, and temperatures are below
enough so that the pressure drop between the air 190^F,though there are exceptions. Plastic tub
receiver and the farthest point in the system is no ing is resistant to many chemicals and does not
more than 10% of the compressor outlet pressure. corrode.

Air lines for industrial applications are often made Hoses are used for connecting portable equip
of black steel pipe. Secondary,low-pressure ment to line-mounted outlets, and for flexible con
applications use pressure-rated hoses, metal tub nections between moving and stationary pieces
ing, and plastic tubing. Pipes can be connected of equipment. Hoses should not be used to make
by threading, welding, and flanging. permanent air line connections.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

6-1. 0. Large airflow velocity increase. 6-6. c. 150-ib malleable iron.

Ref:6.04 Ref:6.16

6-2. b. 10%. Ref;6.05 6-7. b. 1 in. per 10 ft. Ref: 6.22

6-3. c. Air receivers and compressors. 6-8. a. Supported with hangers.

Ref:6.06 Ref:6.24

6-4. d. Decreased pressure, higher 6-9. b. 100psiand190T. Ref:6.34

losses. Ref:6.10
6-10. b. Have a buddy present.
6-5. a. Feet of straight pipe. Ref: 6.11 Ref:6.42

Contributionsfrom ttie following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 6-6. Parker-Hannifin Rgure 6-9. Gates Rubber Co.

Rgure 6-7. Parker-Hannifin Rgure 6-10. The Weathertiead Co.
Rgure 6-8. Gates Rubber Co.

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Lesson Swen

Directional
Control Valves

€f
V 3

^,o-

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Directional Controi Vaives

TOPICS

Control Valves Three-Way Valves

Manually Operated Valves Four-Way Valves
Automatically Operated Valves Five-Way Valves
Control Valve Elements Valve Accessories
Two-Way Valves

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Describe the four methods of identifying control • Explain one major advantage of using a four-way
valves. valve.
• List four basic types of manually operated, two-way • Describe the construction of a three-way valve.
valves.
• Describe the operation of a two-position, direct act
ing, normally closed solenoid valve.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Control valve 7.01 a valve used in a pneumatic Four-way valve 7.35 a valve with four primary
system to direct the airflow from one place to connections
another to permit the actuating parts to perform Five-way valve 7.44 a special four-way valve with
their work five external connections
Cracking pressure 7.16 the lowest pressure that
will open a valve
Three-way valve 7.29 a valve having three pri
mary connections on the outside of the valve
body, and three ports inside the valve

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 101

Control valves used in pneumatic systems are similar in operation to the direc
tional control valves used in hydraulic systems. The primary purpose is to
direct the flow of air from one place to another in the pneumatic system, in
order that the actuating parts may perform their work.

Control valves may be of two-way,three-way,four-way, or five-way design. Con

struction of the valve varies, depending on the manufacturer and the type of
valve sealing element—spool, ball, plug, or poppet,for example. Each of these
valves is discussed in this Lesson.

Control Valves pneumatic, or hydraulic power source. Many

automatic valves are also equipped with a
7.01 The control valves in a pneumatic system manual override.
direct the airflow in compressed air lines to start,
stop, or reverse the direction of motion of pneumatic Manually Operated Valves
cylinders, motors, and other equipment. Control
valves can be operated manually or automatically by 7.03 Several types of manually operated valves are
mechanical devices, electrical signals, compressed used in industrial applications. You are probably
air, or hydraulic power. Although there are many familiar with many of these valves. The majority of
types of directional control valves, almost all are manually operated valves are used to isolate, admit,
made up of simple, basic elements or combinations or shut off the air in a compressed air system.
of these elements. Because a pneumatic system has a lower operating
pressure than a hydraulic system, the pressure ratings
7.02 Control valves used with pneumatic systems of most pipe valves make them acceptable for use in
are identified by four different methods: pneumatic systems. Manually operated valves can be
two-way, three-way, or four-way valves. Two way
1. Number of connecting ports—two-, three-, valves have two connecting ports, inlet and outlet.
four-, and five-way valves. Although the They can also be considered two-position valves
number of ports usually identifies the valve, (ON/OFF)if you don't consider the positions between
some four-way valves are manufactured with fully opened and fully closed.
five ports. The fifth port is a second exhaust
port, which performs no other function. 7.04 Figure 7-1 on the following page shows sev
eral common two-way, manually operated valves.
2. Number of control positions—two or three, Most globe valves are made for air and water service
depending on the application. Most two-posi at pressures up to 125 psi. Some reach a service rat
tion valves are simple ON/OFF valves; the ing of 400 psi. Cast bronze or malleable iron are the
positions of three-position valves are materials most conunonly used for these valves. The
LEFT/CENTER/RIGHT. Usually, two- and globe valve has some flow losses and a tendency to
three-way valves are two-position valves, and create turbulent flow, if it is not properly sized.
four- or five-way valves may be either two- or Globe valves can be used to regulate a small amount
three-position. of air flow by opening them partially. However,they
are really not designed to be used as throttling
3. T^pe of control element—poppet,spool, reci valves.
procating disc, and rotary. Many two-way
valves are of the poppet type. Rotary valves 7.05 Another two-way valve is the gate valve. It is
can be of either the spool or plate type. similar to the globe valve in service, construction, and
pressure ratings. Unlike a globe valve, however, a
4. Method of operation—manual or automatic. gate valve has a low flow loss and little tendency to
Automatic controls used to operate the valves cause turbulent flow. However, the gate valve should
can be actuated by a mechanical, electrical. only be used as a shutoff valve. If it is used for

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 Fig. 7-1. Manual two-way valves
■■
Gate valve G obe valve
regulating airflow in a line, the metal seat will usually
wear quickly and will leak.
7.06 The two-way plug valve, shown in Fig. 7-1, is
usually made only for 50 psi air service. If used at pres
sures greater than 50 psi, the force required to maintain
the seal between the plug and the body would wedge the
plug into the body and make it hard to turn. However,
this kind of valve has a low flow loss and is fully opened
or fully closed with a quarter-turn of the handle. Other
plug valves with ratings up to 200 psi are available.
7.07 The plug valve can be converted into a three-
or four-way valve. This is accomplished by removing
the pressure-spring retainer plug in the bottom of the
valve and replacing it with the proper hollow fitting.
The hollow fitting provides a place for the air to enter
at the bottom of the valve, and it also holds the pres
sure spring in place. If Teflon® is used for the plug,
instead of brass, the amount of friction between the
plug and body is reduced. The valve body can be
drilled with two, three, or four outlets. The valve then
becomes a selector valve, not just an ON/OFF valve.
7.08 The ball valve is another two-way valve. A
number of ball valves are manufactured that are suitable
for 2500 psi service. A precision-built ball valve is simi
lar to a plug valve because of the very low flow losses
through the valve. However, a ball valve, because of its
round shape and the position of the nonmetallic seal
rings, is easier to operate than a plug valve. Ball valves
are used mainly as shutoff valves to start and stop air
flow in a line.
7.09 A needle valve is also a two-way valve, and is
an excellent valve for very high-pressure service or as
oe Teflon is a a registered trademark of E. I. du Pent de Nemours & Co., Inc.
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Needle valve Plug valve Ball valve
a throttling or flow-reducing device. Its pressure rat
ing is determined by its packing rating and the
strength of the valve body. Because the valve seat is
smaller than the inlet and outlet connections of the
valve, these valves have high pressure losses. For
applications where the valve will be shut off frequent
ly. a soft seat is recommended to increase the service
life. Many manufacturers make needle valves suitable
for pneumatic service.
Automatically Operated Valves
7.10 Automatically operated pneumatic control
valves can be actuated by several methods. The most
common of these is by electric solenoid (direct or
pilot operated). Pneumatically or hydraulically oper
ated control valves are also used in pneumatic sys
tems. Vacuum-operated valves, which function in a
maimer opposite to that of a pneumatically operated
valve, can also be found on some equipment.
7.11 Two-position, automatically operated valves
are usually designated nommlly open (NO),or normally
closed (NC). This designation indicates the position of
the valve element when the control circuit is not func
tioning. For example, a normally open solenoid-operat
ed valve has the poppet or spool in the open position,
permitting flow when the solenoid is deenergized.
When the coil is energized, the valve closes, shutting off
the flow. Three-position valves are usually spring-cen
tered when the control circuits are deenergized. In this
instance, the design of the valve also controls the air
flow while the spool is in the neutral position.
7.12 A direct-acting, normally closed,two-way sole
noid valve is shown in Fig. 7-2. In this valve, the

plunger controls the entire airflow through the valve.
When the solenoid coil is deenergized, the plunger is
held against the valve seat by the plunger spring. When
the electrical solenoid coil is energized, the plunger is
lifted, thus allowing air to flow through the valve.
7.13 Because the solenoid is limited in its lifting
strength, the closing spring needs to be relatively
weak. With a limited spring force, the spring cannot
shut off the higher-pressure flows unless its operates
against a rather small valve seat opening. Therefore,
the greater the operating pressure in a given applica
tion, the smaller the size of the valve seat.
7.14 When larger volumes of air at high pressures
are required, pilot-operated solenoid valves are almost
always used. In the pilot-operated solenoid valve,
shown in Fig. 7-2, the coil operates a small pilot
plunger, which in turn allows air under system pres
sure to operate the valve poppet or piston. When the
piston plunger is closed, pressurized air flows through
the control orifice in the piston and holds the piston
against the valve seat. When the solenoid coil is ener
gized, the plunger is lifted, relieving the air pressure
on the top of the piston. Compressed air in the inlet
passage then lifts the piston, and air begins to flow
through the valve outlet. Although the solenoid valve
shown here will only permit flow in one direction,
two-direction or reverse-flow valves are also available.
These valves are usually of the check valve type.
7.15 The check valve in Fig. 7-3 on the following
page are two-way, automatic, two-position valves.
Fig. 7-2. Solenoid valves
Solenoid
Main piston spring
Return spring
Main piston-
Valve body
Bleed orifice
in => =0 Out
Direct acting
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Directional Control Valves 103
They allow the free flow of compressed air through
the valve in one direction only. Usually, the direction
of flow is shown on the outside of the valve body.
Check valves use balls, poppets, O-rings, and disks
as sealing devices. Most check valves are used to
ensure airflow in only one direction. Some are
operated by metering or flow-control devices; oth
ers are pilot operated by an outside force. The
schematic symbol for a check valve is also shown
in the illustration.
7.16 When operating, the ball, poppet, or disk
checks are held against the check valve seat by a
spring. Air entering the inlet pushes the check open
against the spring force, and air flows through the
valve to the outlet. If inlet air decreases or is stopped,
the pressure in the outlet closes the check against its
seat, stopping the airflow through the check valve.
The lowest pressure that will open the check is the
cracking pressure, and is determined by the force of
the spring. Some check valves without springs are
mounted vertically so that only the weight of the ball
or poppet holds it against the seat.
7.17 in addition to the check valves in the control
and distribution lines, a large check valve can be
installed in the discharge line of the compressor ahead
of the shutoff valve. When installed just ahead of the
air receiver, a large check valve like the one shown in
Fig. 7-4 on the following page, reduces vibration and
pulsation in the line. It also prevents air from flowing
into the compressor during periods when the com
pressor pressure is below the line pressure.
Plunger spring Solenoid coil
Plunger
(pilot valve)
-Control orifice
Body
Pressure
Pilot operated
 Fig. 7-3. Check valves 7.19 As shown, a shuttle valve has two inlet air
lines and one outlet air line. Regardless of the pres
sure conditions in the valve, one inlet and one outlet
are always open. When the air in one inlet is as little
as 1 psi higher than the air in the other inlet, the float
Flapper
ing valve poppet, or shuttle, is blown against the inlet
port having the lower pressure. Air then flows only
from the higher pressure inlet port to the outlet. Air in
the port at the lower pressure is shut off and cannot
flow.

Poppet
7.20 Shuttle valves can be used with two-, three-,
or four-way valves variously arranged to operate the
same cylinder As shown in Fig. 7-5, if either of the
valves is actuated, compressed air will shift the shut
tle poppet to one side, pressurizing the cylinder. As
will prevent the other valve from actuating the cylin
der. In effect, this is a simple safety circuit, because it
only allows single of>eration of a cylinder.

7.21 The other type of self-actuated valve, shown in

7.18 Self-actuated or shuttle valves are similar in
operation to check valves. Self-actuated valves are
usually three- or four-way valves that permit the
reverse flow of air but only through certain passages.
A check valve, on the other hand, only allows air to
flow in one direction. Also, a check valve does not
require an outside actuator to close the valve while a
self-actuated valve may,as shown in Fig. 7-5.
Fig. 7-4. A main line check valve
Fig. 7-5, is the quick-exlmust valve. This valve is usual
ly placed near the inlet port of a cylinder to improve the
return action of the cylinder. It is similar to the shuttle
valve in some ways. The main difference is the addition
of a spring-loaded poppet, which prevents a positive
seal between the ports. When the valve is pressurized,
the spring is compressed and air is directed to the cylin
der. When inlet air is shut off, the spring lifts the poppet,
which allows air in the cylinder to exhaust quickly. A
quick-exhaust valve might be used on a label machine,
where the cylinder makes short, quick strokes, and has
to be returned quickly.

Guard dowel to Control Valve Elements

ensure correct
positioning of
valve assembly 7.22 As mentioned earlier in this Lesson, control
valves are identified by the type of internal element
that controls the flow of air through the valve. The
different names used to identify these elements
include: spool, poppet, reciprocating disk, and rotary.
These valve elements differ somewhat in construc
tion, but all of them, except the rotary valve, function
in the same manner. The rotary valve controls the air
flow with a rotating rather than a reciprocating or
shuttle action. However, all control valves have some
type of intemal passage or flow channel that joins the
extemal or inlet/outlet connections of the valve housing.

7.23 The spool valve element is the most widely

used. It is easy to operate, even with high pressures,
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Fig. 7-5. Self-actuated valves
Shuttle valve
Fig. 7-6. A rotary valve
because the internal forces tend to balance each
other. The spool design also permits many variations
in the valve's internal flow paths while maintaining
the same outward configuration. Spool valves can be
made to shift to more than one position. They can
also be retumed to a neutral position when not func
tioning. Shifting can be manual or automatic,
depending on the application.
7.24 Rotary valves are similar to pug valves and
ball valves. Like reciprocating valves (spool, poppet,
and disk), they can be operated manually or automati
cally. As is true of other automatically operated
valves, a manual override can be provided. Rotary
spool valves are made with a round element having
passages that line up with various openings or ports in
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Directional Control Valves 105
the side of the valve body. If an element has one
drilled passage, as shown in Fig. 7-6, it is a two-way
valve. If it has two drilled passages it can be a three-
way or a four-way valve. The plug valve described
earlier can be considered a rotary spool valve.
7.25 Rotary plate or disk valves look very much like
rotary spool valves from the outside. However, their
interior construction is quite different. Although each
manufacturer makes his valve a little different from the
others, all are similar in operation. A port plate or valve
disk connects the pneumatic ports in different ways.
The ports can be located in the top, bottom, or sides of
the v^ves. The internal passages in the disk cormect the
ports in the body, p)ermitting air to flow through the
valve.
106 Programmed Exercises

7-1. NUMBER OF CONNECTING PORTS,

7-1. Name the four methods of Identifying NUMBER OF CONTROL POSITIONS,
control valves. TYPE OF CONTROL ELEMENT,
METHOD OF OPERATION
Ref: 7.02

7-2. Manually operated valves are classed 7-2. CONNECTING PORTS

as two-way valves because they have
two Ref: 7.03

7-3. A gate valve should not be used for 7-3. THROTTLING or REGULATING
flow.
Ref: 7.05

7-4. Needle valves used for regulating flow 7-4. PRESSURE

have hioh losses.
Ref: 7.09

7-5. The most common method of control 7-5. SOLENOIDS

ling automatically operated valves is
with electric Ref: 7.10

7-6. Two-position automatically operated 7-6. OPEN,CLOSED

valves are classified as being normally
or normally Ref: 7.11

7-7. Large quantities of high pressure air 7-7. PILOT

are best controlled by solenoid valves
that are -operated. Ref: 7.14, Fig. 7-2.

7-8. Check valves are classified as auto 7-8. POSITION

matic two-way. two- valves.
Ref: 7.15, Fig. 7-3

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Two-Way Valves
7.26 Two-way flow valves are classified as either
normally open or normally closed. As shown in Fig. 7-7,
a normally open spool valve permits air to flow through
the valve from the inlet to the outlet when the valve is
not actuated. When the valve is actuated, the airflow is
shut off. A normally closed valve operates in the oppo
site manner. When it is closed, the airflow is shut oif.
When the spool valve is actuated, air is allowed to flow
through the valve. In each case, the valve is held in its
normal operating position by a spring. The only differ
ence is in the positions of the ports.
7.27 Two-way valves are frequently used in pneu
matic systems to actuate single-acting cylinders. They
fit well into any system where air needs to flow in
only one direction. When the pneumatic piston moves
through its retum stroke, the air exhausts from the
cylinder to the atmosphere, and does not have to pass
back through the valve.
7.28 One of the disadvantages of two-way spool
valves is that they are not always pressure balanced.
When they are in their normal operating position, com
pressed air acts equally on the exposed valve surfaces
of the control element. But when the control element is
shifted, pressure acts on only one valve surface of the
element. Additional pressure must therefore be applied
to overcome the unbalanced pressure, when shifting the
valve back to its normal position.
Three-Way Valves
7.29 Three-way valves have three primary or work
ing connections on the outside of the valve body and
Fig. 7-7. Two-way spool valves
Nonactuated
2-way normally open
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Directional Control Valves 107
three ports inside the ^^ve. Pilot lines are not considered
primary lines. Most three-way valves are shifted back
and forth when they are actuated. Three-way valves may
be used as diverter or selector valves, holding valves,
and directional control valves. As shown in Fig. 7-8 on
the following page, these valves all have the same basic
construction. The differences among them are in the
ways their connections are made, in addition to the func
tion they perform, some three-way valves can also be
classified as normally open or normally closed. This
depends on the application and the position of the valve
when it is in the nonactuated position.
7.30 When the three-way diverter valve in Fig. 7-8
is in the nonactuated position, the control element is
held in place by the spring. Air under pressure (at P)is
able to flow through the valve and out to port I to
cylinder A. When the valve is actuated by an external
force on the stem, pressurized air flows from P through
port 2 to cylinder B. When the actuating force is
removed, the valve shifts back to the nonactuated posi
tion. The diverting valve is useful for alternate opera
tion of two cylinders.
7.31 By connecting ports 1 and 2 to the rod and
cap ends of the same horizontal cylinder, the three-
way diverter valve can be used as a selector valve to
control the movement of the cylinder. In the nonactu
ated position, the control element is held in place by
the spring. Pressurized air at P flows through the
valve and out port 1 to the rod end of the cylinder.
When the valve is actuated, air is directed to the cap
end of the cylinder, shifting it forward. This can also
be considered a safety circuit because the air pressure
always helps the cylinder retract when the valve is
shifted to the nonactuated position.
Out Actuated Out
No f ow
7.32 The selector application using the three-way
two-position valve allows the operator to select from
two air sources, possibly at different pressures or flow
rates. As with the diverter valve, there is no exhaust
connection on the selector valve. The working com
ponent must have its own exhaust connection. Fig. 7-
8D shows an air motor application requiring different
inlet pressures for differentiated speed at a constant
torque.
7.33 Other applications of the three-way valve
may require it to be a three-position valve with center
position configurations of closed and pressure. Figure
7-8E shows the basic construction of three-position
three-way valves and their corresponding schematic
symbols. The center pxjsition is maintained by springs
when the valve is not actuated.
Fig. 7-8. Three-way valves
Sill
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Four-Way Valves
7.34 Compressed air does not have to be returned to
the reservoir when it completes its work. It can be sim
ply exhausted to the atmosphere. You have probably
noticed how easy it is to direct airflow in very simple
pneumatic circuits with two- or three-way valves.
7.35 However, there are many times when a pneu
matic circuit becomes more complicated. For instance, a
pair of two-way valves may have to be actuated at the
same time to operate one or more actuators in the system
effectively. Or a pair of two-way valves might control
the pilot lines of more complex pilot-operated three- or
four-way valves that control the airflow to one actuator.
In many cases, however, several simple valves can be
replaced with one valve that can perform several func-
snn
 Directional Control Valves 109

tions at the same time. This is especially true on auto Fig. 7-9. A four-way valve
matic systems. Four-way valves are used to simplify
pneumatic circuits. Although they may seem slightly
Actuator Actuator
more complicated, they reduce the total number of con
trols in a system.
\
7.36 As shown in Fig. 7-9, a four-way valve has
four primary or working connections. These connec
tions include a pressure line, P; and exhaust line,T;
and two actuator connections, I and 2 (or A and B).
Although there are two internal exhaust passages,
there is only one exhaust port. Because the used or
spent air is exhausted directly to the atmosphere,
many four-way valves have two exposed or ported
valves instead of an internal passage. However, such
valves are still referred to as four-way valves. ing their operating cycles. Although there are some
exceptions, most four-way valves have two or
7.37 Usually a four-way valve supplies air to one three operating positions, with the center position
end of a cylinder through one chamber, while bleed being a neutral or rest position. With two-position
ing off air from the other side of the cylinder. When valves, one of the end positions is the neutral or
the valve position is reversed, the airflow is reversed. rest point.
Like other automatic valves, pilot lines are not con
sidered primary lines and are shown separately with 7.39 A two-position, four-way valve is shown pic-
their own connections. torially in Fig. 7-10, together with its schematic sym
bol. With the spool in the nonactuated position (shift
7.38 Because four-way valves are more flexible ed left), flow from the pressure line P is directed
in their operating functions, they are manufactured through port 1, to the cylinder rod end. At the same
as multiple-position valves. This means that the time the cylinder cap end is connected through port 2
valves are shifted into more than one position dur- to the exhaust port. When the spool is actuated to the

Fig. 7-10. Two-position,four-way valve

t 1.

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Fig.7-11. Three-position,four-way valve
light, the airflow through the valve to the cylinder is
reversed.
7.40 This two-position valve is called a closed
crossover valve because all ports are closed when
the control element is passing through the center
position. Most two-position pneumatic valves are of
the closed crossover type. Some valves are designed
to have all ports open to each other when the con
trol element is passing through the center position.
This is called an open crossover valve.
7.41 The three-position, four-way valve shown in
Fig. 7-11 on the following page has the same internal
flow connections (porting) when it is actuated to the
left or right as the two-position, four-way valve in
Fig. 7-10. The difference is the added center position
of the control element. In fact, nearly all three-posi
tion, four-way valves have these same internal flow
connections when actuated to the left or right. The
control element in this particular valve has all of the
Fig. 7-13. Schematic symbols for actuating devices
Hand lever Cam
Button
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Fig. 7-12. Schematic symbol for a five-way valve
ports closed when it is centered. The centering is usu
ally accomplished by springs located at each end of
the control element.
7.42 With a closed-center valve, the actuator is
firmly held in the position it is moved to when the
valve is shifted. While the valve is centered, the air
pressure at P is shut off to the actuator and the
atmosphere. The spring-centered, closed-center
valve works extremely well with solenoid-operated
controls. If the solenoid does not operate, the con
trol element centers and shuts down the actuator.
7.43 Three-position, four-way valves are also
manufactured with fully open or partially open cen
ters. The outward appearance of the valve is usually
the same as the closed-center valve. However, the
internal ports and control element are quite differ
ent. Most of these valves are spring-centered and
pilot-operated, although manually operated valves
are not uncommon. Figure 7-11 also shows the
Solenoid Manual symbol Spring
Foot pedal Detent
 Directional Control Valves 111

schematic symbols that describe the operation of

these valves.

Five-Way Valves

7.44 A five-way valve is really only a special

four-way valve with five external connections. As
mentioned earlier, many four-way valves have two
external exhaust ports, but are still classified as
four-way valves. If these two exhaust passages are
changed to pressure passages, the valve becomes a
true five-way valve. As shown schematically in Fig.
7-12, the two E passages are changed to Ps (high
pressure shown as HP, and low pressure shown as
LP), while the former P passage becomes the E pas
sage. This arrangement permits air at two different
pressures to operate the actuator. This could provide
a fast advance/hold on a cylinder, or a fast/slow
speed for a motor application.

Valve Accessories

7.45 Most standard or commonly used valves are

available on an off-the-shelf basis from manufactur
ers and their dealers. In addition, many valves are
made in small segments, which can be assembled to
make almost any special valve. Special valves are
also manufactured, but these are exceptions to the
rule. Special accessory items such as flow restric
tion, check valves, and flow or pressure regulators
can be built into valve bodies or mounted alongside
the valve itself. Automatic controls, such as sole
noids, pilot valves, or mechanical actuators, are also
attached to the outside of the valve body. Some of
the different actuating devices are shown schemati
cally in Fig. 7-13.

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112 Programmed Exercises

7-9. A disadvantage of two-way spool valves 7-9. PRESSURE BALANCED

Is that they are not always
Ref: 7.28

7-10. Three-way valves have three 7-10. PRIMARY

or working connections.
Ref: 7.29

7-11. The control element of a two-posltlon, 7-11. SPRING

three-way valve Is usually held In the
nonactuated position by a(n) Ref: 7.30, Fig. 7-8

7-12. Three-way valves having a blocked 7-12. AUTOMATICALLY

center position are usually made to
center Ref: 7.33

7-13. When compressed air completes Its 7-13. EXHAUSTED or VENTED

work It Is usually to the
atmosphere. Ref: 7.34

7-14. Four-way valves reduce the total num 7-14. CONTROLS

ber of In a svstem.
Ref: 7.35

7-15. Air flow In a nonactuated two-posltlon, 7-15. TWO

four-way valve flows In
dlrectlon(s). Ref: 7.38,7.39

7-16. The centering of a three-position, four- 7-16. SPRINGS

way valve Is usually accomplished by
Ref: 7.41

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 Self-Check Quiz 113

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

7-1. A manually operated flow control valve may 7-6. An automatic check valve can be further clas
be further identified by all of the following sified as a
EXCEPT
□ a. one-way, one-position valve
□ a. number of control positions □ b. one-way, two-position valve
□ b. type of control element □ c. two-way, one-position valve
□ c. number of connecting ports □ d. two-way, two-position valve
□ d. pressure capacity
7-7. A three-way valve is constructed with three
7-2. Manually operated stop or isolating valves
(globe, gate, or ball) are classed as □ a. pilot connections
□ b. primary connections
□ a. one-way valves □ c. main components
□ b. two-way valves □ d. control positions
□ c. three-way valves
□ d. four-way valves 7-8. Two-position, three-way valves are usually
held in the nonactuated position by
7-3. The high-pressure losses in a needle valve
are caused by the □ a. air pressure
□ b. electric current
□ a. valve seat □ c. a cam
□ b. packing gland □ d. a spring
□ c. valve body
□ d. pressure rating 7-9. Compressed air retuming through a valve
after It has done work is often directed to the
7-4. What is the most common method of actuat
ing automatically operated flow control □ a. compressor
valves? □ b. receiver
□ c. atmosphere
□ a. Electric solenoids □ d. aftercooler
□ b. Pneumatic pilot pressure
□ c Hydraulic pilot pressure 7-10. In how many directions can air flow in a non-
□ d. Mechanical cams actuated two-position, four-way valve?

7-5. The amount of air that can pass through a □ a. One

direct-acting, two-way, solenoid-operated □ b. Two
valve is limited by the. □ c. Three
□ d. Four
□ a. coil size
□ b. valve strength
□ c. spring force
□ d. solenoid valve

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114 Lesson Seven

'•,• ,1''•ifiM'^'R^'' 7',|^g;l.;l|| .Liii^ ■ -I: ■. ]■. r

In a pneumatic system, the control valves direct control positions, the type of control element, and
the airflow to start, stop, or reverse the motion of the method of operation.
cylinders, motors, and other equipment. The
valves can be operated manually or automatically. The internal control element in a valve may be a
Manually operated valves, most of which isolate, spool, poppet, reciprocating disk, or rotary plate
admit, or shut off the air, are considered two-way or disk. The spool valve element is the most wide
valves. Common manual two-way valves include ly used in pneumatic systems.
gate, globe, needle, ball, and plug types. The most
common method of operation for automatically Most times you will find the necessary replace
operated control valves is through electric sole ment valve is available "off-the-shelf." However,
noids. Pilot-operated solenoid valves are used at other times, you may have to assemble special
where large flows at high pressure are required. combinations of valve segments to effect the
needed repair. You can also obtain such special
Control valves are identified by four methods: by accessories as flow restrictors, check valves, and
the number of connecting ports, the number of pressure regulators.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

7-1. d. Pressure capacity. Ref:7.02 7-6. d. Two-way, two-position valve.

Ref: 7.15
7-2. b. Two-way valves. Ref: 7.03-7.08
7-7. b. Primary connections. Ref: 7.29
7-3. a. Vaiveseat. Ref: 7.09
7-8. d. A spring. Ref: 7.30, Fig. 7-8
7-4. a. Electric soienolds. Ref: 7.10
7-9. c. Atmosphere. Ref: 7.34
7-5. c. Spring force. Ref: 7.13
7-10. b. Two. Ref: 7.38,7.39

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 7-4. Pennsylvania Pump and Compressor Co.

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Lesson Eight

Pressure-
Control Valves

VO:

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Pressure-Control Valves

TOPICS

Controlling Pressure Pressure Regulators

Venting Excess Pressure Regulator Modifications
Relief Valve Construction Logic Functions

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• List two ways a valve can control compressor pres State the limit imposed by Federal Law on the pres
sure output. sure allowed when an air hose is used to blow off
• Describe construction of two basic types of pressure- chips.
relief valves.
• Contrast a pressure regulator with a pressure-relief
valve.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Pressure-regulating valve 8.03 a valve that con Pressure-relief valve 8.06 a valve that gradually
trols system pressure by closing to reduce pres opens to discharge excess air as pressure
sure to a safe operating level increases above set level
Safety valve 8.05 a valve that opens at a preset Logic functions 8.40 pneumatic circuits that
pressure to exhaust air until pressure drops allow an actuator to operate only after a certain
below the set level sequence of operations takes place

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Unlike a hydraulic system, a pneumatic system requires recharging as its
"fluid," air, is used. During recharging pressure is increased to a preset level.
To a certain extent, a hydraulic system has the same pressure increase, but,
because the hydraulic fluid is incompressible, an excessive pressure buildup is
noticed almost immediately, usually as leakage. In an unregulated pneumatic
system, air continues to be compressed within the system while the compres
sor is running. Without any control, it can cause pipes and components to
burst. Pressure relief and safety valves are required to prevent this damage.
Although relief and safety valves have different designs and methods of opera
tion,they perform the same preventive function.
While relief valves protect the system from total damage, other valves regulate
the pressure in different parts of the system. The regulated pressure is always
on a level below the total system pressure. All of these valves can be classed as
pressure-control or pressure-regulating valves, as described in this Lesson.
Controlling Pressure
8.01 Many types of controls are used in a pneu
matic system to limit air pressure. Initially, pressure
controls placed on the receiver are used to limit the
air pressiue in the receiver and distribution lines. This
pressure control determines the cut-in and cut-out
points of the compressor (usually about a 30 psi dif
ference). Whenever the air pressure in the system
drops to the low-pressure point, the compressor con
trol starts the compressor. When air receiver pressure
reaches the maximum pressure point, the compressor
ouq)ut is either reduced or stopped.
8.02 Limiting the pressure of the compressor out
put with a pressure-control valve is done in either of
two ways. First, by starting and stopping the com
pressor. Second, by unloading the compressor intake
or discharge valves. Unloading, as you read in Les
son Two, means relieving internal pressure from the
compressor. In this case, unloading is accomplished
by holding or blocking open the valve ports. This
permits any air that would ordinarily pass in one
direction to pass back through the valve in the oppo
site direction without any work being done. On large
compressors where two or more valves admit air to
each cylinder, the valves can be unloaded separately
or in stages to provide a smooth flow of discharge
air. This prevents a sudden large pressure differential
from occurring.
8.03 Pressure-regulating valves reduce and con
trol the pressure of the compressed air in the system
to a level that is safe for equipment operation. For
example, if the main line pressure is 250 psi and the
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117
equipment it feeds is only designed for 90 psi, the
main line pressure has to be reduced. Pressure regu
lators are usually located at air stations (or outlet
points) or on individual pieces of pneumatic equip
ment. They are precision devices designed to provide
close control of the air pressure at their outlet point.
When operating, they do not exhaust compressed air
into the atmosphere the way relief valves do, but con
trol or limit the pressure.
Venting Excess Pressure
8.04 In addition to the methods of maintaining^; ^
enough pressure in a pneumatic system,the maximi^j^^
or safe pressure is controlled by safety valves or relief
valves. These valves limit the maximum pressures in
all or part of the system by exhausting excess air pres
sure into the atmosphere whenever the maximum
pressure point is reached. They are mainly safety
devices that protect the lines and equipment in the
system from damage that can be caused by excess air
pressure.
8.05 Safety Valves. Safety valves have limited use
in pneumatic systems. Although many compressors
and receivers have what appears to be safety valves
on them, they are usually relief valves. The difference
between the two is in their method of operation. A
safety valve opens at a preset pressure, and exhausts
the air imtil the pressure drops below the set pressure.
Then the valve closes. For the valve to stay open, the
excess pressure must be steady. If pressure drops off
momentarily, the valve closes. Repeated unsteady
pressure over the preset pressure can cause the valve
to "chatter."
8.06 Relief valves. Pressure-relief valves operate
differently. If the compressor controls fail to shut down
the compressor when the maximum working pressure
of the system is reached, air pressure continues to rise
until it reaches the relief valve setting. At this point, the
relief valve opens and discharges excess air into the
atmosphere. If air pressure continues to increase, the
relief valve opens farther allowing more air to dis
charge. For safety, the valve must be sized large enough
to discharge more air than the compressor can supply.
8.07 Relief valves are usually located at the com
pressor discharge point or air receiver of a pneumatic
system. A few pneumatic systems have additional
relief valves located in the distribution lines of the sys
tem. The pressure settings of relief valves are slightly
higher than the setting of pressure-control valves.
8.08 Relief valves are also sometimes located in
the air line between the pressure regulator and an
individual piece of equipment. This protects the
equipment from full outlet line pressure if the regula
tor fails. This can be accomplished by building the
relief valve into the pressure-regulating valve.
Because these relief valves have lower flow capacities
than the flow capacity of the pressure valve, they are
limited in capacity. Regardless of where these relief
valves are located, they are usually set about 5 psi
above the regulated pressure. There are two kinds of
pressure-relief valves, poppet and diaphragm.
Relief Valve Construction
8.09 Poppet valves. A simple, direct-acting poppet
valve is shown in Fig. 8-lA. At first glance this relief
Fig. 8-1. Poppet relief valves
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valve looks like a check valve, but it isn't. Its inlet
port is located in the threaded base or body, which
screws directly into the air receiver or air line, the
outlet opening is at the other end of the valve. The
poppet is held against the valve seat by the force of
the adjustable poppet spring. To ensure a tight seal,
the poppet is fitted with a resilient insert.
8.10 When the air pressure under the poppet
reaches the pressure, the poppet rises off the seat,
allowing some air to exhaust through the outlet.
Cracking pressure, the pressure at which the valve ini
tially opens, is determined by the adjustment of the
spring. If the air pressure under the poppet continues
to increase, the poppet opens further, allowing more
air to exhaust, up to the point where the relief flow
limit is reached.
8.11 Although these valves are small, and have
limited flow, they provide a very important function.
They have pressure ratings of up to 300 psi with an
airflow capacity of 6 cfm. With the spring set for a
cracking pressure of 100 psi, the pressure under the
poppet can increase to 125 psi with a relief flow of 6
cfm. At 120 psi, the valve will handle SVa cftn, while
it will pass 1 cfm at 110 psi. Most valves of this type
will only pass 1 cfm for a 10 psi rise above the crack
ing pressure.
8.12 Figure 8-IB shows a ball poppet relief valve.
It has relief flow and pressure rise characteristics sim
ilar to a poppet valve, but is different in construction.
The sealing point for the valve is between the finely
polished ball and the sharp-cornered seat in the brass
body. The ball is held in contact with the seat by an
 Fig. 8-2. Adjustable-pressure diaphragm relief valves
Adjusting screw
Standard in cutaway
Diaphragm •
m
adjustable spring-loaded pin. The inlet port is in the
bottom of the body or base, and the outlet points are
located in the side of the bonnet. The extended pin
allows the valve to be lifted manually for testing or
bleeding the system of its pressure.
8.13 If you find that the ball will not seal tightly
against the seat after the valve has been in use for
awhile, remove the valve from the line, disassemble
it, and clean it with solvent. If this does not correct
the leak, the ball can be reseated by tapping it lightly
against the seat with a small brass hammer. Because
these valves are small in size and flow capacity, they
are limited to applications of around 10 cfm.
8.14 Diaphragm valves. Applications that have
larger flows or that require a smoother relief control
may use diaphragm relief valves, shown in Fig. 8-2.
A diaphragm relief valve responding to increasing air
pressure opens much faster than the poppet valve just
described. This is because the compressed air works
on a larger pressure-sensitive area than in poppet
valves. Although this is a diaphragm valve, it is sized
for small-diameter pipes ('A in.). As a result, it can
handle only about 12 cfin at 125 psi when set to crack
at 100 psi.
8.15 These valves slightly resemble a regulator
and have threaded inlet and outlet ports. The adjusting
knob on top of the valve (see Fig. 8-2) regulates the
That rtuMdAl la pnlectad by U. S. Copyright taw. Copyng by any opbcal, ateclronic. or other moana is ifcgaJ wiltroul permssion.
Mtniature
standard
spring pressure on the diaphragm. Under normal con
ditions, compressed air enters the inlet and flows
through the valve body into the space under the
diaphragm. The adjustable spring pushes against the
diaphragm assembly from the upper side and holds
the valve's sealing element closed. When the air pres
sure under the diaphragm overcomes the force of the
spring, the diaphragm lifts. The sealing element
attached to the diaphragm assembly is lifted off its
seat, allowing air to flow through the valve to the
exhaust outlet. If the air pressure under the diaphragm
continues to increase, the sealing element opens far
ther, allowing more air to exhaust.
8.16 A larger, or standard, diaphragm relief valve
is also shown in Fig. 8-2. Instead of having an adjust
ing knob, it has an adjusting screw and locknut. These
relief valves are used for installations (up to a 1 in.
pipe diameter) that do not require frequent changes in
their setting. The operation of large diaphragm relief
valves is the same as that of small ones. The big dif
ference is the performance and capacity of the large
valves. Although the ratings vary with different manu
facturers, many larger valves can handle 100 cfm,
with the first 10 cfm handling the largest pressure
rise. For example, when the cracking pressure is 100
psi, the pressure under the diaphragm rises to 115 psi
while only passing 10 cfm. However, if the pressure
increases to 125 psi (only 10 psi more) the valve can
handle 80 cfm.
 Fig. 8-3. A diaphragm pressure regulator
Adjusting screw
Adjusting
spring
Diaphragm
Valve pin
8.17 In all relief valves, it is important to remem
ber that cracking pressure is determined by the
amount of tension on the spring and the spring's stiff
ness. If a weak spring is used, a lot of adjustment only
changes the cracking pressure slightly. Also, a weak
spring will be unable to resist the pressure under the
poppet or diaphragm and will relieve the flow too
quickly. Soft springs are used for applications where
low-pressure settings are desired.
8.18 As a rule, pressure-relief valves in pneumatic
systems are not required to be very accurate in their
pressure settings. This is mostly because they are not
used to set the operating pressure range of all or any
part of the system. Their only job is to protect the sys
tem and its components from damage, in the event
that the pressure controls should fail to maintain sys
tem operating pressure within the recommended
range. Usually, the system pressure limit is not criti
cal, and the lines and equipment can safely withstand
the slightly higher air pressures of the relief valve set
ting. TTie exception to this is precision pressure con
trol used for a delicate piece of equipment.
Pressure Regulators
8.19 Many kinds of pressure regulators are manu
factured. Most of them are designed to have one or
two advantages over the others in terms of a particular
application. Although each is of slightly different
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design and construction, pressure regulators all follow
the same basic operating principles. Despite their
resemblance to diaphragm relief valves, they operate
in just the opposite manner. A relief valve opens with
a pressure increase, while a regulator valve closes
when the discharge pressure increases.
8.20 The following description of the operation of a
diaphragm pressure-regulating valve can be more
clearly understood by referring to Fig. 8-3. The distrib
ution (or header) pressure line is connected to the inlet
port. The outlet (or regulated) line is connected to the
outlet port. With the adjusting screw and the spring in
the relieved (zero-pressure) position, there is no flow
through the regulator. The sealing element is held in
the closed position against its seat by the small spring
beneath the valve and the pressure in the inlet line.
8.21 When the adjusting screw is turned inward,
the spring is compressed against the diaphragm, forc
ing it downward, and opening the valve sealing ele
ment. The sealing element is forced open by the
movement of the diaphragm because the element is
connected to the diaphragm by the valve pin, and any
action of the diaphragm is transferred to the element.
When the sealing element is forced open, air is
allowed to flow through the valve to the outlet. Many
plant maintenance craftsmen refer to the inlet air as
primary air, and the outlet air as secondary air.
8.22 As the air passes through the regulator outlet,
a small amount is bled off into the underside of the
diaphragm, forcing the diaphragm upwards against
the spring pressure. When the secondary pressure
equals the spring pressure, the sealing element is
pulled upward, closing off the valve opening. As the
secondary air is used, the line pressure drops, allow
ing the diaphragm to move down, which permits more
air to flow through the valve.
8.23 Remember that, even though the valve action
has been described in terms of'^ow" and "no flow",
this modulation or regulating action lakes place continu
ally while the air line is being used. For example, if the
primary line pressure is 90 psi, and the secondary line
pressure is set at 40 psi, the diaphragm moves continu
ally up and down against the spring pressure as the air
in the secondary line is used. The diaphragm movement
does not completely open and close the valve, but it will
modulate slightly, as the air is being used, to maintain a
constant pressure in the secondary line.
 Pressure Relief Valves 121

8.24 There are three additional points to remember

about this type of regulating valve. First, it is some
times referred to as a nonrelieving regulator, because
it has no pressure-relief feature. This means that if
load conditions cause excess pressures in the sec
ondary or outlet pressure line, the excess cannot be
vented by the regulator. Second, with primary and
secondary lines charged, and the regulator set, the
outlet pressure drops slightly when the air is first used
and outlet flow increases fi-om 0 cfin to the required
airflow of the tool or equipment. This is a result of the
Bernoulli effect described in Lesson One. Third, as
the outlet flow increases to the maximum required
level, a slight reduction in pressure occurs. This is
commonly referred to as "droop" by the pneumatic
industry, and is a result of the increased internal air
fnction causing a pressure loss.

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122 Programmed Exercises

8-1. The pressure controls in a pneumatic 8-1. LIMIT

system are used to the air
pressure. Ref: 8.01

8-2. The air pressure can be limited by start 8-2. UNLOADING

ing and stopping the compressor, or by
either the intake or discharae Ref: 8.02
valves.

8-3. During the time a compressor is being 8-3. OPEN

unloaded, it will not compress air
because the valves are held Ref: 8.02

8-4. Pressure-regulating valves are usually 8-4. OUTLET POINTS or AIR STATIONS
located at
Ref: 8.03

8-5. Pressure-regulating valves regulate air 8-5. OUTLET

at the Dort.
Ref: 8.03

8-6. The maximum pressure in a pneumatic 8-6. SAFETY

system is controlled by a(n)
valve. Ref: 8.04

8-7. Pressure-relief valves are usually set 8-7. ABOVE

to open at a point just the
system pressure setting. Ref: 8.06

8-8. A pressure-relief valve must be able to 8-8. COMPRESSOR

relieve more air than the can
supply. Ref: 8.06

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Regulator Modifications
8.25 Pressure regulators are made with many spe
cial adaptations. Many of these specials have become
standard units with some manufacturers. Precision
regulators fall into this classification. A simple preci
sion regulator, shown in Fig. 8-4, has a comparatively
large diaphragm operating a small ball valve by exert
ing force on the connecting valve pin. Note that dur
ing operation, the adjusting spring pushes down on
the diaphragm assembly and the connecting valve pin,
opening the small ball valve. This action permits pri
mary air to bleed directly through the valve, fi-om the
primary side to the secondary.
8.26 Unlike a standard regulator, this model does
not have a rigidly connected valve pin and diaphragm.
Instead, they are separate pieces. The diaphragm has a
small passage through the valve pin actuator which
permits a constant air bleed fi'om the valve chamber
below the diaphragm to the atmosphere. This constant
air bleed prevents the diaphragm from modulating
and helps to ensure a high degree of accuracy at low
airflow rates through the regulator.
8.27 A more complex precision regulator is shown
in Fig. 8-5. This regulator is also capable of handling
Fig.8-4. A precision control regulator
(manually adjustable)
VEUve
Diaphragm
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Pressure Relief Valves 123
only small flows,in the pressure range of5 to 150 psi.
In operation, primary air enters the regulator as it nor
mally would. A small portion flows through the con
trol passageway past the metering orifice and into the
control chamber. Here, the air acts on both the pilot
ball valve and the main diaphragm. If the regulating
spring pressure is above the secondary pressure, the
ball valve remains closed, directing inlet metered air
against the main diaphragm. This pressure then opens
the sealing element (poppet), allowing air to flow
through the valve.
8.28 Secondary pressure is directed to the under
side of the control diaphragm by the small passage in
the body of the regulator. This pressure lifts the
diaphragm and allows the ball valve to rise off its
seat. When this happens, the metered inlet pressure
flows past the ball valve and into the secondary pres
sure side of the regulator. At the same time, the con
trol pressure is relieved from the control chamber and
the primary diaphragm rises, closing the sealing ele
ment. As the secondary pressure decreases, the con
trol spring seats the ball valve and the main
diaphragm again opens the sealing element.
8.29 This regulator also has a built-in relief valve
located beneath the main diaphragm. If a sudden load
Fig.8-5. A pilot-operated pressure regulator
^ZZZ^2^ZZ^
Secondary
Pilot diaphragm
pressure
passage
Pilot valve •
RIters
m -Orifice
Main
'diaphragm
"=>
Main valve—
Built-in relief valve
Fig. 8-6. A remote-controlled regulator
Pilot pressure
Pilot port
Threaded cap
diaphragm
or pressure increase occurs in the secondary line, the
main diaphragm lifts off the poppet valve control pin.
When this happens the small orifice located in the
control pin permits the air to vent to the atmosphere.
At the same time, the control diaphragm also acts to
relieve the air pressure in the control chamber.
8.30 In some applications a regulator has to be
mounted in an out-of-the-way place to function prop
erly, or to offer good control of the air. For these
applications a remote-controlled or pilot-controlled
regulator is used. As shown in Fig. 8-6, the pilot-con
trolled regulator has a body or base similar to a stan
dard regulator. However, the adjusting screw and
spring, and the bonnet have been omitted. Only a
threaded cap, which replaces the bonnet, remains.
8.31 When regulated air pressure is applied to the
diaphragm, the poppet valve is opened, allowing air to
flow through the regulator. Air bleeding into the space
below the diaphragm will lift the diaphragm, closing
the poppet when the pressure balance is reached. A
pilot-controlled regulator mounted in an air line still
requires regulated pilot air in order to function. The
pilot air pressure must always be obtained from some
regulated source. Just as in all the other regulators, the
pilot-operated models can have relief or bleed-off fea
tures built into the valve.
This malsnol is prolsctsd hy U. S. Copyhghl Law
Mam
air line
controlled
Threaded cap pressure
Mam diaphragm
01 Pilot-controlled
regulator
Pilot regulator
8.32 If a large, high-volume air line must be regu
lated, a pilot-controlled regulator, or booster relay,
can be used. These regulators control a greater vol
ume of air more accurately than does a manually
adjusted regulator. Pilot-controlled regulators can
handle as much as three times the amount of air that
the pilot-regulating device regulates. In addition to
handling the larger flow, the pilot-controlled regulator
is more compact.
8.33 There are additional types of modified regula
tors used in industry, many of which are probably
familiar to you. For example, you can find regulators
to handle low flows, as well as miniaturized, integral
pilot-operated units, and even compact models of
standard units. Also available are regulators that are
built into filter/strainer housings, used with primary
air supplies.
8.34 Relief valve features are built into pressure
regulators in various ways. Usually they are only
capable of relieving low volume excess pressure
buildups in the secondary pressure line. If very large
buildups occur, a separate relief valve, or a regulator
with a full-sized relief valve built into it, must be pro
vided. However, because it is difficult to adjust a sep
arate pressure-relief valve to operate at pressures just
above regulator pressure settings, a built-in relief
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 Fig. 8-7, Regulator relief ports
Out
Exhaust
valve is a desirable feature for most of these
applications.
8.35 Figure 8-7 shows two commonly used methods
for venting a simple regulator. In the case of the body
relieftype(A),the diaphragm and the valve follower are
pushed up by an increase in secondary pressure. This
opens a direct passage through the valve sealing ele
ment from the outlet chamber to the atmosphere.
8.36 In the bonnet relief type (B), the regulator is
adjusted to the desired operating pressure setting as it
always is. The diaphragm valve follower contains the
vent passage. Spring pressure above the diaphragm
keeps this port closed at all times. However, any sud
den load in the secondary line causes the diaphragm to
lift, opening the vent port and relieving the pressure.
8.37 One pressure regulator having a high-flow
relief is used for a particular application. This regula
tor is used with air hoses that blow chips and dirt
from parts. A federal law states that when an air hose
is used to blow off chips, its nozzle pressure may not
exceed 29 psi. This special pressure regulator is a
sealed unit that will relieve or vent excess pressure
whenever the nozzle tip is accidentally placed against
a person or object in such a way that a dangerous
pressure rise could occur that would cause an injury.
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Control spring
Diaphragm with
7 vent-valve seat
Valve sealing
cz[> element
WARNING
Compressed air can be dangerous. Treat it
with respect and always observe all of the
plant safety precautions.
8.38 As pointed out. regulators may incorporate
the same basic feature in a number of different
ways. For instance, a continuous air bleed does not
always have to pass through a bleed valve. Instead,
a small hole punched in the diaphragm does the
same job. Also, instead of having just one stiff
adjusting spring, two or three softer springs may be
nested together to obtain better regulation. Relief
ports may be designed for full or partial flow as
desired.
8.39 Regardless of its type or design, follow these
rules when setting or adjusting a regulator:
• Make sure the regulator is large enough
for the flow capacity it must handle.
• Always set the regulator so the desired
outlet pressure can be maintained by the
inlet pressure and flow-rate conditions.
126 Lesson Eight

Fig.8-8. Logic functions

Diaphragm AND function

Seat a

OR function
[^aphragm
Exhaust seat Exhaust
Valve seat
Actuator-
Seatb

c b a Element
Output input Input
b a
Logic symbol Logic function Port designation Output Input Input
a = Input or supply
a -I- b = output c(on)
with input at a or b b = Input
c= output Logic symbol Logic function Port designation

a • b = output c(on) a = input

if the flexible diaphragm touches txith seats,the inputs
are OFF,or at zero pressure.Pressure at either Input
a or b will shift the diaphragm and pressurize
J=D- with Input at a and b b = Input
c = output

Output0turning the valve ON.

With both Inputs a and b OFF(zero pressure),the
Output c is connected to Exhaust(OFF). If Input b is
Flow can occur from
ON (pressurized),the poppet is forced against poppet
Input a Output c
Input b Ou^ut c seat, which leaves the Ou^ut c connected to Exhaust
Output c Input b, but only if
(OF^.If Input a is ON,the diaphragm forces the
actuator and poppet downward closing exhaust seat
Input a is OFF
However, Ou^ut c Is stili OFF,t}ecause It Is now
connected to Input b, which is OFF.If Inputs a and b
NOT function are ON,the diaphragm forces the poppet down,closing
the exhaust and opening the poppet seat;thereby
connecting Input b to Output c.Therefore the Output Is
ON.Ports a and b may both serve as signal inputs.
Diaphragm However, only b supplies flow to Output c.
Exhaust seat Exhaust

Actuator
If Input a is OFF(discharged),supply
air fix>m port b can pressurize Output c
Supply seat Element (ON).Exhaust seat is dosed.
If Input a Is ON,the diaphragm forces
the actuator and poppet downward
c b a which opens Output c to Brhaust and
Output Input Input doses the supply b.Therefore the Output
or supply is OFF(dischairged).
Ports a and b may both serve as signal
Logic symbol Logic function Port designation Input. However, only b supplies flow to
c = a = output c is on a = input Output c.
3-^0—0 if Input a is off and b = input
tb vice versa c = output

If a regulator Ms to function properiy,check Logic Functions

its operating characteristics, especially its
rated pressure range,before replacing it 8.40 Another way of regulating or controlling the
airflow in a pneumatic system is through the use of
Don't select a regulator that cannot per small or miniature pneumatic valves arranged to form
form well in an ^plication. a circuit, much like electrical relay switches. These
pneumatic circuits are referred to as logic functions
When substituting a regulator from a dif and are designed to allow an actuator to operate only
ferent manufacturer, make sure it has simi after a certain sequence of operations takes place. At
lar operating characteristics. least two actions are required in a pneumatic circuit
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 Pressure Relief Valves 127

before it can be called a logic function. If only one

valve is actuated to move a cylinder, it cannot be con
sidered a logic function.

8.41 As an example, a punch press operator must

keep both hands away from the press when it oper
ates. To do this he is required to actuate two valves;
one with his left hand, and one with his right hand.
When both valves are actuated, the press will operate.
In other situations, if it is safe and necessary to oper
ate a machine from more than one place, the sequenc
ing valves can be hooked up so that actuating any
valve will operate the machine.

8.42 Logic functions can be arranged in different

ways. Simple valves can be positioned or mechani
cally linked in such a way as to get the desired
results, or a single, more complex valving can be
used. The more efficient logic controls are usually
assembled into units that can be plugged into a
pneumatic manifold.

8.43 Logic components are basically designed to

perform three logic functions: OR, AND, and NOT.
The valves made by one manufacturer to perform
these functions are shown in Fig. 8-8. Note that the
OR and NOT valves are similar except for the added
middle part in the NOT valve. Beneath each valve is a
description of its operating characteristics. There are
other logic functions that pneumatic components can
perform. Because these functions are complex, they
will not be detailed but only mentioned at this time to
make you aware of them.

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128 Programmed Exercises

8-9. Precision regulators were first "special" 8-9. STANDARD

regulators, but now they are
with some manufacturers. Ref: 8.25, Fig. 8-4

8-10. The constant air bleed in a precision 8-10. MODULATING

regulator prevents the diaphragm from
Ref: 8.26

8-11. The best way to regulate air pressure In 8-11. PILOT-CONTROLLED

an inaccessible location is with a(n)
regulator. Ref: 8.30

8-12. Pilot-controlled regulators require 8-12. REGULATED

pilot air.
Ref: 8.31

8-13. The air pressure in a high-volume line 8-13. PILOT-CONTROLLED REGULATOR

can be regulated by the use of a(n) or BOOSTER RELAY

Ref: 8.32

8-14. Regulating valves with relief capabili 8-14. LOW-VOLUME

ties are usually made to handle only
quantities of air. Ref: 8.34

8-15. Vented regulating valves have relief 8-15. BONNET

ports in either the valve body or the
Ref: 8.35,8.36, Fig. 8-7

8-16. On air lines used to blow away dirt and 8-16. 29

chips, a special regulator that vents at
a nozzle pressure of psi is Ref: 8.37
required.

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 Self-Check Quiz 129

Answer the foUowing questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

8-1, The primary purpose of all of the pressure 8-6. Which of the following types of relief valves
controls in a pneumatic system is to provides the smoothest relief control?

□ a. remove pulsations □ a. Diaphragm

□ b. prevent pneumatic shock □ b. Ball poppet
□ c. limit airflow □ c. Spool poppet
□ d. limit air pressure □ d. Safety

8-2. What is the best location for a pressure-regu- 8-7. When diaphragm pressure-regulating valves
lating valve in a pneumatic system? operate, they

□ a. At an air station □ a. open and close completely

□ b. On the compressor □ b. reverse airflow
□ c. On the receiver □ c. vent air to the atmosphere
□ d. On the main distribution line □ d. modulate slightly

8-3. Which of the following types of valves limit 8-8. Pilot-controlled regulators will not function
the compressed air to a safe maximum pres without
sure in a pneumatic system?
□ a. main line pressure
□ a. Throttling □ b. regulated pilot air
□ b. Safety □ c. a hydraulic override
□ c. Shutoff □ d. a safety valve
□ d. Bleed
8-9. Which of the following types of valves is used
8-4. Pressure-relief valves are usually adjusted to to regulate a high-volume air line?
open at what pressure level?
□ a. Safety
□ a. Above the safety valve setting □ b. Precision diaphragm
□ b. Above the control valve setting □ c. Booster relay
□ c. Below the control valve setting □ d. Precision poppet
□ d. Below the actuating valve setting
8-10. According to Federal law, air hoses used to
8-5. Initially, at what pressure does a a relief valve blow chips must not have a nozzle pressure
open? exceeding

□ a. Maximum □ a. 15 psi
□ b. Rated □ b. 19psi
□ c. Cracking □ c. 24 psi
□ d. Seating □ d. 29 psi

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130 Lesson Eight

in a pneumatic system,compressed air pressure
must be controlled to safeguard the pipes and
other components. Pressure-relief and safety
valves prevent damage by exhausting excess air
into the atmosphere when a preset limit is
reached. Pressure-regulating valves control or
limit airflow to the correct operating pressure.
Relief valves open as pressure increases.They
are available in poppet or diaphragm types.
Diaphragm valves open faster than poppet valves
and are generally used for applications that have
large flows or that require a smooth relief control.
With ail relief valves, cracking pressure is deter
mined by the stiffness of the spring,and the
amount of tension on the spring.
Regulator valves, by contrast, close when dis
charge pressure increases. Many pressure regula
tors are modified with special features. A remote
control is used in cases where the regulator must
be installed in an out-of-the-way location. A
booster relay is often installed when a large high-
volume air line must be regulated. Other modifica
tions are available to handle especially low flows,
and other special requirements.
To simplify complex control needs, multiple
miniature pneumatic valves are sometimes
arranged to form a circuit known as a logic func
tion. Logic functions are used when more than
one valve must be actuated to complete an
action.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

8-1. d. Limit air pressure. Ref:8.01 8-6. a. Diaphragm. Ref:8.14

8-2. a. At an air station. Ref:8.03 8-7. d. Modulate slightly. Ref: 8.23

8-3. b. Safety. Ref: 8.04 8-8. b. Regulated pilot air. Ref: 8.31

8-4. b. Above the control valve setting. 8-9. c. Booster relay. Ref:8.32
Ref:8.07
8-10. d. 29psi. Ref:8.37
8-5. 0. Cracking. Ref:8.10

Contributionsfrom the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 8-1. C. A. Norgren Co. Rgure 8-5. C. A. Norgren Co.

Rgure 8-2. 0. A. Norgren Co. Rgure 8-6. Parker-Hannifln
Rgure 8-3. C. A. Norgren Co. Rgure 8-7. Wabco, Industrial Products Div.
Rgure 8-4. C. A. Norgren Co.

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 UNDERSTANDING BASIC PNEUMATICS kv
a■

Lesson Nine

Pneumatic
Cylinders

,r.

P^ILSJ TPC Training Systems

l5illi^^30909
I'.P, .^''■*'^1*1—t.
 Lesson

n Pneumatic Cylinders

TOPICS

Pneumatic Cylinders Rod Packings

Double-Acting Cylinders Cylinder Mounting
SIngle-Acting Cylinders Selecting a Cylinder
Two-Piston Cylinders Cushioning
Cylinder Construction

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Tell the difference between pneumatic and Describe the action of a pivoted cylinder.
hydraulic cylinders. Explain the size relationship between a cylinder
• Describe the construction and operation of a sin port and a valve port.
gle-acting cylinder.
• State the purpose of an exhaust flow control
metering valve.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Double-acting cylinder 9.06 a cylinder that can Two-piston cylinder 9.15 a cylinder containing
exert pneumatic force in either direction two pistons capable of independent motion
Double-rod (or double-end rod) cylinder 9.08 < Capacity coefficient(C^) 9.38 the air capacity of
cylinder having a single piston that reciprocates, a control valve in relation to a cylinder
providing thrust in both directions
Single-acting cylinder 9.10 a cylinder with a
power stroke in only one direction

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Compressed air serves many purposes in an industrial plant. Often it is used
simply for blowing dirt and chips off machines. It may also be used for filling
tires, spraying paint, or operating small power tools. Compressed air is fre
quently used to drive cylinders that shift directional gates on conveyor lines,
close doors, or clamp workpieces in a vise. Whenever a pneumatic cylinder is
used to accomplish work, it must perform in a reliable manner with a minimum
of maintenance.
To maintain pneumatic cylinders properly, you must understand their operating
principles and construction. This Lesson describes air cylinder construction
and the methods used to calculate the amount of force a cylinder can develop.
Knowing how a cylinder is constructed and how it develops force or energy can
enable you to determine why the cylinder is not operating properly. This knowl
edge will also help you to make the proper adjustments to correct operating
problems.
Pneumatic Cylinders
9.01 Pneumatic cylinders convert the pressure and
movement of compressed air into straight-line
mechanical force (also referred to as thrust) and
motion. {Rotary motion, on the other hand, is pro
duced by pneumatic motors and rotary actuators, and
is covered in Lesson Ten.) Compressed air entering
one end of a cylinder causes the piston to move. This
movement is transmitted through the piston rod and
becomes a mechanical force. The higher the air pres
sure on the piston, the higher the output mechanical
force. The movement and force of the piston combine
to do work. The flow rate (cfm) of the fluid (air)
determines the piston speed and also the pneiunatic
output(in horsepower).
9.02 Many standard and special pneumatic cylin
ders are manufactured for different applications.
These include single- and double-acting, double-pis-
ton, and double-end rod cylinders. There are modifi
cations of the standard cylinders, each having its own
special name. However, all cylinders have similar
components and function in similar ways.
9.03 Most pneumatic cylinders are made of steel
or brass tubing that has been machined on the inside
to a smooth finish. They can also be chrome plated on
the inside to help reduce wear and corrosion. The rod
and cap ends are also made of steel or brass and are
held in place by threaded rods or bolts, or they are
welded to the cylinder.
9.04 Pistons are usually made of high-grade cast
iron or steel. They may be chrome plated for corro
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133
sion resistance, and to improve operating life. Piston
lings can be made offormed rubber-like materials. O-
rings, or leather. The piston rods are made of plain or
stainless steel. Plain steel rods are usually plated.
Because of all the metal and nonmetal siufaCes in a
pneumatic cylinder, lubrication is required to improve
the service life.
Double-Acting Cylinders
9.05 The main parts of a typical double-acting
cylinder are shown in Rg.9-1 on the following page.
The shape of these parts and the methods used to
assemble them vary slightly with different manufac
turers. Special moc^cations are added to many cylin
ders to improve their performance in different appli
cations. Although pneumatic cylinders resemble
hydraulic cylinders, there is one difference: pneumat
ic cylinders do not require air lines to return air to the
receiver.
9.06 The double-acting cylinder in Fig. 9-1 can
exert pneumatic force in either direction. When air is
directed into port A,on the rod end, the piston moves
to the right. Air in the cap end of the cylinder is
pushed out port B and exhausted to the atmosphere.
When air is directed into port B, the piston moves to
the left, and air in the rod end is ex^usted through
port A to the atmosphere. Depending on the applica
tions, the exhaust port may be located on the cylinder
or in the directional control valve.
9.07 Because the rod takes up some of the surface
area of the piston, less pressiue can be exerted on the
rod side than on the cap side of the piston. Therefore,
Fig. 9-1. Parts of a double-acting pneumatic cylinder

Rod beanng Inlet ports

Rod wipers

Rod end

Rod end cap

the thrust is greater when the piston is moved to the
left than when it is moved to the right. Most standard
pneumatic cylinders are double-acting.
9.08 A modified double-acting cylinder may have
a piston rod extending out of both ends, as in Fig. 9-2.
This is called a double-rod or double-end rod cylin
der. In this cylinder, the surface area of the piston is
the same on each side and the thrust is equal in both
directions.
of the cylinder, and when only a limited amount of
space is available. In this type of cylinder, each cylin
der end requires a rod bearing and packing. Recipro
cating motion of a part can be created by using a dou
ble-end cylinder as shown in Fig. 9-2. The extra rod
extension can also be used to mount cam valves or
limit switches, which cannot be mounted on a single-
rod cylinder.
Single-Acting Cylinders

9.09 A double-end rod cylinder is used when 9.10 Single-acting cylinders are manufactured
motion is required in two directions, or on each end with many more modifications than are double-acting
cylinders. Some of these are shown in Fig. 9-3. The
single-acting cylinder has a power stroke in one direc
tion only, usually the out, or extending, stroke is cho
Fig. 9-2. A double-end rod cylinder sen by the designer because the piston has a larger
surface area on the cap end and can exert more force.
The load or some other external force is used to retum
the piston to its original position when the work is
completed. A small air vent should be installed in the
dead side of the cylinder to allow air at atmospheric
pressure to fill the space as the cylinder operates. This
prevents the piston seals and packings from drying
out, and also prevents an air lock from occurring.
Cylinder
9.11 If compressed air is directed to the rod end of
the piston, instead of the cap or blank end, the in (or
retracting) stroke becomes the power stroke. For this
application the cylinder is called a "pull-type" cylin
der.
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 Pneumatic Cylinders 135

9.12 Spring-return cylinder. A modified single-
acting cylinder is equipped with an internal spring.
The spring is located within the cylinder, and returns
the piston to its original position after the power
stroke is completed and the pressurized line is vented.
The spring is only strong enough to overcome internal
friction and exhaust the air from the cylinder. The
spring is usually not large enough to return a heavy
load.
9.13 The cylinder bodies of spring-return cylinders
are longer than double-acting cylinders that have the
same stroke. The additional length is needed to
accommodate the spring. The type and strength of
spring required for the application is usually selected
by the manufacturer. On occasion an external spring
is used in place of an internal one.
and they are made in different styles. Some pneumatic
cylinders are made of aluminum, especially where
weight is a factor. Most cylinders used for industrial
applications have the heads or caps held in position
on the cylinder body by four or more tie rods. These
tie rods may be studs or long bolts.
9.17 Cylinders that have heads threaded onto the
body are used widely for food machinery and packag
ing equipment. With the heads threaded on, they have
a streamlined shape that is easy to keep clean. In
Fig. 9-3. Single-acting cylinders

9.14 Many single- and double-acting cylinders are

Load-retum
equipped with an exhaust-flow control metering
valve. The valve restricts the amount of exhaust air
that can pass from the cylinder through the valve and
governs the speed at which the cylinder can retract. In
addition, the restriction prevents the cylinder from bpnng-retum

experiencing shock caused by a quick return. Many

times this metering-out principle causes the cylinder
to act as a shock absorber, although that is not its pri
mary purpose.

Two-Piston Cylinders

9.15 A nvo-piston cylinder resembles a double-end Telescoping

cylinder. However, instead of one internal piston that
reciprocates, it has two pistons that move indepen
dently. The pistons may move separately or in tan
dem, depending on the application. As shown in Fig. Fig. 9-4. A two-piston cylinder
9-4, when compressed air enters port A, the pistons
move apart, provided that ports B and C are open to
the atmosphere. When compressed air is directed to
the cylinder through ports B and C, the pistons close.
When compressed air enters port A while port C is
blocked and port B remains open, only the right pis
ton moves. The left piston can be actuated by closing C Fluid in center ill A
port B and opening port C. In addition, the pistons
can be controlled by directional control valves so that
one moves before the other in a timed cycle.

Cylinder Construction

9.16 As you learned earlier in this Lesson, cylinder

bodies and caps are usually made of steel or brass.
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136 Lesson Nine
Fig.9-5. Cross sections offormed piston rings
addidon, they are space-saving and have no protrud
ing comers or bolts.
9.18 One-piece welded cylinders are similar to the
threaded head tj^. They are used in construction
equipment,fann equipment, and other mobile equip
ment where cylinders are seldom repaired. They are
mass-produced economically, and when they become
wom out they are simply discarded and replaced by
new units.
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9.19 To ensure positive location of all parts and
holding devices, the piston rods of cylinders used for
jig- and tixture-clamping devices must not rotate or
turn. The amount of rod rotation can also be restricted
for other applications. To prevent their rotating, cylin
der rods are specially shaped (squared or flattened) or
are titted with an internal or external antirotating
device.
9.20 Various piston rings or seals are used in pneu
matic cylinders. Some of these are shown in Fig. 9-5.
The piston seal that is most often used is the formed
ring seal. Usually, these formed rings are made of
synthetic materials that resemble semi-hard mbber.
These seals may be cup- or double-V-shaped, depend
ing on the manufactmer. 0-iings, as well as formed
leather cups, are used for some applications. The
leather cups are used primarily for slow-speed appli
cations, such as reciprocating pumps.
Rod Packings
9.21 Rod packings can be multiple-V, U-cup, rope
or solid ring, split ring, or 0-ring seal types. Various
conflginations and materials for different applications
are available. The plant engineer or the maintenance
engineer usually selects the rod-packing materials.
 Programmed Exercises 137

9-1. Pneumatic cylinders convert the pres 9-1. STRAIGHT-LINE

sure of compressed air into
motion thrust. Ref: 9.01

9-2. Lubrication of an air cylinder is required 9-2. SERVICELIFE

to Improve the
Ref: 9.04

9-3. Pneumatic cylinders resemble hydraulic 9-3. RETURN

cylinders but do NOT require
air lines. Ref: 9.05

9-4. A double-acting pneumatic cylinder can 9-4. TWO

exert force in directionfsL
Ref: 9.06. Rg.9-1

9-5. A cylinder having a power stroke in one 9-5. SINGLE-ACTING

direction only is called a
cvlinder. Ref: 9.10, Rg.9-3

9-6. The retracting speed of a cylinder is 9-6. EXHAUST FLOW CONTROL

usually controlled by an
metering valve. Ref: 9.14

9-7. The heads or caps of most industrial 9-7. TIE RODS

pneumatic cylinders are held in place
by Ref: 9.16

9-8. Almost all formed piston rings or seals 9-8. SYNTHETIC

are made of materials.
Ref: 9.20

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 Fig. 9-6. Fixed-cylinder, centerline mounting

^1®

Tie rods extended Centerline lugs Head flange(square) Head flange (rectangular,

% Cap flange(square) Cap flange(rectangular)

Cylinder Mounting
9.22 Cylinders are mounted in many different
ways. There are two different mounting techniques:
fixed and pivoted. The fixed mounting technique is
further divided into centerline and noncenlerline
mountings.
9.23 Fixed, centerline mounted. Figure 9-6 shows
cylinders that are fixed, centerline-mounted. In this
type of mounting,force is absorbed on the centerline of
the cylinder. The mounting can be made with flanges,
tie rods, or centerline lug mounts. As shown, flange
and tie-rod mountings can be located at either end of
the cylinder. This type of mounting prevents bending
stress from developing in the cylinder and the mount
ing framework. It is recommended for heavy-duty
applications and for cylinders that have long strokes.
9.24 Square flanges on the cap end are recom
mended for particularly heavy-duty pushing or thrust
applications. Front flange mounting on the rod end,
front mounting on tie rods, or centerline lug mounting
are recommended for pulling or tension loads. Rec
tangular flange mounts are recommended for medi
um-duty applications. Any of the mountings shown
can be used for light-duty service.
9.25 Fixed, noncenterline mounted. Fixed, non-
centerline cylinder mounts are shown in Fig. 9-7.

Fig. 9-7. Fixed-cylinder, noncenterline mounting

H m m
mi

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Cylinders mounted by this method do not absorb
force on the centerline of the cylinder. Instead, the
force is transmitted through the cylinder in an off-
center manner. This sets up eccentric loading in the
supporting structure. Lugs,feet and side-tapped holes
are used for mounting the (flinders. The side-mount
ed lug method is the most durable of this group and it
can be used for both thrust and tension loads. Side-
moimted lugs are frequently provided with an integral
key or slot for firmer mounting. Sometimes the front-
or rod-end gland retainer plate is extended to form a
key. If not keyed,lugs should be doweled or pinned at
either end.
9.26 If the cylinder is mounted on a machine tool,
avoid misalignment between machine and cylinder. In
addition, do not use cylinders with noncenterline
mountings for applications having large forces. Cylin
ders with side-tapped or end mountings are recom
mended for light loads only.
9.27 Pivoted cylinder. Pivoted cylinder mount
ings, like those shown in Fig. 9-8, are able to absorb
force on the centerline of the cylinder. This type of
W mounting is used when the cylinder must be free to
swing or pivot as it performs to maintain accurate
alignment between the cylinder and the component to
which it is connected. However,the cylinder must not
be allowed to pivot too far because the piston rod can
become bent. Whenever a pivoted cylinder is used,
the rod-end connection must also be pivoted to pre
vent the piston rod from bending or binding.
9.28 Pivoted cylinder mountings are classed as
being trunnion or clevis, and have no rigid support.
The small stub cylindrical rods or shafts that protrude
Fig.9-8. Pivoted cylinder mounting
Cap trunnion Intemnediate fixed trunnion Cap fixed clevis
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Pneumatic Cylinders 139
from some point on the cylinder are called trunnions.
Although these trunnions may be located at any point
on the cylinder, the head or rod end mounts are rec
ommended for thrust loads. Center mountings are
restricted to light loads. Cap trunnion and clevis
moimtings are recommended for tension loads. To
ensure free movement of the cylinder, it is important
that trunnions and clevis mountings be lubricated.
Selecting a Cylinder
9.29 Many factors affect the selection of a pneu
matic cylinder for a particular application. If you are
to replace an existing cylinder, you must know the
pressure and flow capacities of the system. If the
application requires a larger cylinder, you must know
whether or not the existing air line and control valves
are large enough to handle the extra flow require
ments.
9.30 When you install a new cylinder in an exist
ing system, the prcxiedure is slightly different. First,
make sure that the cylinder can withstand the pressure
of the air system in the plant. Next, find out how
much force the cylinder must exert, and how far and
how fast it must travel. Then make sure the air lines
can deliver the required amoimt of air without exces
sive pressure losses.
9.31 For example, suppose you want to move a
load, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 9-9 on the fol
lowing i^ge, a distance of 12 in. The load requires a
400-lb force, at a velocity (speed) of 120 ft-per-min
(2 ft-per-s). The air pressure is 100 psi and the main
and outlet lines have been determined to be large
enough to handle the airflow.
Header
rod end '~
dr
Head trunnion
Fig. 9-9. A cylinder performing work into account the pressure losses in the pneumatic sys
tem. If there were a pressure drop of 20 psi between
the pressure regulator and the piston surface, only 80
Cylinder
psi would be available to operate the piston. This
means that the 2^/2 in. diameter piston would only
40001b
exert a force of 393 lb. This would not be enough
toad force, so a 3^/4 in.-diameter cylinder that develops a
663 lb force would have to be used. These calcula
tions do not include friction or other factors that
determine the force actually required from an air
Work face cylinder.

9.34 The load shown in Fig. 9-9 is a sliding load.

9.32 The first step is to select a cylinder large
enough to move the load. (For this example, assume
the air will act on the total area or cap end of the pis
ton.) Cylinder manufacturers have different charts, as
well as various equations, that can be used when
selecting cylinders. Table 9-1 shows the amount of
force that pistons can exert when different air pres
sures are applied to them. The table shows both the
force and the effective piston area for the cap and the
rod ends of the piston.
9.33 According to Table 9-1, air pressure at 100
psi acting on the cap end of a 2^/2 in. diameter piston
exerts a force of 490 lb. However, you must also take
Most of the force applied by the cylinder is needed to
offset friction as the load slides toward the work face.
The remainder is needed to accelerate the load so that
it moves the required distance (12 in.) in the required
time (0.5 seconds). At the end of the stroke, the cylin
der holds the load firmly against the work face.
9.35 The pressure of the air supply is only part of
the requirement of the cylinder. In order to move the
load the required distance in the available time, the
cylinder also must be supplied with air at the proper
flow rate. The air lines, pressure regulator, and control
valves must all be large enough to permit air to flow
at the required rale. Friction between the air and the
supply lines reduces the flow rate if the lines are too

Table 9-1. Pneumatic cylinder data

Piston area Available cylinder force Ft3
In in^ (Pressure in pounds per square inch) dispiacement
Cylinder per in. of
dia. inches end end 40 50 60 70 80
piston travel

1.77 71 89 106 124 142

1.46 59 73 88 102 117
3.14 126 157 188 220 251
2.83 113 142 170 198 227
4.90 197 245 295 343 393
4.47 184 230 276 313 368
8.30 331 ; 415 498 581 , 663
7.51 300 1 376 451
12.57 502 ! 628 754 880 I 1005
11.78 471 1 589 707 942
19.64 786 982 1178 1375 1571
18.85 754 943 1131 mmm i:;k

2827 1413 1696 ' 1979 2262

27.05 1339 1607 1894 2143
5026 2513 3016 3518 4021
48.50 ^^3 2439 2927 3395 3902

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 Pneumatic Cylinders 141

long or too small in diameter. Short supply lines with

a diameter near the diameter of the cylinder ports pro Table 9-2. Compression factors and A
vide the least reduction in flow rate. constants

"A" constantsfor various

9.36 The rate of air flow required by the cylinder pressure drop
Inlet
can be calculated by dividing the volume of air need pressure Compression 2 psi 5 psi 10 psi
ed per stroke by the amount of time one stroke takes. (psi) factor p.d. p.d. p.d.
The volume equals the area of the piston (from Table 10 1.6 .155 .102
20 2.3 .129 .083 .066
9-1) multiplied by the length of the stroke. For the 30 3.0 .113 .072 .055
machine in this example. 40 3.7 .097 .064 .048
50 4.4 .091 .059 .043
60 5.1 .084 .054 .040
70 5.7 .079 .050 .037
80 6.4 .075 .048 .035
A X L 90 7.1 .071 .045 .033
Flow rate =
100 7.8 .068 .043 .031
110 8.5 .065 .041 .030
92Ami = 199.2 120
130
9.2
9.9
.062
.060
.039
.038
.029
.028
0.5 s s
140 10.6 .058 .037 .027
150 11.2 .056 .036 .026
160 11.9 .055 .035 .026
170 12.6 .054 .034 .025
Flow rates normally are specified in cubic feet per 180 13.3 .052 .033 .024

minute (cfn^ rather than cubic inches per second. 190 14.0
14.7
.051
.050
.032
.031
.024
.023
200
Changing in^ to ft^ and seconds to minutes gives the
flow rate in the conunon units.

1
valve depends on the size of the valve ports, the pres
■ff sure drop, and the flow of air passing through the
1728
valve. You can determine the Cv by means of the fol
1
How rate = 199.2— = 199.2 lowing equation:
s 60niin
A X L X fa X fc
Cv =
T X 29

1728 where A = piston area in in^

ft' ft'
= 199.2 X = 6.916
60 mm mm L = length of stroke in in.

fa = "A" constant (see Table 9-2)

9.37 In addition to checking the flow capabilities fc = compression factor (see Table
of the system, check the flow capacity of the regulator 9-2)
and control valves. If the regulating valve is operating
near its full capacity, then the regulator has to be T = time for one stroke
changed or a new one installed on a separate line
leading to the cylinder. Many times the regulator is The number 29 in the denominator of this equation is
overlooked as a possible trouble source when a cylin a displacement factor.
der does not function properly.
9.39 If you assume that a pressure of only 80 psi is
9.38 Checking a control valve to determine if it is available at the inlet port of the cylinder, the values of
capable of handling the air of a cylinder is somewhat fa and fc are 0.048 and 6.4. Substituting these values
more involved. This is more commonly referred to as into the equation, along with other values established
calculating the capacity coefficient (Cy). The Cy of a earlier, gives the following result:
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 Fig. 9-10. Cylinder cushions

Check valves

Bushing sleeve Cushion port

n _ S.3 y. 12 y. 0.048 x 6.4
oTir^9 = most common is the cu.shioning device, frequently
From this calcuJalion, you can see that any valve on
the air path leading to the cylinder must have a capac
ity coelficient of at least 2.1. Otherwise, the cylinder
will not receive air fast enough to move the load at the
required speed.
9.40 The valve port size should be no smaller than
the cylinder port size. Although cylinder port sizes
differ, most manufacturers use the same size f)ort for
any specific cylinder diameter. The actual port size of
the cylinder should be checked against the specifica
tions in the manufacturer's catalogs. If the cylinder
port is '/2 in., then the valve must be furnished with a
V2-in. port.
Cushioning
9.41 Nearly all cylinders can be obtained with a
device that slows down the piston as the cylinder
approaches the end of its stroke. This slowdown
reduces the possibility of shock when the piston stops
suddenly. Many such devices are used. One of the
called a spear ox sleeve, shown in Fig. 9-10.
9.42 Cushioning devices work as follows: as the pis
ton rod approaches the end of its stroke, the cushion
spear or sleeve enters the cushion port. This reduces the
opening through which the air leaves the cylinder when
it is exhausted. The shape of the spear determines how
quickly the flow passage is closed, and how much the
piston velocity is reduced. When the passage is closed,
any air remaining in the cylinder is forced out through a
needle valve or check valve in the cap. Specifications
for cushioning devices for different applications can be
obtained from pneumatic-cylinder manufacturers.
9.43 Most pneumatic cylinders are available with
more than one piston-rod length or diameter. The cor
rect rod diameters for general applications are usually
furnished for standard cylinders at rated loads. For
applications with long strokes, stronger rods and sup
ports may be required. Most manufacturers furnish
graphs or charts that allow you to select the proper
rod diameters and supports.

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 Pneumatic Cylinders 143

w-

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144 Programmed Exercises

9-9. Noncenterline cylinder mountings cre 9-9. OFFCENTER

ate an loadina condition In
the supporting structure. Ref: 9.25

9-10. The movement of a pivoting cylinder 9-10. BENT

must be controlled to prevent the piston
rod from beinq Ref: 9.27

9-11. Before installing a new cylinder in an 9-11. PRESSURE

existing pneumatic system, make sure
the cylinder will withstand the air Ref: 9.30
system

9-12. When selecting a cylinder, make sure it 9-12. LOAD

is large enough to move the
Ref: 9.32

9-13. When determining the cylinder diame 9-13. PRESSURE LOSSES

ter needed to deliver a given force at a
given air pressure, you must take into Ref: 9.33
account the in the oneumat-
ic system.

9-14. When checking the pneumatic system 9-14. REGULATOR

flow capacity for a new cylinder,
always check the ratings of the control Ref: 9.37
valves and the valves.

9-15. When installing an air cylinder, make 9-15. CONTROL VALVE

sure that the port size of the cylinder is
the same as the port size of the Ref: 9.40

9-16. A cushioning device is used in most air 9-16. SHOCK

systems to prevent
Ref: 9.41

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 Self-Check Quiz 145

V^ Answer the following questions by marking an **X"

in the box next to the best answer.

9-1, T he service life of a pneumatic cylinder is 9-6. A pneumatic cylinder with lugs, feet, or side-
improved with tapped holes for mounting is classified as
being
□ a. bronze parts
□ b. lubrication □ a. fixed, centerline mounted
□ c. leather piston seals □ b. fixed, noncenterllne mounted
□ d. cast-iron rods □ c. pivoted, centerline mounted
□ d. pivoted, noncenterline mounted
9-2. The major difference between pneumatic and
hydraulic cylinders is the 9-7. The amount of motion in a pivoting cylinder
should be restricted to prevent the
□ a. absence of retum lines
□ b. methods of mounting □ a. cylinder from collapsing
□ c. bore sizes □ b. piston rod from bending
□ d. length of stroke □ c. clevis pin from binding
□ d. tie rods from stretching
9-3. A cylinder that produces work only on its
extending stroke is called a 9-8. When you divide the volume of air needed
per cylinder stroke by the amount of time one
□ a. forward cylinder stroke takes, you are calculating
□ b. one-way cylinder
□ c. thrust cylinder □ a. capacity coefficient
□ d. single-acting cylinder □ b. required air flow rate
□ c. required cylinder size
9-4. Piston retraction speed is commonly con □ d. system air pressure
trolled by
9-9. When selecting a cylinder, always make sure
□ a. limit switches that the cylinder ports are the same size as
□ b. metered Inlet air the
□ c. restricted exhaust air
□ d. springs □ a. control valve ports
□ b. piston rod
9-5. Piston rings (or cups) and seals of pneumatic □ c. connecting piping
cylinders are usually made of □ d. oil lubricator piping

□ a. leather 9-10. Shock can be prevented in a pneumatic cylin

□ b. soft rubber derby using
□ c. hard rubber
□ d. synthetic materials □ a. stop blocks
□ b. air control valves
□ 0. cushioning devices
□ d. compression springs

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146 Lesson Nine

-v-TL'

iiiip
Work done by a pneumatic cyiinder results from Cyiinder construction depends on the intended
the conversion of the pressure and movement of application. Cylinder bodies and caps are usually
compressed air into straight-iine mechanicai force made of steel or brass. Some are made of alu
and motion.The rate of airflow determines piston minum.The pistons themselves are usually made
speed and pneumatic output(in horsepower). of high-grade cast iron or steel, and are frequently
chrome plated. Piston rods are either stainless
Most standard cylinders are double acting; that Is, steel or plain steel that Is plated. Piston rings or
they can exert force in either direction. A double- seals are normally made of synthetic materials
rod cylinder is a modified double-acting cyiinder resembling semlhard rubber, but leather cup
that can be used when thrust in two directions is seals are used for some applications.
required, or when space is limited. Single-acting
cylinders can exert thrust in one direction only, Cylinders are mounted in either of two basic
usually on the out stroke. A two-piston cylinder ways:fixed or pivoted. Rxed mountings are clas
contains two pistons capable of independent sified as centerline or noncenteriine depending
motion. These pistons can be made to move sep on whether or not the cylinders absorb force on
arately or in tandem. With the addition of direc the centerline. Pivoted cylinder mountings are
tional control valves,they can even be made to classed as trunnion or clevis, and have no rigid
move in a timed sequence. support.

Answers to Seif-Check Quiz

9-1. b. Lubrication. Ref: 9.04 9-6. b. Rxed, noncenteriine mounted.

Ref: 9.25
9-2. a. Absence of return lines. Ref: 9.05
9-7. b. Piston rod from bending. Ref: 9.27
9-3. d. Single-acting cylinder.
Ref: 9.10, Rg.9-3 9-8. b. Required airflow rate. Ref:9.36

9-4. c. Restricted exhaust air. Ref: 9.14 9-9. a. Control valve ports. Ref:9.40

9-5. d. Synthetic materials. Ref: 9.20 9-10. c. Cushioning devices. Ref: 9.41

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 9-1. Parker-Hannlfln. Figure 9-8. Parker-Hannlfln

Figure 9-6. Paiker-Hannifin Table 9-2. Parker-Hanntfin
Rgure 9-7. Parker-Hannifin Figure 9-10. Miller Fluid Power Div., Rick-Reedy Corp.

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LessonTen

Pneumatic
Motors and
Rotary Actuators

iM
 Lesson

Pneumatic Motors and Rotary

Actuators

TOPICS

Pneumatic Motors Piston Motors

Motor Classification Rotary Actuators
Rating and Selection Factors Portable Air Tools
Pneumatic Motor Construction Air Boosters
Rotary Vane Motors

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain pneumatic motor classification. Calculate a motor's horsepower, given its torque and
• Define torque. speed.
• Describe pneumatic motor construction. Differentiate between a pneumatic motor and a rotary
actuator.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Pneumatic motor 10.01 a motor that converts Starting torque 10.13 the turning force exerted
pressure energy directly into mechanical energy when the motor is running and which changes
Positive-displacement motor 10.06 a motor with with any change in air pressure
a mechanical seal somewhere between the inlet Running torque 10.13 the turning force exerted
and outlet ports when the motor is running and which changes
Pressure rating 10.10 rating of a pneumatic with any change In air pressure
motor's ability to withstand air pressure without Stalling torque 10.13 the force necessary to stop
damage or internal leakage the motor once it is running
Torque 10.12 the rotational force exerted on an
object

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Pneumatic motors and other actuators are used for many applications in a typi
cal industrial plant. The next time you walk through the shop,count the number
of portable air tools such as chipping hammers, grinders, and air wrenches—
don't forget to include air-driven manipulators and agitators. If your plant pro
duces assembled components,chances are you will see a good many air tools.
Knowing how air tools and air motors use compressed air to perform work Is of
great importance to you as a maintenance craftsman. Likewise, a clear under
standing of pneumatic motor construction and a familiarity with the operating
principles of air motors and actuators should enable you to do your job better.
Pneumatic Motors
10.01 Pneumatic motors convert the movement
(kinetic energy) and pressure (potential energy) of a
stream of compressed air into a continuous rotating
force or movement Generally speaking, a pneumatic
motor converts pressure energy directly into mechani
cal energy. More specifically, the kinetic energy of
compressed air is converted into the kinetic energy of
a rotating shaft in a pneumatic motor. The output
shaft is the point where the motor is coimected to the
machine or device to be operated. The pressure of the
compressed air admitted to the motor determines its
force or torque output. The flow rate of the air deter
mines the speed. Both pressure and flow determine
horsepower output.
10.02 The general construction of pneumatic motors
is similar to that of some hydraulic motors and pumps.
However, certain modifications make them operate
more efficiently with compressed air. Efficiency is
important, because power losses in the compressor and
pneumatic piping influence motor operation. To make
sure that an air compressor delivers as much com
pressed air as possible, its volumetric efficiency is usu
ally very high—higher than its mechanical efficiency.
This is because pistons, impellers, and other parts fit
very tighdy, providing maximum air output, but at the
expense of increased mechanical friction.
10.03 To make sure that the mechanical output of a
motor can be as great as possible, motors are designed
for greater mechanical and overall efficiency wherev
er possible. The mechanical efficiency of a motor is
usually higher than its volumetric efficiency, meaning
the motor will put out a lot of work or torque, but
only at the cost of using more air.
10.04 To operate properly, pneumatic motors need a
starting or breakaway force, commonly called torque.
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149
that is great enough to start rotation while under a fiill
load. This means overcoming the total starting fiiction
within the motor and the connected load. The motor
must also overcome inertia while it is building up
speed. A motor that has only enough torque to continue
to move a load after it has started moving would not
necessarily be able to start the load fi'om a dead stop.
Motor Classification
10.05 Pneumatic motors are classified by their
motor-driving elements and their principle of opera
tion. Motors are classified according to the type of
motor elements or mechanisms. The most widely
used types are the piston motors (rotary and axial)
and vane motors. Each of these is described in this
Lesson.
10.06 Pneumatic motors are all of the positive-dis
placement type, which means that they have a
mechanical seal somewhere between the inlet and
outlet ports. The vanes in a vane motor and the
valve plate in a piston motor provide the mechanical
seal. The seal prevents internal air leakage and aids
the motor in maintaining a steady output motion at
the shaft. Nonpositive energy converters, such as
turbines, are seldom used as motors because they
are not as efficient as positive-displacement motors.
10.07 Pneumatic motors, like hydraulic motors, do
not deliver a smooth rotary shaft movement. Because
of their construction, they have an intermittent or pul
sating shaft output motion. However, the pulsations
are so small that the practical effect is one of relative
ly smooth motion and constant torque.
10.08 Positive-displacement motors are usually the
fixed-displacement type. The graphic symbols that are
found in pneumatic motor diagrams are shown in Fig.
10-1. Differences in construction identify each type
150 Lesson Ten

Fig. 10-1. Pneumatic motor graphic symbols 10.10 The pressure rating of a pneumatic motor is
determined by the motor's ability to withstand air
pressure without damage or an undesirable amount of
intemal leakage. Many motors are designed to operate
within a specific pressure range. This is the range of
pressure at which the motor operates efficiently. The
range must be wide enough to be serviceable under
normal operating conditions. The pressure range of a
motor varies firom 30 to 150 psi. Most motors operate
Rotaiy actuator
Unidirectional or oscillator Bidirectional efficiently between 60 and 100 psi. Remember that
the air pressure at the motor is the pressure of the
pneumatic system minus the line losses.

easily. The shaft output speed of a fixed-displacement
motor can be changed only by changing the pressure and
flow rate ofthe compressed air siq>plied to the motor.
Rating and Selection Factors
10.09 There are several factors that affect the rating
and final selection of a motor for a particular applica
tion. A pneumatic motor is evaluated on its overall
performance, physical and operational characteristics,
general construction, and speed. Other selection fac
tors often considered are: installation cost, operating
ahd maintenance cost, pressure range, speed range,
starting torque, estimated service life, size and
weight, mounting requirements, and noise. Size,
speed, and torque factors for different motors are
shown in Table 10-1. Each factor is discussed briefly
in the following paragraphs.
10.11 The speed range of pneumatic motors varies
from 500 to 6000 rpm, depending on the motor type
and design. For some small air tools, the speed may
be as high as 15,000 rpm. The selection of a motor
operating speed is determined by the application. If
the application requires a 2500 rpm motor, but the
only motor available revolves at 2000 rpm, some
adjustment has to be made to the machine so the 2000
rpm motor can be used. Caution should be used when
starting pneumatic motors because they come up to
operating speed very quickly. Also, to ensure good
service life from an air motor, it is important that the
manufacturer's recommended maximum speed not be
exceeded.
10.12 The torque of a motor is the rotational force,
that is exerted on an object. As shown in Fig. 10-2,
when a force is applied to a lever connected to any

Table 10-1. Air motor latmgs

Vane Piston
Axial Radial
Rated Max. Rated Max. Rated Max.
Size(hp@ speed torque speed torque speed torque
90psO (rpm) (Ib4l) (rpm) (IWl) (rpm) (ib4l)
0.1 -0.25 9000 2 — — — —

025-0.5 970 3.6 — — — —

0.5-0.75 640 10.5 2360 2 — —

0.75-125 480 23.6 2150 5 — —

125-225 1270 12 3500 11 1800 7.8

225-3 525 54 1300 19 1400 19
3-5 605 54 — — 1400 26
5-10 1800 45 — —
1500 64
10-15 — — — —
1075 145
15-20 2200 77 — — 1000 185
20-25 2580 88 —
— 1000 260

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 Pneumatic Motors and Rotary Actuators 151

Fig. 10-2. Input torque

Torque

-30 in. lever arm-

Input force
T = L X Fi (torque = length of lever ami X inputforce) of 30 lb

= 30in.X30(b

= 900[b-ia

object, the input force is multiplied. With a pneumatic An advantage of pneumatic motors over electric
motor,just the opposite takes place. For example,if a motors is that they will not bum out when they are
directly connected pneumatic motor with a torque rat slowed down or stalled by heavy loads.
ing of 240 lb in. turns a 48 in. diameter wheel(24 in.
radius), such as that shown in Fig. 10-3, the resulting 10.15 The horsepower output of pneumatic motors
force is only 10 lb at the rim of the wheel. If the same is the product of the shaft speed and torque, and is
motor were turning a 5 in. diameter (2^/2 in. radius) figured by means of the following equation:
hoist drum, the resulting force would be about 96 lb
at the surface of the drum. _ torque (Ib-in.) x rpm
hp =
63,025
10.13 Motor torque is divided into three separate
categories: starting torque, running torque, and For example,suppose you want to calculate the horse
stalling torque. The starting torque is the turning power of a 2000-rpm motor having a torque of 230 Ib-
in. Then:
force the motor exerts from a dead stop. Running
torque is exerted when the motor is running, and
changes with every change in air pressure. Stalling
torque is the force necessary to stop the motor
Fig. 10-3. Output torque
once it is running. For most pneumatic vane
motors, the starting torque is about 75% of the
stalling torque. Piston motors have a stalling
torque almost double the starting torque. It usually Force

takes less torque to keep a load turning than to Torque

start it. As a result, it would take a load consider
ably larger than the load the motor is capable of
starting to stall a pneumatic motor once it has
begun turning.

10.14 The relationship between the torque and

speed for a pneumatic motor is shown in Fig. 10-4
F2= ^out putforce =torque cUvided by length of lever arm)
on the following page. When the motor is running 240 lb in.

at low speed, the torque is high; at high speed, the 24 in.

torque is low. Low speeds combined with high =10 lb.
torque are obtained by gearing down the motors.
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152 Lesson Ten
Fig. 10-4. Torque/speed comparison
300
« 150
50
230 X 2000
= 7.3 hp (out).
63.025
10.16 A typical horsepower curve for a pneumatic
motor is shown in Fig. 10-5. Note that the maximum
power ouqiut is obtained at medium speed and medi
um torque output. Thus, in order to have maximum
power in any given ^plication, a motor should not be
turning at its maximum speed.
10.17 Another factor to be considered when select
ing a pneumatic motor is the amount of air required to
drive it. The maximum air consumption for motors
larger than 1V2 hp is about 30 ft^/min per rated horse
power at 90 psi fiill-load operation. Motors below 1V2
hp require about 40 ftVmin per rated horsepower at
fUll-load operation. Each of these requirements varies
with the different manufacturers and types of motors.
10.18 The size, weight, and mounting requirements
of a motor are factors that firequently determine motor
selection. Usually the preferred motors are compact in
size and fit into the small spaces. Overall motor
dimensions, shape, type of mounting, shaft connec
tions, and air-line piping connections usually are
given in the manufacturer's catalog.
10.19 To make sure that a pneumatic motor is not
overworked or overloaded, manufacturers specify
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100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Speed(rpm)
limitations on the applications or uses of their motors.
There are also environmental limitations that apply to
motors. These include acceptable operating tempera
tures and minimum air filtration and lubrication
requirements.
10.20 The reliability and service life of a motor in
a given installation depend chiefly on how well the
motor is matched to the load it drives. Reliability
and service life also depend on the construction of
the motor, and how clean and well-maintained the
air and the system are kept. The service life of
motors between overhauls ranges from 2500 hours
for some to 3000 or more hours for others. Service
life is directly related to the hours of operation, the
load cycles, and the quality of the compressed air
that power the motor. Remember that compressed
air quality is maintained by proper filtration and
lubrication.
10.21 Although not as important as horsepower and
torque ratings, the additional costs associated with dif
ferent motors also influence motor selection. Mounting,
plumbing,and shaft connections, along with the service,
operating, and replacement costs should be considered,
as well as the original purchase price. Although pneu
matic motors operate with lower pressures than
hydraulic motors, they are portable and more easily
controlled. The ease of operation is offset somewhat by
the initial higher cost ofcompressing the air.
 Pneumatic Motors and Rotary Actuators 153

Fig. 10-5. Typical horsepower curve for an air motor

.60

90 psi

BO pst

70 psi
5- .30

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Speed(rpm)

Pneumatic Motor Construction revolving shaft of the motor. Compressed air is

10.22 The construction of pneumatic motors is
restricted to a few basic designs, including vane,
radial-piston, and axial-piston models. Each of
these motors is a positive-displacement motor, and
each type functions by changing the volume of its
air chamber. As air under pressure moves through
the motor, its pneumatic energy is transferred to the
kept from leaking to the low-pressure side of the
motor through the use of close-fitting parts that
effectively seal the clearance passages between the
moving parts. The ways in which different types of
motors use different arrangements to change the
volume of the air chamber and reduce internal leak
age or slippage vary, but all operate on the same
basic principles.

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154 Programmed Exercises

10-1. A pneumatic motor converts kinetic 10-1. MECHANICAL ENERGY

energy and potential energy of com
pressed air into rotarv Ref: 10.01

10-2. Pneumatic motors are classified both 10-2. OPERATION

by their driving elements and by their
principles of Ref: 10.05

10-3. Unlike turbines or energy converters, all 10-3. POSITIVE

pneumatic motors have
displacement. Ref: 10.06

10-4. Name the three kinds of motor torque. 10-4. STARTING TORQUE,RUNNING
TORQUE,STALLING TORQUE

Ref: 10.13

10-5. The horsepower output of an air motor 10-5. SHAFT SPEED

is the product of the motor's torque and
Ref: 10.15

10-6. When selecting a pneumatic motor, 10-6. CONSUMPTION

always check the maximum air
required to drive it. Ref: 10.17

10-7. Compared with hydraulic motors, 10-7. CONTROLLED

pneumatic motors are more easily
Ref: 10.21

10-8. Name the three types of pneumatic 10-8. VANE, RADIAL-PISTON,

motor construction. AXIAL-PISTON

Ref: 10.22

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 Pneumatic Motors and Rotary Actuators 155

Rotary Vane Motors Fig. 10-7. An axial-piston air motor

10.23 Pneumatic vane motors such as the one in

Fig. 10-6 are similar in construction to vane compres
sors. Basically they consist of a rotor with radial slots
mounted on a shaft located in the center of an out-of-
round or cam-shaped ring or cylinder. The vanes are
constructed of nonmetallic materials to provide long
life and reduce cylinder wear. Most vanes are allowed
to float or move in and out when air pressure acts on
them. Some are spring-loaded. Because the cylinder
and rotor are rigidly mounted, the motor is classified
as a fixed-displacement type.

10.24 During operation, compressed air is admitted

through the inlet port of the motor. Incoming air
exerts force on the vanes in the inlet chamber, which
causes the rotor to rotate. As the compressed air pass
es from the inlet to the outlet ports, it loses pressure
and is exhausted from the motor.
10.25 Many portable pneumatic tools have
reversible motors. To reverse the direction of rotation,
you reverse the airflow in the inlet and outlet ports.
The valve that controls the airflow may be either a
rotary or sliding valve. Rotary valves have air pas
sages machined in the side of the valve. Sliding
valves have ports or grooves.
Piston Motors
The thrust of the piston against the wobble (or cam)
plate attached to the offset shaft causes the cam plate
to rotate. This motion is transferred through gears to
the output shaft. As the offset shaft rotates, the inlet
port control valve also rotates, directing compressed
air to the different pistons. The force developed on the
piston depends on the pressure of the air, and the
speed of the piston depends on the rate of flow.
10.27 After the piston completes its stroke and the
air pressure in the piston is expended, the air passes
through the exhaust port and is discharged into the
atmosphere. The airflow in axial-piston motors is con
trolled by the configurations of the inlet and outlet
ports.

10.26 A cutaway view of a simple axial-piston 10.28 The radial-piston pneumatic motor shown in
motor is shown in Fig. 10-7. Compressed air entering Fig. 10-8 on the following page can be constructed
the inlet port acts on the piston, pushing it to the left. for nonreversible or reversible driving arrangements.

Fig. 10-6. A vane air motor

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 Fig. 10-8. A radial-piston air motor Fig. 10-9. A vane rotary actuator

Although different in construction, its operation is the eccentric is connected to the motor shaft, the
much the same as the hydraulic radial-piston motor. motor shaft also rotates.
The pistons are mounted radially around an eccentric
five-sided valve block, which is keyed to the output 10.30 When the piston reaches the bottom of its
shaft. The pistons are connected to the valve block, stroke and the air can do no more work, the rotary
which converts their reciprocating motion into the valve allows the air from the piston to exhaust into the
rotary motion of the shaft. atmosphere. As the rotary valve continues to shift its
position, the air at almost zero pressure is forced from
10.29 When the radial-piston motor is running, the piston into the outlet line, and exhausted.
compressed air enters the inlet port and is directed to
the rotating valve. The valve directs the air through Rotary Actuators
the valve block to a piston in the motor housing.
Compressed air acting on the upper part of the piston 10.31 Air-driven rotary actuators have a rotary action
causes it to move inward, shifting the position of the similar to a rotary motor. However, they are designed to
valve block. The shifting valve block in turn causes move in an arc that is less than a full revolution. Move
the eccentric and the rotary valve to rotate. Because ment usually ranges from about 90 to 330°. The amount
of available rotation varies with
the manufacturer and the applica-
tion. Rotary actuators are high
Fig. 10-10. A piston-driven actuator
torque, relatively simple in con
struction, and easy to mount.
They are used to operate levers
and for partial rotation of drives.
Their main source of power is
through rotary-vane actuators or
-CMv. . air cylinders.

10.32 The vane-type rotary

& actuator in Fig. 10-9 operates

much like a swinging door. The
output shaft is connected direct
ly to the vane support post. The
vane and post can be moved
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 Pneumatic Motors and Rotary Actuators 157

back and forth by directing air to one or more inlet
ports, depending on the construction. Some units are
spring-loaded so they return when the air supply is
cut off. Compressed air entering the inlet port acts on
the vane, causing the shaft to rotate. Some actuators
are used to change the position of ball valves, while
others operate brakes, clamps, and electric switches.
10.33 Piston-type rotary actuators are made by sev
eral manufacturers. A common piston rotary actuator
is shown in Fig. 10-10. This actuator uses a pneumat
ic, double-piston cylinder containing a rod with a
toothed rack machined into it. The rack meshes with a
pinion gear to change reciprocating linear motion into
reciprocating rotary motion.
Portable Air Tools
10.34 Portable air tools are used for drilling, grind
ing, bolting, scaling, and chipping. Rotary air tools
(drills, grinders, and so on) are driven by vane motors
like those already discussed. Depending on the appli
cation, the motor may drive the tool directly or
through a set of reduction gears. Impact wrenches or
torquing tools are made with a set of gears, plus an
adjustable clutch or impacting device that can be
adjusted to provide the required tightening force
applied by the tool.
10.37 When an air booster operates, compressed air is
directed into the upper or cap end of the pneumatic
cylinder. As the piston travels downward, the end of the
rod acts on the hydraulic fluid in the lower chamber. As
you learned in Lesson One, any force applied to the face
of a piston is transferred to the rod end. In this case the
rod end is smaller, so the device acts as a pressure multi
plier. The force applied to the hydraulic fluid is spread
over a smaller area, so it creates a greater pressure.
10.38 The ratio of the pressures equals the ratio of the
areas of the pistons. The ratio of areas equals the ratio of
the square of the piston diameters. For example,if a 6 in.
diameter air piston has a rod I in. in diameter, the pres
sure created in the hydraulic cylinder is 6^ or 36 times
the pressure in the pneumatic cylinder. For small
machines, this system is often more economical than one
with its own hydraulic pump and pressure controls.
Fig. 10-11. An impact motor

10.35 Chipping hammers or scaling tools are con

structed in a little different manner. As shown in Fig.
Air valve
10-11 on the following page, the chipping hammer
uses a reciprocating piston that shuttles back and forth Trigger
within a cylinder in order to produce the necessary
impact on the tool. When air is admitted to the cylin
der, the piston is driven forward, striking the tool. The
air is then reversed by the internal valve, forcing the Fig. 10-12. An air booster
piston to return to its original position. At this point
the air is again reversed, forcing the piston toward the
tool. In all tools the reverse stroke of the piston is Compressed
air
cushioned to prevent damage to the tool.

Air Boosters

10.36 Pneumatically operated hydraulic power boost

ers are another form of air motor. They are linear
(straight-line) devices that use compressed air at 80 to 90
psi to op>erate booster pumps, which in turn provide up
to 2000 psi hydraulic pressure. Figure 10-12 shows an Hydraulic
fluid
air booster, consisting of a pneumatic cylinder connected
to the rod that serves as the hydraulic piston.
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158 Programmed Exercises

10-9. The reciprocating motion of the axial- 10-9. WOBBLEPLATE

piston motor is converted to rotary
motion by the Ref: 10.26, Fig. 10-7

10-10. When a radial-piston motor is running, 10-10. ROTATING

the entering compressed air is first
directed to a valve. Ref: 10.29, Fig. 10-8

10-11. Pneumatic rotary actuators usually trav 10-11. REVOLUTION

el less than one
Ref: 10.31

10-12. Reciprocating rotary motion is deliv 10-12. RACK-AND-PINION

ered by a piston-type rotary actuator by
means of afnl oear set. Ref: 10.33, Fig. 10-10

10-13. To control the amount of torque deliv 10-13. CLUTCH

ered to the tool, a pneumatic impact
wrench usually has an adjustable Ref: 10.34
in its drive train.

10-14. Chipping hammers are usually pow 10-14. PISTON

ered by a reclprocatinq
Ref: 10.35, Fig. 10-11

10-15. A hydraulic system can be pressurized 10-15. BOOSTER

by a pneumatic system through the use
of an air Ref: 10.36

10-16. In an air booster, hydraulic fluid occu 10-16. SMALL

pies the -diameter chamber.
Ref: 10.37, Fig. 10-12

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 Self-Check Quiz 159

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

10-1. What type of energy is available from a pneu 10-6. Which of the following is most important to
matic motor? consider when selecting a pneumatic motor?

□ a. Potential energy □ a. Air consumption

□ b. Pneumatic energy □ b. Output shaft size
□ c. Mechanical kinetic energy □ c. Lubrication requirements
□ d. Fluidic energy □ d. Mounting features

10-2. Pneumatic motors are classified according to 10-7. The main advantage pneumatic motors have
their over hydraulic motors is that pneumatic
motors
□ a. driving elements and speed
□ b. driving elements and principle of □ a. have a longer service life
operation □ b. are more portable
□ c. driving elements and rotation □ c. are more rugged
□ d. rotation and speed □ d. are made to closer tolerances

10-3. All pneumatic motors are constructed with a 10-8. Which of the following is NOT a type of posi
mechanical seal and operate on the principle tive displacement motor?
of
□ a. Axial-piston
□ a. positive displacement □ b. Radial-piston
□ b. axial flow □ c. Vane
□ c. free discharge turbine □ d. Rotary-actuator
□ d. multistage air pressure
10-9. The direction of rotation in a pneumatic motor
10-4. Which of the following relationships is most is reversed by means of
likely to be found in a pneumatic motor?
□ a. reversing gears
□ a. Running torque = 75% of starting □ b. a reversing clutch
torque □ c. reversing the airflow
□ b. Starting torque = 75% of running □ d. a reversing piston
torque
□ c. Running torque = 75% of stalling 10-10. Vane motors are found mostly in
torque
□ d. Starting torque = 75% of stalling □ a. power drills and wrenches
torque □ b. air winches
□ c. chipping hammers
The horsepower output of a pneumatic motor □ d. portable sealers
is calculated on the basis of the motor's

□ a. speed and size

□ b. size and weight
□ c. speed and weight
□ d. torque and speed

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160 Lesson Ten

^T--!l-iJ--SaMMiaif!! 2-'-'

Pneumatic motors provide the energy to operate
air tools and other mechanical devices. They con
vert pressure energy directly into mechanical
energy.The pressure of the air admitted to the
motor affects its torque output.The output force
of a pneumatic motor is equal to its torque divid
ed by the radius of the wheel being turned.
Pneumatic motors are all positive-displacement
motors; that is, they have a mechanical seal posi
tioned between the inlet and outlet ports in order
to prevent air leakage and maintain a steady out
put motion at the shaft. Most pneumatic motors
are also fixed-displacement motors; that is, their
shaft output speed is changed by adjusting the
pressure and flow rate of compressed air entering
the motor.
The most common designs of air motors are the
vane, radial-piston, and axial-piston models. Ail
operate on the same basic principle. The three
types differ primarily in the way the movable wall
of the air chamber transmits force to the shaft
Rotary actuators have a rotary action like that of a
rotary motor, but they move in an arc that is less
than a full revolution. Another form of actuator is
the air booster. It uses compressed air to move a
piston which, in turn, multiples the force on
hydraulic fluid in the next chamber.
Air motors are also classified by their pressure
rating (ability to withstand air pressure without
damage or leakage), and their pressure range
(range of pressure at which operation is efficient).
Other classification factors are the motor's speed
range(in the case of pneumatic motors, mostly
from 500 to 6000 rpm),and its torque. Motors are
also classed according to their horsepower out
put, which is calculated by multiplying the torque
times speed,and dividing by 63,025.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

10-1. c. Mechanical kinetic energy. 10-6. a. Air consumption. Ref: 10.17

Ref: 10.01
10-7. b. Are more portable. Ref: 10.21
10-2. b. Driving elements and principle of
operation. Ref: 10.05 10-8. d. Rotary-actuator. Ref: 10.22

10-3. a. Positive displacement. Ref: 10.06 10-9. c. Reversing the airflow. Ref: 10.25

10-4. d. Starting torque = 75% of stalling 10-10. a. Power drills and wrenches.
torque. Ref: 10.13 Ref: 10.34

10-5. d. Torque and speed. Ref: 10.15

Contributtons from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 10^. Gardner-Denver Co. Figuie 10-9. EFDYN. Corp.

Rgure 10-7. Gardner-Denver Co. Figure 10-10. PHD, Inc.
Rgure 10-8. Joy Mfg. Co. Figure 10-12. Miller Fluid Power DIv., Rick-Reedy Corp.

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