Developing Pneumatic

Troubleshooting Skills

Editor:

Linda Warner

Graphic Design:

Robert A. Ravelo

TPC Training Systems 750 Lake cook Road Buffalo Grove, Illinois 60089 U.S.A 847/808-4000
Table of Contents

Lesson One Pneumatic Systems 3

Lesson Two Pneumatic Schematic Diagrams 17

Lesson Three Installation of System Components 33

Lesson Four System Maintenance 49

Lesson Five Determining System Failures 63

Lesson Six Troubleshooting Air Compressors 79

Lesson Seven Troubleshooting Control Valves 95

Lesson Eight Troubleshooting Cylinders Ill

Lesson Nine Troubleshooting Air Motors 127

Lesson Ten Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems 143

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 jag

DE\/ElJOPING PNEUMATIC TROUBLESHOOTING SKILLS

Lesson One

Pneumatic
Systems

\o-
 Lesson

Pneumatic Systems

TOPICS

The Pneumatic System Compressor Preventive Maintenance

The Air-Supply System The Delivered-Air system
Reciprocating Compressors Air-Line Filters
Regulation and Control Air-Line Lubrication
Rotary Compressors Troubleshooting the Pneumatic system
Cooling

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain the operation of linear actuators—cylinders— Describe basic preventive maintenance procedures
in a typical pneumatic circuit. for compressors.
• Describe the various types of compressors and how List the components of an effective delivered-air sys
they work. tem and explain how they work together.
• Define intercooling and aftercooling. Describe the three main types of air-line lubrication.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Compressor 1.04 a device that takes in air from Desiccants 1.41 substances that can collect
the atmosphere and compresses it to increase its water vapor without changing their solid form
pressure
Intercooling 1.22 cooling of air between com
pression stages to reduce the final discharge air
temperature

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Before you can troubleshoot a pneumatic system, you must understand what
components it contains, and how they operate. Although pneumatic systems
vary from plant to plant, a basic understanding of the operation and functions of
the various components will be useful in troubleshooting the system in
your plant.
To maintain the maximum operating efficiency of the plant pneumatic machin
ery, it is also necessary for you to develop your ability to recognize a potential
trouble spot before trouble develops. At the same time, you must correct the
cause of the problem with the least interference to the production operation.
This Lesson will identify the various components that form a pneumatic system.
The Pneumatic System
1.01 Pneumatic systems are usually standard
groupings of components with some variation in com
pressors, filters, separators, coolers, receivers, regula
tors, distribution piping, and methods of lubrication.
Pneumatic system applications vary from simple jets
of air used to blow away chips, to air tools, air
motors, instrumentation, and complex actuation sys
tems for the control of high-speed precision
machines. Different valves are used to direct and con
trol the flow of air in a pneumatic circuit. The func
tion of these valves may be simply to admit or block
airflow as required. Others are used to control the
speed or sequence of an operation, to modulate pres
sures to spring-loaded actuators, or to control the flow
to air motors, thereby controlling speed.
1.02 A properly designed pneumatic control sys
tem is much faster acting than is generally believed.
The overall speed of the system can often exceed a
comparable electric or electrohydraulic system. Elec
tricity has the advantage of moving at the speed
of light, but the job is not complete until actuation
takes place. A pneumatically operated valve may
actuate in 2 to 5 milliseconds (ms) after the signal
arrives, while an electric relay can take up to 50 ms.
Over short distances, a pneumatic circuit can be as
fast or faster than an electrical circuit. When the trans
mission distance becomes greater, the advantage then
belongs to electricity.
1.03 The principal means of applying pneumatic
power is the cylinder. The majority of cylinders in use
are 4 in. in diameter or smaller, supplying a maximum
thrust of 1000 lb force at 80 psi line pressure. Cylin
ders are essentially linear actuators. Methods are
available, however, to convert their motion to semiro-
tary motion or to magnify the force for actuating
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clamps, cutters, and other devices. Cylinders, air
motors, air tools, and instrument readouts are the ter
mination point of the pneumatic complex.
The Air-Supply System
1.04 The heart of any air-supply system is the
compressor. The types of compressors used vary from
system to system, but their function remains the same.
That is, they take in a volume of air from the atmos
phere and compress it to a smaller volume to increase
its pressure. The compressor, with the aid of the
pressure-control switches, must also maintain the
proper pressure level of the air delivered to the system
at all times.
1.05 Compressors can be classified as one of two
types—either dynamic or positive-displacement.
Dynamic compressors use high-speed, rotating vanes
or impellers to impact velocity and pressure to the
flow of gas being handled. Positive-displacement
compressors work on the principle of increasing the
pressure of a specific quantity of gas by reducing its
volume. Positive-displacement compressors can be
subdivided into reciprocating and rotary types. Each
of these can be further broken down into subtypes,
which describe the compressor's construction.
Reciprocating Compressors
1.06 Reciprocating compressors can be classified
according to their operation as single-acting or dou
ble-acting, and single-stage or multistage. They can
also be identified by the physical arrangement
of cylinders used to achieve the desired amount of
compression. The most common arrangements are
vertical, horizontal, in-line, V or Y, W, angle or L,
radial, side-by-side, and tandem (see Fig. 1-1 on the
following page).
 Fig. 1-1. Reciprocating compressor conflgurations

Hortzontal

vertical

1.07 In a single-acting compressor, compression Multistage compressors can also be constructed with
takes place at only one end of the cylinder. In the dou a two-diameter cylinder and piston arrangement. In
ble-acting compressor, the spaces on both sides of the these compressors the high-stage piston is attached to
piston are enclosed, and both ends of the cylinder the top of the low-stage piston and is smaller in diam
are used for compression. This is a common arrange eter. For most continuous-duty compressors, the com
ment in direct steam-driven compressors and in many pression ratio in the first stage can be as high as 12 to
large compressors. 1. Second- or third-stage compression ratios are limit
ed to about 3 to 1.
1.08 Multistage compressors use two or three
cylinders, each with a different piston diameter. 1.09 The piston displacement of a reciprocating
compressor is equal to the volume of air swept
through the cylinder by the piston in one minute. This
Fig. 1-2. A pressure unloader is limited to the first-stage piston only in multistage
compressors. The capacity of a compressor, in cubic
feet per minute (cfm), is defined as the actual volume
Pilot air of air compressed and delivered at the discharge
point, measured in terms of atmospheric conditions
(temperature and pressure) at the inlet.

Regulation and Control

1.10 The output of a compressor must be regulated

so that it supplies no more than the required amount of
Actuating
delivered compressed air. Regulation can be either
piston manual or automatic. Single-stage and two-stage com
pressors are often regulated by spring-loaded automatic
Unloading air relays, which actuate unloading mechanisms (see
fingers
Fig. 1-2). Pressure from the air receiver is transmitted
to the unloader piston, which acts against a spring.
When pressure in the receiver exceeds a predetermined
Thtt malenal « prelected by U. S Copynght Low Copyvtg by oAy opbcol. olectrorM. or other r ; AegaJ Mthout perrmssioo
 Fig. 1-3. Pocket unloading

i
Clearance pocket Control valve

level, the spring is compressed and the unloader claw is Rotary Compressors
actuated, holding the suction valve open and preventing
compression from taking place in the cylinder. This 1.14 Rotary compressors are generally thought of
action is termed suction-valve unloading. as being in the positive-displacement class. There
are four basic types available—rotary-screw, impeller,
1.11 When suction-valve unloading is applied to sliding-vane, and liquid-ring. Rotary compressors
double-acting compressors, two unloaders set at dif attain positive-displacement characteristics by
ferent pressures are generally used. In this manner, it trapping the air in Individual cavities. As the compres
is possible to unload each side of the piston at differ sor rotates, the cavities are reduced in volume,
ent pressures, giving full load, half load, and zero providing compression.
load. This is called three-step unloading, because
three different load conditions can be accomplished. 1.15 Sliding-vane compressors are widely used.
They may be either single- or two-stage in construc
1.12 In clearance-pocket unloading, specially tion. Single-stage units generally are used for pres
designed pockets are opened to enlarge the clearance sures of up to 50 psi and two-stage for pressures of up
volume of the cylinder. This reduces the output of the to 125 psi. Sliding-vane compressors are available
compressor. Double-acting compressors often use a with capacities of up to 4000 cfm.
combination of clearance-pocket and suction-valve
unloaders to give 0%,25%,50%,and 75% unloading. 1.16 Rotary-screw compressors are available as
Figure 1-3 illustrates a typical clearance-pocket wet-screw or dry-screw types. They are considered
design for compressors. relatively high-speed units (usually 3000 to 12,000
rpm). Capacity in rotary-screw compressors is propor
1.13 Another method of controlling the output of a tional to speed. Compressors are available with
compressor is by throttling the intake. When used at ratings from 120 cfm to 20,000 cfm. Single-stage
less than full-load conditions, this method requires units are capable of producing pressures of up to 50
more horsepower than the other methods described. psi. Two-stage models can develop pressures of up to
In addition, every air system must be protected 150 psi.
against overpressure by a preset relief or dump valve.
These are usually found on or near the air receiver. In 1.17 Impeller (or two-lobe rotary) compressors
some cases, they operate simply as a pressure-actuat have a pressure limitation of about 15 psi. Because of
ed ON/OFF switch. this pressure limitation, they are often considered
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8 Lesson One
blowers rather than compressors. These compressors
are available with capacities ranging from 5 to about
50,000 cfm,
1.18 The liquid-ring (or liquid-piston) compressor
is less efficient than other types, but it has the advan
tages of relatively low-cost operation and minimum
maintenance requirements. Available capacities range
from 10,000 cfm at 15 psi to 300 cfm at 1(X) psi.
1.19 Diaphragm compressors are generally used
for light-duty ^plications. Most of them can furnish
only small capacities (1 to 3 cfm) of delivered air at
30 to 40 psi.
1.20 Centrifugal and axial-flow rotary compres
sors are classed as dynamic or nonpositive-displace-
ment. Both of these types operate at high speeds and
are capable of delivering very large amounts of air(up
to 100,000 cfm) at pressures of up to 125 psi. When
used for high-volume, low-pressure applications,
these compressors are very economical.
Cooling
1.21 As air is compressed, it generates heat. This
heat must be dissipated effectively if the compressor
is to be efficient. High intake temperatures also
lower compressor efficiency. These effects can be
reduced by cooling the compressor cylinder and
drawing intake air from as cool a source as possible.
Another way is to use a compressor that reaches the
desired degree of compression in several stages,
rather than in a single stage. In this way, the heating
effect per stage is less. Effective cooling results in
increased overall efficiency.
1.22 In multistage compressors, it is desirable to
cool the air between stages to reduce the final
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discharge air temperature. This cooling between
stages is called intercooling. If the final discharge
temperature is still too high for the system, it can be
further reduced by aftercooling. This cooling is usual
ly done as close to the compressor discharge point as
possible. Aftercooling provides the added advantage
of removing water from the air.
1.23 The cylinders of small and medium-sized sin
gle-stage compressors may be cooled satisfactorily by
a fan mounted on the compressor crankshaft. The fan
provides a generous flow of air over and around the
heads and cylinders. Cylinders are normally finned in
such cases to increase the surface area exposed to the
airstream. When the compressor is located in a warm
place, it may be necessary to bring cooler air to the fan
from another location through ducts. Forced-air cool
ing may be necessary for large, intermittently used
compressors and for small-capacity two-or three-stage
units. Most large compressors and the majority of mul
tistage compressors normally are water-cooled.
1.24 Water cooling in compressors is similar to
the cooling system of an automobile engine. The^
cylinders and heads have water jackets for circulat
ing cooling water. Compressor cooling requires that
the compressor temperature be kept as low as possi
ble. The amount of cooling that can take place is
dependent on the temperature and volume of the
cooling water. When the compressor is water-cooled,
the intercooler and aftercooler are also water-cooled.
The programmed Exercises will tell you how well
you understand the material you have just read.
Before starting the exercises, remove the
REVEAL KEY from the back of your Book.
Read the instructions printed on the Reveal Key.
Follow these instructions as you work through the
Programmed Exercises.
 Programmed Exercises 9

1 -1. When a volume of air is reduced by a 1-1. INCREASES

comoressor. its pressure
Ref: 1.04

1 -2. Compressors classified according to 1-2. DYNAMIC

operation are identified or referred to
as positive-displacement and Ref: 1.05
compressors.

1-3. Reciprocating compressors are classi 1-3. OPERATION;PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT

fied accordino to their and
the of their cylinders. Ref: 1.06, Fig. 1-1

1-4. Reciprocating compressors that have 1-4. MULTISTAGE

two or more pistons of different size
are called compressors. Ref: 1.08

1-5. In a compressed-air system,suction- 1-5. RECEIVER

valve unloaders are actuated by air
pressure from the Ref: 1.10, Fig. 1-2

1-6. Name the four types of positive- 1 -6. ROTARY-SCREW,SLIDING-VANE,

displacement rotary compressors. IMPELLER, LIQUID-RING

Ref: 1.14

1-7. Dynamic compressors have 1-7. NONPOSITIVE

displacement.
Ref: 1.20

1-8. The amount of cooling that can take 1-8. TEMPERATURE; VOLUME
place in a water-cooled compressor
Hppenris on the and Ref: 1.24
of the water.
10 Lesson One
Compressor Preventive Maintenance
1.25 Atmospheric pollution and abrasive materials
such as grit, pipe scale, rust, and corrosive liquids and
gases are all possible sources of air contamination. To
protect the compressor, the air intake should be locat
ed where the air is the coolest and cleanest. Even with
the most ideal location, additional conditioning
of intake air is required to prevent corrosion, remove
impurities, and eliminate solid particles. No compres
sor should be operated without an adequate intake
air filter.
1.26 The filtering requirements are determined
largely by the type of air-operated equipment used.
Pneumatic bags, air cushions, and mats are not affect
ed to a great degree by air contamination, except for
possible corrosive action.
1.27 In most industrial applications, the com
pressed air for conventional air cylinders, valves, and
air tools is in direct contact with the sliding surfaces.
Because these surfaces can be abraded or corroded by
contaminated air, filtration is necessary.
1.28 Atmospheric air is generally far from clean
and, in industrial areas in particular, it may be heavily
contaminated with dust and other contaminants. In
one week, a continuously operating, unfiltered, medi
um-sized compressor can draw in as much as a pound
of solids. The solids intake is greater in heavily conta
minated atmospheres, such as near cement works,
quarries, and foundries. After a time, these solids
will accumulate on pistons, cylinder heads, and
cylinder valves.
1.29 Dust coming into contact with an oil mist or
oil spray tends to be washed out of the air and collect
ed in the lubricant. These contaminants build up on
the internal surfaces of the components, causing abra
sion. Solid contaminants present in the air have to be
removed at the compressor if the system is to operate
efficiently. In all cases, an effective planned mainte
nance program will ensure that the air system is kept
as clean as possible.
1.30 There are three basic types of intake filters—
dry, oil-bath, and oil-wetted. The dry filter is used
wherever oil-free air is required. This type is often
located close to the compressor so it can stop any for
eign material that may enter the inlet piping. Oil-bath
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airfilters direct incoming air through an oil bath, then
through a wire mesh filter medium that traps the oil
and dirt. In oil-wetted air filters^ the incoming air is
passed through many layers of oil-coated, crimped
wire mesh. The mesh is arranged to break up the
airstream into thousands of tiny currents.
1.31 Compressor manufacturers normally recom
mend the proper size and type of filters to be used on
their machines. Consider the manufacturer's recom
mended size to be the minimum required. In some
cases, compressors are fitted with filters by the manu
facturer. If relatively clean air is always available, or
if the compressor is used only intermittentiy, adequate
protection can be obtained with a simple wire-mesh
strainer at the intake. In all other cases, however, an
intake filter should be used.
1.32 The size of the filter is generally determined
by the machine's intake requirements. The type is dic
tated by the duty required. Dry filters are normally
adequate for dealing with average to fairly heavy dust
concentrations. Oil-bath or oil-wetted filters are more
effective in heavily contaminated atmospheres. Thejr--
require more regular attention, however.
The Delivered-Air System
1.33 In addition to the air inlet filtration, com
pressed air that is delivered to the system after leaving
the compressor often requires further conditioning to
remove water, oil, and solid particles. Additional solid
matter may be added to the delivered air by pipe
scale, rust, and sediment in the distribution system.
The degree of conditioning required by the air is
largely determined by the way in which the delivered
air is used. Accumulated contaminants in pipelines
can be removed, to some extent, by blowing through
the air lines before connecting tools or appliances.
This does not, however, protect the tools while they
are being used.
1.34 Water in the lines can wash lubricating oil off
rubbing surfaces and add to corrosion. Water also
tends to promote rust and scale buildup in pipes and
fittings. For these reasons, corrosion-resistant piping
should be used.
1.35 In most systems, water, oil, and solid contam
inants must be removed fi"om the delivered air. This is
true for paint spraying, food agitation, and any

application in which contamination might lead to
erratic action or failure of sensitive devices. The effi
ciency of any air-powered system is directly related to
the cleanliness of the air it receives.
1.36 As much as possible, use a filter/separator com
bination. The air filter will remove solid contaminants
and the separator will remove oil and water. The ideal
location for the filter/separator, generally, is just after
the compressor or receiver. Branch tool lines or feeds
extracted fi-om a supply header or main can also be pro
vided with individual protection as required. Figure 1-4
shows a typical plant installation and filter location.
1.37 Filter/separators can also be used in the main
supply lines, branch lines, and individual feed lines to pro
vide the required degree of water removal. Individual feed
lines often have filter/separators installed as close as possi
ble to the point of use to provide final conditioning of air.
1.38 Water is a particularly troublesome contami
nant. Water condenses in the system as the delivered
air cools. The problem of water accumulation
becomes more acute in high ambient air temperatiu"es
and high relative humidity conditions. If the delivered
air has a high moisture content, the sudden expansion
of the air at supply points causes freezing at valves
or other outlets. Even the supply lines themselves
can freeze.
Fig. 1-4. Pneumatic system layout
Compressor room
Aftercooler
Air compressor
ntake filter
Moisture separator
Secondary filters and lubncators
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Pneumatic Systems 11
1,39 Rapid cooling in an aftercooler(and separator)
ahead of the air receiver condenses much of the water
vapor and keeps it from entering the distribution lines.
Additional moisture also .settles out in the receiver.
1.40 Drain traps provide an additional means of
removing condensation from the system. These traps
are normally located at suitable low points in the dis
tribution system. The trap is an automatic drain
device that holds system pressure until the liquid
(water or oil) accumulates to a predetermined level.
The trap then opens momentarily, discharging the
accumulated liquid.
1.41 An alternative to line filter/separators is
adsorption drying. Adsorption dryers take advantage
of the properties of substances called desiccants. Des-
iccants have the ability to collect water vapor from the
air on their surfaces without changing their solid
form. Desiccants are capable of collecting up to
99.9% of the water vapor in compressed air, if
required. For most ordinary applications 75% to 90%
is sufficient. With certain adsorption desiccants, such
as alumina and silica gel, the collected water can be
easily expelled by heating the desiccant. Thus, the
adsorbent material can be reused many times. Some
dryers operate on the principle of absorption. In an
absorption dryer, the desiccant changes form while
absorbing the moisture.
Receiver
Mam fiKer
12 Lesson One

Fig. 1-5. Adsorption dryer filtration and separation within each unit. These
mechanical filters are shaped in such a way that air
entering the unit is directed into a swirling motion.
Wet-air inlet
Centrifugal force then causes larger solid particles
and the bulk of water and oil droplets to impinge
(strike sharply)against the walls of the unit. The sepa
A Purge exhaust rated liquid and solid material fall to a settling cham
^ to atmosphere
Check ber at the bottom of the unit.
I valves j
1.46 The airstream, having given up some of its
N=If=N contaminants, then passes through the filter
element. The filter traps and retains all solid
Dry-air outlet particles larger than the pore or screen size of the
filter element.

Purge valve Air-Line Lubrication

1.47 In certain applications, it is desirable to

Dryer operating Reactivating dryer
1.42 An adsorption dryer normally consists of
two cylinders of desiccant. They are interconnected
in such a way that one of them is being used to dry
the compressed airstream, while the other is being
reactivated (heated to expel adsorbed water) so that
it can be used again. Figure 1-5 shows a schematic
of a typical adsorption dryer.
1.43 Inlet air is directed through the four-way
valve to the left adsorber where it is dried before pass
ing to the outlet pipe. A small portion of the dried air
is used to purge the right cylinder. The embedded
heater provides additional heat to drive off the water
adsorbed in the right cylinder during the drying cycle.
When all of the water is expelled, the heater is turned
off and a purge of dry air cools the desiccant.
1.44 In a typical adsorption dryer the reactivated
cycle is two hours—one hour of heating
and one hour of drying. When reactivation is com
pleted, the four-way inlet valve is switched, putting
the right adsorber on line. The left adsorber then
begins reactivation.
Air-Line Fiiters
1.45 Air-line filters are normally used at takeoffs
(tool points) in the system. They usually provide both
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add lubricant to the compressed air. This can be
accomplished by air-line lubricators. The three
basic types of air-line lubricators are wick, oil-fog,
and oil-mist. Lubricant is normally applied as a
final treatment after filtering and separating the
air, and after reducing the air pressure at the point
of use.
1.48 The most widely used air-line lubricator is
the oil-fog type, like the one shown in Fig. 1-6. A
bowl or reservoir is provided for the oil supply. As
the air enters the lubricator, a small amount is divert
ed into the bowl to apply pressure to the oil. This
forces oil up through a tube and into the metering
valve. The metering valve permits droplets of oil to
enter a venturi tube, where they are atomized and
carried along with the air. One drop of oil for every
10 cfm of air consumed is the usual rate of lubrica
tion. After lubricating oil is added, the air should
travel no more than about 30 ft. Beyond this point,
the lubricant begins to settle or condense, and loses
it effectiveness.
Troubleshooting the Pneumatic System
1.49 Troubleshooting a pneumatic system
is more challenging than planned maintenance
work, but both are important to the efficient
operation of the total system. As you will see in the
following Lesson in this Unit, troubleshooting is
simply a matter of following certain logical steps,
in a specific sequence, to locate the cause of a
system malfunction.
 Pneumatic Systems 13

1.50 When you first start to troubleshoot a pneu Fig. 1-6. An air-line lubricator
matic system, it will seem to take a lot of time. This
time will be reduced as you become more familiar
with the system and proficient in your troubleshooting Oii-fiow control

techniques. Remember as you carry out your duties

that whenever you find the supposed cause of the
Sight tube
trouble, always check the other areas in the pneumatic
system to make sure that you have completely identi
fied the real cause of the problem.

Ball check

Pickup tube

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14 Programmed Exercises

1-8. COOLEST,CLEANEST
1-8. The intake filter of an air compressor
should be placed where the air is
Ref: 1.25
and

1 -9. Dust washed out of the air by an oil mist 1-9. LUBRICANT
collects in the
Ref: 1.29

1-10. The size of an intake filter is determined 1-10. INTAKE

hy thfi mmpressor's air
requirements. Ref: 1.32

1-11. The air delivered to a pneumatic sys 1-11. SOLID PARTICLES

tem should be conditioned by removing
water, oil. and Ref: 1.33

1-12. Filter/separators can be placed in the 1-12. INDIVIDUAL FEED

suDDlv. branch, or lines of a
pneumatic system. Ref: 1.37

1-13. In two-cylinder adsorption dryers, one 1-13. REACTIVATED

cylinder dries the air while the other
cvlinder is beino Ref: 1.42

1-14. An air-line filter removes oil and water 1-14. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
droplets and solid particles from the air
throuoh Ref: 1.45

1-15. Air-line lubricators usually add oil to the 1-15. 10

airstream at the rate of one drop for
everv cfm. Ref: 1.48

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 Self-Check Quiz 15

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

1-1. A compressor increases the pressure of the 1-6. Dust particles that contact oil sprays or
air by mist usually

□ a. decreasing its temperature □ a. settle in the intercooler

□ b. decreasing its volume □ b. improve lubrication
□ c. increasing its volume □ c. decrease abrasion
□ d. removing the moisture □ d. collect in the lubricant

1-2. Reciprocating compressors are classified by 1-7. What determines the type of air filter used on
their operating characteristics (single- or an air compressor?
double-acting) and their
□ a. Compressor speed
□ a. intercooler capacity □ b. Compressor size
□ b. driver motor size □ c. Number of secondary filters
□ c. bore and stroke □ d. Duty or application
□ d. physical arrangement
1-8. Which of the following best determines the
1 -3. Which of the following is used to activate amount of conditioning required by the com
suction-unloading valves? pressed air after it leaves the compressor?

□ a. Compressor speed □ a. How the air is used

□ b. Intercooler air pressure □ b. Volume of air used
□ c. Receiver air pressure □ c. Pressure of the air
□ d. All of the above □ d. Type of primary air filter

1 -4. Which of the following is classed as a 1 -9. In which of the following locations within the
dynamic compressor? distribution system can the filter/separator
be installed?
□ a. Liquid-ring
□ b. Centrifugal □ a. Branch lines
□ c. Impeller (two-lobe rotary) □ b. Main supply lines
□ d. Rotary-screw □ c. Individual feed lines
□ d. All of the above
1 -5. The amount of cooling that occurs in a
water-cooled compressor is determined 1 -10. Oil is usually added to the airstream at the
mainly by the rate of

□ a. water temperature and volume □ a. one drop/100 cfm

□ b. size of the heat exchanger □ b. two drops/100 cfm
□ c. air contamination □ c. one drop/10 cfm
□ d. liquid capacity of the system □ d. two drops/10 cfm

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16 Lesson One

ARY

A pneumatic system is a combination of two or any one section,the total system will not func
more components designed to do work by using tion. As a maintenance craftsman,one of your
air under pressure, in modern industry,the entire responsibilities is to maintain the pneumatic
system is divided into major subsystems.They system in the proper working order. This
are:(1)the air-suppiy system;(2)the piping or dis includes not only minor adjustments, but also
tribution system;(3)the air-iine conditioning sys major overhauls.
tem; and (4)the air control and actuation system.
The components used In pneumatic systems vary
The air-suppiy system compresses and stores the from plant to plant. Specific components used in
air. Air then flows through the piping or distribution any particular industrial plant are determined by
system.The air is cleaned, dried, and lubricated in the needs of the plant and its operating require
the air-iine conditioning system,and is actually put ments. Even in so-called "duplicate" plants, pneu
to use in the air control and actuation system. matic systems vary slightly. This variance is
brought about by modifications to the production
Each of these subsystems is important to the equipment and changes in the plant layout.
operation of the total system, because without

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

1.1. b. Decreasing its voiume. Ref: 1.04 1-6. d. Collect in the lubricant. Ref: 1.29

1-2. d. Physical arrangement. 1-7. d. Duty or application. Ref: 1.32

Ref: 1.06, Rg. 1-1
1-8. a. How the air is used. Ref: 1.33
1-3. 0. Receiver air pressure.
Ref: 1.10, Rg. 1-2 1-9. d. All of the above. Ref: 1.37

1-4. b. Centrifugal. Ref: 1.20 1-10. 0. One cfm. Ref: 1.48

1-5. a. Water temperature and volume.

Ref: 1.24

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 1-2. Ingersoll-Rand Co.

Figure 1-6. Dyna-Quip

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Lesson Two

Pneumatic-

'
 Lesson

Pneumatic Schematic Diagrams

TOPICS

Types of Symbols Timing Circuits

How Schematic Symbols are Constructed Safety Circuits
Diagraming an Air-Supply System Symbols for Special Devices
A Simple System System Schematics

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain the different types of symbols used in pneu Describe the operation of timing and safety circuits.
matic schematic diagrams—how they are constructed Analyze the schematic diagram of a fluid-power
and what they show. system.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Pictorial symbol 2.02 a symbol that shows the Complete schematic symbol 2.08 a symbol that
physical relationship and interconnections of represents the component and all its functions in
components one circuit diagram
Cutaway symbol 2.03 a symbol that shows the Simplified schematic symbol 2.08 a less com
internal arrangement of a part plicated and less complete schematic symbol
Schematic symbol 2.04 a symbol that empha Composite schematic symbol 2.08 a symbol
sizes the function and method of operation of a that is a combination of complete and simplified
component symbols

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Schematic symbols are not really new. They have been providing an effective
communication tool In the electrical and piping Industry for many years, in
1954, the organization known as the American Standards Association began
standardizing schematic symbols for both hydraulic and pneumatic circuit
diagraming. The final result of this work was the approved and adopted
standards published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers In 1967
(ANSI Y32.10-1967).
Because of the wide acceptance and use of these symbols by both manufactur
ers and engineers, It Is Important that you know and understand them. This
Lesson describes many of the more commonly used symbols and the ways In
which they are used. It also presents an opportunity for you to perform some
elementary pneumatic circuit analysis.
Types of Symbols
2.01 A pneumatic system is quite different from
a hydraulic system. It differs not only in the compo
nents it contains, but also in the flow paths through
the system. In the past, designers of pneumatic sys
tems varied their choice of drawing symbols as
much as manufacturers varied their components. In
spite of current standards, there are still some minor
variations between the two systems. The three types
of symbols used in drawing pneumatic circuit dia
grams are pictorial, cutaway, and schematic. There
are advantages and disadvantages to each type, and
each will be discussed in the paragraphs that follow.
2.02 Pictorial symbols or views are useful for
showing the physical relationship and interconnec
tions between components. However, pictorial sym
bols are difficult to standardize and do not usually
lend themselves to an explanation of how a system
operates. Pictorial symbols benefit the installer by
clearly showing the connections between compo
nents, as in Fig. 2-1 on the following page.
2.03 Cutaway symbols emphasize the construc
tion of components. These symbols are often com
plex to draw, and the functions and operations
of the components still may not be readily apparent.
They are of more benefit in troubleshooting
components because they show the internal
arrangement of the parts. Figure 2-1 illustrates a
cutaway drawing also.
2.04 Schematic symbols more clearly emphasize
the function and method of operation of compo
nents. They are the most widely used kind of sym
bol. Because the symbols are simple to draw and
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19
easy to understand, they have become a means of
communication between the designer and the main
tenance or installation technicians. Because of their
universal acceptance, they are capable of crossing
language barriers. A listing and explanation of
schematic symbols is given in the reference table on
page 29 of this Lesson.
How Schematic Symbols are Constructed
2.05 An effective schematic symbol provides a
representation of a component and its characteris
tics and functions. Generally, the symbol consists
of one basic symbol combined with one or more
functional symbols. Basic symbols—circles,
squares, rectangles, triangles, arcs, arrows, lines,
and dots—identify the components and connecting
arteries. Functional symbols can be any form neces
sary to represent a specific function or action within
the component or system. The size of the symbols
is usually determined by the complexity and size of
the system.
2.06 Figure 2-2 on page 21 shows how some of
the basic symbols are used. Circles are used to rep
resent rotary motion or devices such as compressors
and motors. Squares and rectangles represent the
envelope (enclosure)for valving and other nonrotat-
ing components. The envelope can also be repre
sented by a broken line, as shown in the composite
symbol of Fig. 2-3 on page 21. Triangles are used
to show both the direction of flow and the medium
(air or hydraulic fluid) used in that part of the
system. In a pneumatic circuit diagram, only
the outline of a triangle is used. In hydraulic dia
grams, the triangle is filled in and resembles a
solid arrowhead.
20 Lesson Two

Fig. 2-1. Pictorial,cutaway,and schematic drawings

Cutaway

Supply

Supply

Pictorial Schematic
Jupplyl
Supply Throttle

Emergency ^rv
stop ara^
Governor
control

Control Supply
valve

of a component. Composite symbols are an orga

Orifice Nozzle nized combination of complete and simplified sym
bols. They are used to represent relatively complex
2.07 Plain arcs, placed on either side of a line, components. Examples of complete, simplified, and
indicate restrictions in the lines, as shown. composite symbols are shown in Fig. 2-3.

Arrows, as shown in Fig. 2-4, shows flow paths and 2.09 The two complete schematic examples
the direction of rotation of shafts (arrows are assumed shown in Fig. 2-3 represent two-position and three-
to indicate rotation of the near-side shaft). An arrow position four-way valves. The number of valve posi
through a symbol at approximately 45° indicates that tions is identified by the number of blocks the
the component can be adjusted or varied. schematic contains. The number of major connec
tions identify the valve as being two-way, three-way,
2.08 Schematic symbols usually appear in one of or four-way. Major connections frequently are iden
three forms—complete, simplified, or composite. tified by numbers or letters.
Complete schematic symbols represent the
component and all its functions in one circuit 2.10 In compliance with American National Stan
diagram. Simplified schematic symbols are less dard drafting practices, schematic symbols are gen
complicated and also less complete representations erally arranged in the diagrams to facilitate the use
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Fig. 2-2. Basic schematic symbols
Compressor
0—f-Q Rotating elements
Cyitnder
M/V XIA
Control valve
Nonrotating elements
Power paths
Connecting lines
Fig. 2-4. Arrows used in symbols
Rotation (clockwise)
of direct and straight interconnecting lines. Where
components have a definite mechanical, functional, or
otherwise important relationship to one another, their
symbols are so placed in the diagram. Where a com
ponent requires a definite mounting position, its sym
bol is drawn and placed to illustrate this requirement.
2.11 Connecting lines between various compo
nents in a diagram represent the conductors (piping
and hoses) that carry the air or other fluid between
components. Examples are shown in Fig. 2-5 on the
following page. Main line conductors are called
working lines and are drawn as a single unbroken
line. Conductors that carry air to actuate control
components are called pilot or signal lines and are
drawn as a series of long dashes. Sensing lines, such
as gauge or indicator lines, are drawn the same as
the line to which they are connected. Exhaust lines
are drawn as a series of short dashes.
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Pneumatic Schematic Diagrams 21
Fig. 2-3. Composite,simplified,and complete
symbols
Motor
0
<H>
Composite
t> I 0
Simplified
Twoijosttion
XlA Three-position
Complete
Row paths Adjustment
Diagraming an Air-Suppiy System
2.12 The schematic diagram of an air-supply sys
tem as it might exist in a typical plant is shown in
Fig. 2-6 on the following page. The air enters the
fixed-displacement compressor through a muffler
and intake filter. Notes on the drawing show the size
of the compressor and motor. After the air is com
pressed it flows through an aftercooler and then into
a storage reservoir. Upon leaving the reservoir, the
air flows through a separator fitted with a manual
drain to a manually operated, vented cutoff valve. If
this air-supply system schematic were to be used in
a European country, only the units of measure for
the compressor and motor would need to be convert
ed to the metric system.
22 Lesson Two

Fig. 2-5. Connecting lines

Schematic lines
Working line

Pilot line
Flexible line

^!) and line functions

Exhaust line Crossing lines

Enclosure outline

Direction of flow Joining lines i.

T

Fig. 2-6. A typical air-supply system diagram

931
Rlter
175 psig Aftercooler Separator
MufRer 20cfm
To plant
20ft3
<
Reservoir
Valve
Rxed-
5 hp
displacement
1800 rpm
compressor

2-13 In many schematic circuit diagrams, the on the schematic diagram is assigned a corre
details of the air supply system are not important. In sponding item number in the bill of materials to
these cases, the items in Fig. 2-6 can be shown sim aid in component identification. These lists
ply as a line and triangle indicating a supply air line. sometimes identify all components according to
name, model number, and manufacturer or
Schematic circuit diagrams usually contain a List of supplier and are usually shown in a corner of
Components or Bill of Materials. Each component the diagram.

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 Programmed Exercises 23

2-1. Name the three types of symbols 2-1. PICTORIAL, CUTAWAY.SCHEMATIC

commonly used in pneumatic diagrams.
Ref: 2.01

2-2. The symbol that best shows physical 2-2. PICTORIAL

relationship and component intercon
nections is the svmbol. Ref: 2.02, Fig. 2-1

2-3. Construction of components is 2-3. CUTAWAY

emphasized in svmbols.
Ref: 2.03

2-4. Schematic symbols emphasize 2-4. OPERATION

the function and of
a component. Ref: 2.04

2-5. A schematic symbol represents the 2-5. FUNCTIONS

characteristics and of
a component. Ref: 2.05

2-6. Circles are used in schematics to rep 2-6. ROTARY

resent motion or devices.
Ref: 2.06, Rg.2-2

2-7. A series of long dashes used between 2-7. PILOT,SIGNAL

two components in a schematic
diagram indicates or Ref: 2.11, Fig. 2-5
lines.

2-8. In a schematic diagram, the supply air 2-8. HOLLOW TRIANGLE

to the pneumatic system is represented
by a line and a fnl Ref: 2.13

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24 Lesson Two
2.14 Although it may q^pear difficult at first, reading
schematics will become easy with a little practice. Thor
oughly understanding what you read may take a little
longer. Understanding a circuit can be best accomplished
by studying small segments at a time.
A Simple System
2.15 The operating circuit shown schematically in
Fig. 2-7 is probably one of the simplest found in indus-
try. It consists of a double-acting cylinder operated by a
two-position, four-way, lever-operated valve. With the
valve shifted, as shown, supply air is directed through
the valve to the cap end of the cylinder, causing the
cylinder rod to extend. As the cylinder extends, air in the
head end of the cylinder flows back through the valve
and is exhausted.
2.16 When the operating lever of the valve is moved
to the opposite position, the flow paths in the left-hand
block of the valve symbol are used. As indicated by the
arrows, supply air is directed to the head end of the
cylinder. As the cylinder rod retracts, air in the cap end is
exhausted through the valve and out the exhaust muffler.
Timing Circuits
2.17 Timing circuits in pneumatic systems have
become more widely used in recent years because of
the increasingly complex requirements of automated
machinery. These circuits are broken down into two
different functions—time-on delay and time-off delay.
A time-ON delay valve performs its function at some
specified period of time after the receipt of an input
signal. A time-OFF delay performs its function at
some specified period of time after the removal of an
Fig. 2-7. A simple system schematic
Cylinder
Control
Muffler
valve
E adjustment), the pressure in the pilot line of valve 3
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input signal. The actuating signal can be of either
fixed or adjustable duration.
2.18 Schematic examples of fixed and adjustable
timing circuits are shown in Fig. 2-8. As shown
here, both types use a small reservoir (V) and a
means of metering airflow to accomplish the time
delay at the control valve. As a pilot signal pressure
flows through the restriction to fill the reservoir,
time is consumed. When the reservoir is filled, the
signal pressure acts on the control valve. This means
that the timing is a function of the size of the
restriction and the volume of the reservoir. However,
the magnitude (pressure) of the air signal also
affects timing.
2.19 In most timing circuits, the timed signal is
used to operate either a normally closed, normally
open, or four-way valve. The characteristics of the
valve to be operated must be taken into considera
tion when setting up the timing circuit. The strength
of the return spring and the effective area of the pilot
piston affect timing. Some components are available
with adjustable springs so that the timing can
be varied.
Safety Circuits
2.20 To provide safety for operating personnel
and machinery, many systems require a preset mini
mum and maximum operating air-supply pressure. A
simple safety circuit is shown schematically in Fig.
2-9. Note the similarity of the control valves to the
valves in the timed circuit in Fig. 2-8.
2.21 During operation, air from the 250 psi plant
air-supply system is admitted to regulator 1, where it
is reduced to a nominal 100 psi. Air at 100 psi flows
to valve 2, which is a normdly closed valve. A pilot
signal line from the 100 psi line is connected to the
pilot control segment of valve 2. If the pilot pressure
is above 80 psi (the spring value), valve 2 will shift
and allow air to pass on to normally open valve 3.
2.22 Should the pressure through valve 1 exceed
120 psi (because of a faulty regulator or improper
would close the valve and block the flow of air to
the rest of the system. As long as the pressure in the
reduced circuit is maintained between 80 and 120
psi, operating air is supplied to the system.
 Pneumatic Schematic Diagrams 25

Fig. 2-8. Fixed and adjustable time-delay circuits

Fixed Adjustable

Output Output

Symbois for Speciai Devices schematic symbol, or even as a cutaway view. The
manufacturer then devises his own graphic symbol.
2.23 Many manufacturers of fluid-power compo Note the simple symbols in Fig. 2-10.
nents offer special-purpose valves and cylinders.
Some of these special components are not just valves 2.26 To understand the operation of many special
or cylinders, but combinations in a single housing, devices, obtain the manufacturer's service bulletins,
with a single operator. Examples of these devices are which describe their operation. Because the symbol
shown in Fig. 2-10 on the following page. for a special device is not standard, the parts and
functions will often be keyed to correspond to a pic
2.24 The multifunction valve in Fig. 2-10 is a torial view in the service bulletin.
composite of two, three-way normally closed, cam-
and-lever operated valves and a cam-operated, reliev- 2.27 The multiposition cylinder in Fig. 2-10 is, in
ing-type pressure regulator. The cam is operated by a effect, a double-acting cylinder prohibited from trav
shaft and handle. eling its full stroke by alternately operated stop cylin
ders. The manufacturer's symbol for this device is
2.25 There is no standard schematic symbol to be shown, but would not mean very much unless a writ
found on the chart for this type of device. It would be ten description of the cylinder operation were includ
almost impossible to draw it as a composite ed as part of the drawing.

Fig. 2-9. A typical safety circuit

—1

100 psi

input
250 psi 1 Output to machine
control system

120 psi
80 psi

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26 Lesson Two

Fig. 2-10. Symbols for special devices

1 W//y/x
1 3 5
1 ^mm 1 3 5
F3 position Ff position
2 4 2 4
v/yyy?^^^^u222m

1 VTTTTT^
3 5
F2 position N position

8 3

-^y^y/y/yx^ ZSZi
3
Cutaway symbols R position

Astern ^ N Ahead
Increase
11
N
n M
I I I n
R ^1 '^3
Schematic symbols

System Schematics 2.30 When the lever of control valve A is moved

2.28 As you analyze some fluid-power systems
using the schematic symbols previously described,
keep in mind that a system is no more complicated
than the individual components in the system. Figure
2-11 shows a complete schematic for a pneumatically
controlled clutch system. This system is required to
provide single-lever control of forward, reverse, and
speed. This is accomplished by a special control device
that actuates the clutch engagement and throttle setting
of the diesel engine.
2.29 As with most pneumatic schematic diagrams,
the compressor and other primary components are not
shown in the diagram, histead, only the supply pressure
is shown at the inlet point The diagram does show a fil
ter located just ahead of the pressure-reducing valve.
From there, die reduced air is directed to the four-way
control valve and the clutch and speed-control valve.
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into the FORWARD position, a pilot air signal flows
from port 1 to the normally open, three-way valve B.
The signal passes through valve B and operates the
three-position,four-way, open exhaust valve C. When
the four-way valve shifts, it connects the supply air to
the forward clutch. Meanwhile air in the reverse
clutch is exhausted through the exhaust port.
2.31 A pilot signal line from the forward supply
line to the clutch operates the three-way, normally
open valve D in the reverse line. The reverse valve
closes, preventing any supply air from entering the
reverse clutch. Although there is a timing circuit(T2)
in the line, the signal is applied in the free-flow direc
tion of the check valve. The reverse lockout signal
acts immediately on the valve.
2.32 If the lever of control valve A is moved rapid
ly from the FORWARD to the REVERSE position.

Fig.2-11. A direction/speed control system schematic
Reverse Forward
Speed Speed
I 1 Forward
Supply
250 psi
125 psi
Reverse
SOpsi
the signal air at port 1 of valve A is exhausted >\^th no
actuating air pressure, valve C moves to the center or
neutral position and exhausts air from the forward clutch.
2.33 \\^th the control valve in REVERSE,air flows
fr"om port 3 of valve A to valve D.It will be blocked by
the actuated valve D until the signal pilot air trapped in
the circuit can bleed off to 10 psi. At this pressure,
valve D is spring-returned to its normally open condi
tion and allows air to flow to the four-way valve. When
the signal from valve D actuates valve C, air flows to
the reverse clutch.
2.34 With supply air directed to the reverse clutch,
pilot air is directed to valve C through the timing circuit
Moving the control lever fi-om REVERSE to FOR
WARD again results in a time delay of clutch action.
What the schematic tells you is that one clutch will not
engage until pressure in the opposite clutch has been
exhausted below 10 psi. At this point, the time-off delay
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Pneumatic Schematic Diagrams 27
To forward
clutch
To reverse
dutch
-— To engine
ooo
linkage
of T1 or T2 is complete. In actual practice, the operator
holds the control in NEUTRAL to allow for the time
delay when maneuvering from one direction to another.
Even if tiie control lever is shifted rapidly, nothing will
happen until the engaged clutch is exhausted
2.35 The speed-control signal is produced at port 8
of valve A when the control handle is moved past the
FORWARD or REVERSE position. This signal is varied
by the regulator in the controller from zero psi to maxi
mum psi. It is proportional to handle travel. The signal
flows to normally closed valve F. Air-supply pressure
from either the forward or reverse clutch flows through
the shuttle valve E to actuate valve F. Opening valve F
permits the speed signal to operate the throttle actuator.
2.36 Note the difference in pressure settings of valve
B (or D)and F. Pressure in either the forward or reverse
clutch must be over 80 psi (fiill clutch engagement)
before the speed signal can get through valve F to the
28 Lesson Two
Fig. 2-12. A pneumatic press control system
schematic
—t
L 2.40 Go back and analyze the first part of this
y Supply
_.120psl
throttle actuator. This arrangement ensures not only that
the engine will return to idle speed if a rapid change of
direction is made, but also that no speed can occur until
everything is ready.
2.37 The diagram shown in Fig. 2-12 is the
schematic of a pneumatic press control system. This
system combines strategically placed components and
timing circuits to provide maximum press operator
safety. When the pneumatic components are installed,
the press cannot be actuated until the operator has
performed certain actions in a specific order within a
certain time limit. Failure on the operator's part to do
any one task results in an inoperative press.
2.38 Supply air is furnished to the three-way nor
mally closed valves 2, 5, and 6. The pedal-operated
valve 1 actually operates the press cylinder 9, but only
This matMial b pfMadad by U.S. Copyright law. Copying by any aptieal,sloctrenic,cfotlMr means is Blagal without peimissioa
if supply air is provided through valve 2. Valves 5 and
6 are far enough apart physically that they require
separate-hand actuation. When button B of valve 5 is
depressed, supply air flows through the valve and
through the normally open, three-way valve 4 to the
normally closed, three-way valve 3.
2.39 At the same time, depressing button A of valve
6 allows supply air to flow through the valve to operate
the normally closed valve 3. Opening valve 3 allows the
supply air fix)m valves 5 and 4 to opemte the normally
closed, three-way valve 2. Then, supply air can pass
through valve 2 to valve 1. With all the valves operating,
depressing the foot pedal C of valve 1 will allow supply
air to flow through the valve to operate the pressure
cylinder 9.
operating sequence. When valves 5 and 6 are actuat
ed, the supply air not only flows to valves 3 and 4, but
also flows through shuttle valve 7 to the check and
choke valve 8. This air signal passes through the
restricted orifice in valve 8 to operate and close the
normally open valve 4.
2.41 When valve 4 closes, the supply air from
valve 5 is shut off to valve 3. This cuts off the signal
to valve 2, blocking the supply air to valve 1. The
press is now inoperative. The time delay of restricting
valve 8 must be such that there is time to get signals
through from operations at A,B,and C before valve 4
operates to close.
2.42 When valves 5 and 6 are released, the system
is exhausted. The relieved pressure in the press cylin
der permits the 20 psi supply line to the rod end of the
cylinder to open. Low-pressure air returns the piston
to its starting position.
2.43 Suppose valve 6 was tied down or held
depressed so the operator would not have to depress
it each time he operates the press. The supply air
admitted through valve 6 would bleed through
restriction valve 8 to operate and close valve 4.
When button B on valve 5 is depressed, supply air
will go to the actuated valve 4, where it will stop. A
similar situation would occur if valve 5 was tied
down. In addition, valves 5 and 6 must be released
so valve 4 can reset itself. If valve 4 does not reset
itself, the pressure will not operate.
 Pneumatic Schematic Diagrams 29

Pneumatic schematic symbols

Line technique Separator, Servo positioner, Control from released Instruments and
automatic drain pneumatic pressure, internal return accessories
Enclosure outline

Instrument line
c Pressure gauge

—H H Rtter-separator,
manual drain
Discrete positioner Pilot-controlled,
spring-centered
0-00
Lines crossing L Jl I

W1 Iw
Simplified Pneumatic
Controls Nozzles
Rtter-separator, —HJ IH-
-i- X automatic drain
Spring AV
W
Complete
W

Hydraulic
Lines joining
J 1 L Manual, basic symbols Pilot-differential,
Pressure switch
r simplified symbol
Desiccator
(chemical dryer) i=c i=nC -C
/.w
Manual, push button Muffler
Pilot-differential,
Fluid conductors Lubricator,
without drain
(tC complete symbol
Flow direction, Manual, push-pull lever
pneumatic -c: 3^ Valves

Lubricator, Solenoid or pilot

Plain orifice, Manual, peddle or treadle Ports internally
manual drain
blocked
unconnectable
--BZZ EZZ
3 Solenoid and pilot
0
Connectable orifice Mechanical
Lubricator,
CZ>
3-. automatic drain
ft
X
Rotary devices Row paths internally
open, infinite
Fluid conditioners
Detent cjj positioning
Compressor,
Basic Linear devices fixed-displacement
Pressure-compensated tt
symbol Jj_
Double-acting cylinder,
Cooler, basic symbol fixed cushion
advance and retract
"O"
i L Single-winding solenoid Pneumatic motor,
unidirectional
Pressure relief

Cooler, liquid cooling

Double-acting cylinder,
^> h~iI I"
I
media
adjustable Reversing motor w
cushion advance only Pneumatic motor, 3
i L bidirectional Normal Actuated

Pilot pressure,
Cooler, gaseous Air-line pressure
remote supply
cooling media Double-acting cylinder, regulator, adjustable,
in which diameter Oscillator, pneumatic relieving
of rod compared to
diameter of bore is
significant to Pilot pressure,
3t press V
RIter-strainer circuit function
internal
»mal supply
su|
Electric motor

c S
Adjustable
flow-control,
Separator, Control from released noncompensated
manual drain Pressure intensifier pressure, remote exhaust Internal-combustion engine
j L,
-^==r\-

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30 Programmed Exercises

2-9. A time-off delay circuit In a pneumatic 2-9. REMOVAL

system Is trlgqered by the of
the Input signal. Ref: 2.17

2-10. In a timing circuit, the time delay Is a 2-10. RESTRICTION; RESERVOIR

function of the size of the air
and the volume of the Ref: 2.18

2-11. Some timing circuit components are 2-11. ADJUSTABLE SPRINGS

available with so the timlna
can be varied. Ref: 2.19

2-12. A machine-operating safety circuit 2-12. OPERATING

maintains the pressure
within preset safe limits. Ref: 2.20, Rg. 2-9

2-13. Symbols for special devices are 2-13. MANUFACTURER

usually designed by the
equipment Ref: 2.25, Fig. 2-10

2-14. The Information most helpful for 2-14. SERVICE BULLETIN

understanding the operation of a
special device Is contained in the Ref: 2.26
manufacturer's

2-15. In a direction/speed control system, 2-15. HANDLE TRAVEL

the speed-control signal Is
proportional to Ref: 2.35

2-16. In a pneumatic press control system, 2-16. LOW

-pressure air returns the
piston to Its starting position. Ref: 2.42

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 Self-Check Quiz 31

Answer the foUowing questions by marking an''X"

in the box next to the best answer.

2-1. What are the pictorial symbols used to show? 2-6. Main line conductors in a schematic circuit
diagram are shown as
□ a. Construction
□ b. Interconnections □ a. single unbroken lines
□ c. Basic functions □ b. series of short dashes
□ d. Direction of flow □ c. series of long dashes
□ d. alternated long and short dashes

2-7. What does the symbol shown below

2-2. What type of symbol best emphasizes the
represent when used in a pneumatic
functions and operations of a component?
circuit diagram?:
□ a. Schematic
□ b. Pictorial
□ c. Cutaway
□ d. Isometric
□ a. Time-delay circuit
□ b. Motor and pump combination
□ c. Valve and cylinder assembly
2-3. What geometric form Is used in a schematic □ d. Air-supply system
diagram to represent a rotary device?
2-8. Which of the following types of time-delay cir-
□ a. Square cults, if any, use the receipt of a signal to trig
□ b. Triangle ger the valve?
□ c. Circle
□ d. Rectangle □ a. Time-off delay
□ b. Time-on delay
□ c. Fixed-time delay
□ d. All of the above
2-4. What two types of symbols are combined to
form composite graphic symbols? 2-9 A safety circuit used to limit the operating
pressure in a pneumatic system will maintain
□ a. Pictorial and basic
□ b. Cutaway and simplified □ a. the maximum pressure only
□ c. Complete and simplified □ b. the minimum pressure only
□ d. Complete and graphic □ c. an average pressure only
□ d. both the minimum and maximum
pressures
2-5. Generally symbols are arranged in a
schematic diagram to illustrate 2-10. A schematic symbol for a special device is
usually designed by the
□ a. a symmetrical drawing
□ b. direct connecting lines □ a. manufacturer
□ c. random placement of components □ b. design engineer
□ d. the physical location of the □ c. purchaser
components □ d. ultimate user

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32 Lesson Two

j M>.
;~n r lliliill'
'- II- Vl
SUMMARY

The symbols used in pneumatic circuit diagrams symbols. Basic symbols are categorized as com
are classified as pictorial, cutaway,and schemat plete, simplified, and composite.
ic. You must know and understand each type in
order to analyze and maintain pneumatic circuits. With a little practice you can easily learn to read a
schematic. It will probably take you a little longer
Pictorial symbols show the connections between to understand what you have read. The best way
components, but do not show how the system to understand a circuit is to study a small part of
operates. Cutaway symbols show the internal it at a time.
arrangement of parts, but do not readily show
their functions and operations. Schematic sym As you study a circuit drawing, you may see
bols,the most widely used kind of symbols, graphic symbols that represent special devices.
emphasize the function and method of operation The manufacturer's service bulletins describe
of components. the operation of the devices portrayed by
these symbols.
An effective schematic symbol generally consists
of one basic symbol and one or more functional

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

2-1. b. Interconnections. Ref: 2.02, Fig. 2-1 2-6. a. Single unbroken lines. Ref: 2.11,
Fig. 2-5
2-2. a. Schematic. Ref: 2.04
2-7. d. Air-supply system. Ref: 2.13
2-3. c. Circle. Ref: 2.06, Fig. 2-2
2-8. b. Time-on delay. Ref: 2.17
2-4. c. Complete and simplified. Ref:2.08,
Rg. 2-3 2-9. d. Both the minimum and maximum
pressures. Ref: 2.20, Fig. 2-9
2-5. b. Direct connecting lines. Ref: 2.10
2-10. a. Manufacturer. Ref: 2.25, Fig. 2-10

Contributions from the foilowing sources are appreciated:

Figure 2-1. Westinghouse Air Brake Co., Fluid Power Div.

Figure 2-10. Westinghouse Air Brake Co., Fluid Power Div.

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DEVELOPING PNEUMATIC TROUBLESHOOTING SKILLS

Lesson Three

Installation of
System
Components

^V
 Lesson

Installation ofSystem Components

TOPICS

The Compressor and Auxiliaries Pipe Threads

Compressor Intakes Tubing
Compressor Foundations Tubing Fittings
Aftercoolers Hose Installation
Receivers Control Systems
Dryers Control-Valve Installation
Pipe Installation Solenoid Coils
Pipe Support Cylinder Installation

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Describe the proper installation of the compressor Expiain the correct procedures for Installing pipes,
and its auxiliaries. tubes, and hoses in pneumatic systems.
• Describe the instaliation of aftercoolers, receivers, Describe the installation of control valves, solenoid
and dryers. coils, and cylinders.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Pipe dope 3.23 another name for thread sealing Deburr 3.32 to break loose small chips of material
compound left by cutting
Flared fitting 3.30 a type of fitting necessary if a Quick-connect/disconnect 3.35 a type of hose
length of tubing has its end flared or flanged to a coupling that allows air lines to be connected or
larger diameter disconnected instantly

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Pneumatic systems and pneumatic components are generally reliable in
operation and require a minimum amount of maintenance. To keep maintenance
at a minimum, however, a sound pneumatic installation is essential.

With proper installation, pneumatic systems maintenance can be programmed

so it does not conflict with plant production schedules. Production downtime
during routine maintenance can be greatly reduced. And with a good, sound
installation, downtime directly attributed to pneumatic failure will be very low
or nonexistent.

This Lesson presents the more common installation faults in pneumatic

systems and recommends accepted methods of eliminating them.

The Compressor and Auxiliaries Compressor Intakes

3.01 Many pneumatic system failures can be 3.03 The compressor intake should be located at a
traced to the compressor air intake. Most plants are point about 5 or 6 ft above ground level. The inlet
located in industrial areas where contamination from should be tumed downward to eliminate the possi
atmospheric pollution may be a problem. Usually, bility of pulling in moisture during bad weather.
the compressor is located in a remote comer of the Outside intake points should also be baffled to pro
manufacturing plant. Many times it is enclosed in a tect the filter from moisture.
small room to isolate the compressor noise from the
rest of the plant. This measure does reduce noise 3.04 Intakes mounted on the roof are acceptable,
levels in surrounding areas, but can cause trouble in and provide some noise suppression. However,
the air intake if certain precautions are not taken. the temperature above a roof can get very high. Also,
extra precautions must be taken to prevent rain
3.02 The compressor should, if possible, be and snow from being drawn into the intake.
installed in a well-ventilated compartment or other Cleaning or changing of rooftop intake filters is
location where it has a source of cool, clean, dry air. often neglected. If your plant has the intake filter on
The compressor area should be kepi clean and dry the roof, remember to clean and change it on a
and should not be used as a storage area. Ready regular basis. It is a good idea to add it to your regu
access to the compressor and associated equipment lar inspection checklist.
should be provided for normal observation and
maintenance. A diagram of a typical compressor 3.05 Access to the filter must be provided regard
room arrangement is shown in Fig. 3-1. less of location. The area around the air intake

Fig. 3-1. An air compressor room layout

htercooer
Air receiver ||Moisture
separator

Aftercooler

Air compressor

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36 Lesson Three
should be kept clear and as far away as possible
from ash piles, coal docks, sawdust piles, chemical
fumes and deposits, and any other materials that
might contaminate the air. If chemical vapors and
fumes are present, precautions should be taken to
neutralize or wash the intake air.
3.06 Air intakes placed above the floor should
be made of corrosion-resistant steel pipe or sheet
metal. If they are located under the floor, glazed vit
rified pipe or painted concrete works well. In all
cases, avoid using square or rectangular ducts, and
eliminate sharp bends. The comers and creases tend
to attract and accumulate dust and dirt. The intake
line to the compressor should be cleaned thoroughly
and all filters installed before the compressor is
started up.
Compressor Foundations
3.07 Compressors should be mounted in accor
dance with the manufacturer's recommendations on
a firm concrete foundation. If solid, undisturbed
ground is not available, it may be necessary to pro
vide a concrete mat or other support below the foun
dation. The compressor foundation should also
be isolated from the adjoining compressor room
floor with suitable expansion joints. Isolation is
especially necessary with reciprocating compressors
to minimize vibration.
Aftercoolers
3.08 If aftercoolers are installed in the compres
sor's discharge line, easy access should be provided
for cleaning and tube replacement. Most aftercool
ers are of the shell-and-tube type and use water
for cooling. For economic purposes, many plants
have a cooling tower that allows the water to be
recirculated rather than discarding it after one
use. Cooling towers should be located to keep the
water as clean as possible. Usually the water is
chemically treated to prevent mst, scale, and algae
from forming.
3.09 Piping between the compressor and the
aftercooler or receiver should be as short and as
straight as possible. All pipes and connections
should be full-sized and should be installed in such a
way that there is no strain on the compressor. Expan
sion joints should be provided, if possible.
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Receivers
3.10 Receivers can be mounted in either the hori
zontal or vertical position. In either case, adequate
space must be provided below the receiver for a
drain valve. Regularly drain off all accumulated
water, even if the receiver is fitted with an automatic
drain. Air should enter the receiver at or near its
highest point to keep from disturbing foreign matter
that has settled at the bottom.
3.11 According to ASME (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers) codes, receivers must be
equipped with pressure gauges and safety valves.
NEVER place a shutoff valve in the line between the
compressor and receiver unless a safety valve is
already installed between the valve and the compres
sor. In installations where several compressors dis
charge into one receiver, the shutoff valve is neces
sary to isolate a compressor for repairs without hav
ing to shut down the entire plant.
Dryers
3.12 Desiccant and refrigerant dryers and separa
tors should be installed downstream of the receiver
according to the manufacturer's recommendations.
Two-way intake and discharge valves, as well as a
bypass line, should be provided to facilitate repairs.
Pipe installation
3.13 The overall efficiency of a pneumatic system
depends on the care with which it is installed and
maintained. When a plant shuts down and becomes
quiet, you may hear air leaking from many machines.
These leaks might be in the pipe connections, cylin
der packing, valve seals, and other locations. Had the
machinery been hydraulically operated, the fluid
leaks would have been obvious and would have been
corrected. Because compressed air leaks are not usu
ally noticeable, little attention is paid to them. Even
small leaks in pneumatic systems are expensive,
however, because of the high cost of compressing air.
3.14 When you install pneumatic system piping,
select pipe sizes large enough to maintain a mini
mum pressure drop between the receiver and the
point of use. The maximum drop should not exceed
10% of the initial pressure. This figure includes loss
es from fittings, bends, and elbows. A pressure loss
 Installation of System Components 37

of about 3 psi for a system pressure of 125 psi Fig. 3-2. Drainage slope In a pipe
should be attainable in a good,sound system.

3.15 Pressure loss in a system is a result of the

pipe size and of the demands placed on the system.
It is generally better to select a slightly oversized
Airflow
pipe—this provides a certain margin of safety, and
the system can then accommodate additional
demands without significant alterations. This basic
rule should be applied to branch lines as well 1 in. every 10 ft
as main lines.

3.16 Larger pipe sizes are especially desirable

when the pipes are long and the system must meet
the demands of a considerable number of tools or Moisture drop
other types of pneumatic equipment. Small
pipelines, sharp bends, elbows, and other restrictions
cause excessive pressure losses because of friction.
Although some frictional loss always occurs, the feed specific tools or control systems. They may also
acceptable pressure drop is somewhat arbitrary. feed secondary loops or dead-end branch mains for
Many times a high pressure drop may seriously additional user points. These might or might not
interfere with the operation of tools and equipment. require individual air-line conditioning.

3.17 The size and working pressure of an air-sup- Pipe Support

ply line will determine what type of materials are to
be used for the main line and connections. Pipes
between 3/4 and 3 in. inside diameter (nominal I.D.)
are normally made of corrosion-resistant steel with
screwed (threaded)joints. Pipes 3 to 6 in. in diame
ter use flanged joints. Pipes larger than 6 in. in
diameter usually have welded joints.
3.18 The main header should have a pitch or
drop of at least 1 in. for every 10 ft in the direction
of the flow of air, as in Fig. 3-2. All branch mains
should be connected to the main header at its
top-most point.
3.19 If space or headroom does not permit a con
tinuous pitch of at least 1 in. in 10 ft, the main should
be run as far as possible at this pitch. It should then
terminate with a moisture drop. Through a connec
tion, the next run of header is raised to the original
header high point (see Fig. 3-2). Moisture drops
should be provided at convenient points, especially
after any point at which the header passes through a
compartment of lower ambient temperature.
3.20 A typical system is shown in simple
schematic form in Fig. 3-3 on the following page.
Branch mains may be installed at strategic points to
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3.21 Pipes should always be adequately support
ed so that no strain is exerted on the compressor or
other machinery to which the pipes are attached.
Supporting clips and hangers should allow sufficient
fi-eedom of movement of the pipe to accommodate
thermal expansion and contraction.
3.22 Many clips or hangers have a lining bonded
to the inside surface to grip the pipe without locking
it rigidly in place. Wire or sheet-metal straps are
generally not satisfactory because the support they
provide is too rigid. No specific recommendations
can be given for the spacing of pipe supports other
than they should be placed close enough together to
prevent any appreciable sag.
Pipe Threads
3.23 There are two types of pipe threads in gener
al use—NPT (American Standard), which seal by
thread flank or face contact, and NPTF (Dryseal),
which seal by an interference fit along the threaded
crest. Thread sealing compound, or pipe dope, must
be used on both types if they are to be reused.
38 Lesson Three

Fig.3-3. An air distribution system

► Pipe fail in direction of airflow

Automatic draining air

HSI-4>0—) To future
extensions
filter and separator

Manual draining air fitter

and separator

Automatic draining valve

To future
To drain To drain extensions
Pressure-reducing valve
r—lEI

To pneumatic control o Lubricator

instrument panel
Stop valve
Compressor
To drain installation
1. For highest-efficiency air, main drain
pipes shown fitted with manual stop
valves should be fitted with auto
To drain matic draining valves.

2. For maximum efficiency, ail drains

should be automatic. All filters

To drain
should be equipped with an auto
matic drain.

3.24 Exercise caution when using pipe dope for lubricant (Teflon® tape) or pipe dope, be sure to
installing Ettings. When used carelessly or exces leave two threads exposed on the lead-in end of the
sively, the piping can become contaminated and thread so that connections can be started easily, as
valve malfunction can occur. When using dry thread shown in Fig. 3-4.
®Telflon is a rec^slered trademark of E. I. du Pent de Nemours and Company

Fig. 3-4. Proper application of pipe threads

3/4 in. taper per foot

Pipe thread section

rafter cutting
_ Remove burr

' ♦
Tape or thread sealer
on this area only

/IMVMvlMMMMl

WWwWll

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 Installation of System Components 39

Tubing 3.27 Metallic tubing is not as flexible as plastic

3.25 Like pipe, the type of tubing used in a system
is determined by the working pressure of the system.
Most systems operating below pressures of 250 psi
use copper tubing for the smaller lines. Unlike pipe,
tubing is measured by O.D.(outside diameter).
3.26 Nylon and plastic tubing are used for small-
diameter piping and control systems. They are suit
able for either rigid or flexible installations and have
the particular advantage of being very easy to work
with. Because they can be cut to length easily with a
sharp knife, there is no risk of producing burrs,
which could be carried into the circuit. Their disad
vantages include low heat resistance, minimal
strength, and ease of abrasion.
tubing, but is more flexible than pipe. It is also
stronger than plastic pipe or tubing and can be
bent or formed with a few simple tools. As a general
rule, the minimum radius of a tube bend is 3'/2
times the outside diameter of the tube. Examples
are shown in Fig. 3-5. The larger the bend radius,
the less likely it is that the tube will be deformed. A
larger bend radius will also result in a lower
frictional loss.
3.28 Generally, all sizes of steel tubing must
be bent by machine. Copper, in sizes of up to ^/4
in., can be bent by hand with the aid of the proper
tools. The quality of bend, whether produced by
hand or by machine, depends very much on the skill
of the operator.

Fig. 3-5. Tiibe bending

Radius of bend (r) is measured

from centerline of tube - Nominal tube Minimum bend
O.D., in. radius, In.
3/8
Correct
Vl6
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1V8
11/4
Kinked \\ Wrinkled 13/8
11/2

Incorrect

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40 Programmed Exercises

3-1. Many pneumatic system 3-1. COMPRESSOR

failures can be traced directly
to the air intake of the Ref: 3.01

3-2. Compressor intakes should be located 3-2. 5 TO 6

ft above around level.
Ref: 3.03

3-3. Piping between the Intake 3-3. CORROSION-RESISTANT

filter and compressor should
be made from steel Ref: 3.06
when located above the floor.

3-4. Expansion joints are used around 3-4. ISOLATE

compressor foundations to
the compressor from the flooring. Ref: 3.07

3-5. Air receivers must be equipped with 3-5. SAFETY VALVES

pressure qauqes and
Ref: 3.11

3-6. The maximum pressure drop in a 3-6. 10

pneumatic system should NOT
exceed oercent of the Ref: 3.14
initial pressure.

3-7. To prevent strain on the compressor 3-7. SUPPORTED

or machinery, pipes should be
adequately Ref: 3.21

3-8. The minimum bend radius of metallic 3-8. 3%

tubina is times the tube O.D.
Ref: 3.27

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 Installation of System Components 41

Tubing Fittings
Fig. 3-7. TXibing fitting clearances

3.29 There are many different tubing fittings on

the market. All have their proper uses, advantages, Necessary clearance equal to thread length

and disadvantages. No matter what type of fittings

are used in the plant, the compressed-air system
should be installed with as few fittings as possible.
This can be accomplished by using bends in tubing
whenever practical. Try to use readily available stan
dard fittings rather than special fittings, which might
be difficult to obtain.

3.30 Tubing fittings commonly used include

flared and flareless fittings. Figure 3-6 illustrates
some of the many kinds available. Whenever bent Inverted flare type
tubing is used with fittings, provide adequate clear
ance between the end of the tube and the bend point
for swivel-nut movement (see Fig. 3-7).

3.31 All tubing flares and end cuts must be
square with the tube if the fitting sleeve is to seat
properly. Out-of-square and eccentric flares will
result if the tube has not been cut off square or if the
flare has been unevenly formed with the flaring tool.
Such flares are impossible to correct and should be
cut off and done over.
3.32 Tubing should be deburred after being cut, as
shown in Fig. 3-4. If burrs are not removed, chips
and burrs can cause pockmarks in the flare (Fig. 3-8
on the following page), resulting in leaks. Split flares
are caused by tubing that is too hard or of uneven
texture, or by straining the flare when smoothing out
scratches or draw marks. Never take a chance—if the
flare is not a good one, cut if off and do it over.
3.33 A relatively new tubing fitting, which is
being specified more frequently for pneumatic ser
vice, is the SAE straight-thread O-ring fitting. With
this style of fitting, the length of thread in the com
ponent body is less than that required for pipe thread
connections, as shown in Fig. 3-9 on the following
page. When an O-ring is used, less torque is required

Fig. 3-6. Types of tubing fittings

45'flare

Inverted flare

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 Fig. 3-8. Improper tubing flares

Pockmarks

to produce a leakproof connection than is required
with pipe threads. In addition, it is possible to
reassemble the joint repeatedly without deterioration
of quality. Another advantage is that angular outlet
fittings can be positioned or moved without reducing
the sealing properties.
universal type, specifically suited to the hoses to
which they are attached. In addition to permitting easy
movement between components, hoses have other
advantages. They compensate for minor variations in
manufacturing tolerances in piping, absorb vibration,
and are excellent for routing through tight areas.

Hose Installation 3.35 Air lines can be connected or disconnected

3.34 Flexible connecting lines at individual sta
tions are normally hoses. As a general rule, hoses
should not be any longer than necessary. The hose
diameter should be large enough so that the pressure
drop through the hose does not exceed 5 psi. Hose fit
tings and couplings should be of the detachable or
instantly if quick-connect/disconnect hose couplings
are used. As shown in Fig. 3-10, these couplings con
sist of two halves. One half contains a spring-loaded,
leakproof check valve or seal. The other half contains
a device that opens the valve when the two parts of
the coupling are connected. (Usually, the sealed half
is on the pressure side of the line.) Most couplings are

Fig. 3-9. O-ring fittings

I
Locknut
m

m i

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made to rotate or swivel. This action prevents kinks in
the hose and ensures a positive lock when the cou
pling is connected. If the coupling employs a check
valve in both halves, no shutoff valves are needed.
Control Systems
3.36 Control-system piping may be either rigid
pipe, soft tubing, or flexible tubing. Soft tubing, such
as copper and aluminum, is used widely, but plastic
flexible tubing is becoming more popular. Advantages
of tubing include its adaptability to bending and its
strong, thin walls. Tubing is stronger than pipe because
of the way in which it is manufactured, and because
there are no sections weakened by threading. In addi
tion, tubing is lighter in weight than threaded piping.
3.37 Tubing used in a control circuit intended for
signal lines should be small to transmit signals
faster. Unless the circuit is used for the purpose of
timing, all lines should be ^/s-in. O.D. copper tubing
or its equivalent. Tests have proven that, due to line
volume versus pipe friction, signals are conducted
faster through this size line when coupled to a typi
cal V4-in. pilot valve than any other size line.
3.38 Before tubes or pipes are installed in a pneu
matic control system, a thorough study of the piping
schematic must be made. Special attention should be
given to valve porting, so crossing lines can be avoided
Fig. 3-10. Quick-connect/disconnect couplings
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Installation of System Components 43
whenever possible. Extra time spent in planning the
physical layout of a system will save installation time
and will also help later, when replacements are required.
Control-Valve Installation
3.39 Valves that directly control the delivered air
to cylinders, motors, and actuators should be located
as close as possible to the component they are to
operate. Valves intended for surface mounting (not
mounted in a piping run) must be fastened securely
to a smooth surface to prevent distortion of the valve
body. Group valves, which make up series and paral
lel control circuits, have the flow-control valve and
timing circuits mounted next to each other.
3.40 Valves that have adjustments, such as flow
control, sequence, pressure control, and manual
override, should be mounted in locations that are
easily accessible. All valving, including logic and
power valves, should be panel-mounted, if possible.
Appropriate labeling should be used to identify the
valves and components. Panels should be located for
easy access, but should be protected from external
damage caused by such things as forklift trucks or
crane-carried parts.
3.41 Safety circuits, such as a two-hand press-
operating circuit, must be located so that the opera
tor cannot operate the equipment in an improper
44 Lesson Three

Fig. 3-11. Cylinder mounting methods

Rxed-centeriine

y
Tie rods extended Centertine Head flange(square) Cap flange(square)

Noncenteiiine

Side lugs Side end angles Side end lugs Side tapped

PIvoted-centerline

Cap trunnion Intermediate fixed trunnion Cap fixed clevis Head trunnion

manner. Emergency shutdown valves must also be Alcohol injected into the supply line will prevent any
placed in the proper position to accomplish the pur moisture from freezing. Using low-temperature seals
pose for which they are intended. and low-viscosity lubricating oil can also improve
operation reliability.
3.42 The air lines must be properly sized so that
the supply pressure does not drop below efficient 3.44 Cam-operated and limit-switch pneumatic
limits when the valve operates. If a circuit requires a valves that require position adjustment should always be
large amount of air for fast cycling, an auxiliary piped with flexible connections. Be sure to cycle the
reservoir is often required. operating mechanism manually before turning on the
main air supply. This ensures that the valving is located
3.43 Control valves should be kept away from correctly and will not be damaged by a cam dog or lever.
intense heat whenever possible. If this cannot
be done, specify high-temperature seals and lubricants Solenoid Colls
for the valves to ensure their proper operation.
Extremely low temperatures can also affect the 3.45 In circuits using electric solenoids to control
operation and reliability of certain valving. the valves, be sure the electrical supply complies with
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 Installation of System Components 45

nameplate ratings. A voltage that is too high or too Cylinders with noncenterline mountings
low can damage the coil of a solenoid valve. If trans generally require strong machine frames to
formers are used to reduce line voltage in control resist bending movements.
circuits, pay extra attention to switching on the pri
mary side of the transformer. If the coil of a solenoid
valve is normally energized and switching is done on If the motion of the machine part acted on
the primary side, voltage spikes (surges) can cause by the cylinder rod movement is essentially
dielectric breakdown in the coil. This is especially linear, a fixed-mounted cylinder should be
true if the transformer is oversized.
used. If the machine part moved by the pis
ton rod is nonstationary, a pivoted mounting
should be used.
Cylinder Installation

3.46 Cylinders or linear actuators are designed If the cylinder has a long stroke, a pivot-
to produce thrust along the centerline of the piston mounted cylinder may be required to
rod. Installing cylinders in any position other than prevent piston-rod buckling. Where long
the one for which they are designed can lead to early stroke and fixed mountings are necessary,
failure of both cylinders and machine parts. Most support is needed to prevent vibration and
premature cylinder failures can be traced to incorrect excessive sag.
installation practices.

3.47 A choice of cylinder mountings is available The mounting selection depends on the
as shown in Fig. 3-11. Cylinder mountings are clas resulting force (compression or tension) in
sified by the manner in which thrust is absorbed by the cylinder rod. The blind-end or cap-flange
the cylinder, and by how the cylinder is held in posi- mounting is best for compressive loads. The
tion. Fixed-centerline mountings and pivoted-center- rod-end or head-flange mounting is best
lined mountings are preferred to noncenterline where the rod is in tension.
mountings. The selection of these mountings
depends on the application and on the machine con- Alignment problems are always critical.
tiguration. If a noncenterline mounting is used, If misalignment can occur between the
proper support of the cylinder is essential. cylinder and the machine part it moves, it is
necessary to compensate for this in the
3.48 Careful consideration must be given to the selection of the cylinder mounting. For
proper selection and placement of the cylinder. example, a simple centerline-pivot mounting
Although this is usually the responsibility of will compensate for misalignment if it
the design engineer, you can prolong cylinder life occurs in only one plane. If misalignment
if you understand the requirements of a good instal can occur in more than one plane, the cylin
lation. Some factors that should be considered are
der must be fitted with a universal (ball-and-
as follows:
socket) pivot joint. It is important that both
ends of the pivot-mounted cylinder be sup
• Cylinders with noncenterline mountings tend plied with flexible connections.
to lean under load.

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46 Programmed Exercises

3-9. Name the two common 3-9. FLARED, FLARELESS

types of tubing fittings.
Ref: 3.30

3-10. One reason metallic tubing Is stronger 3-10. THREADING

than pipe Is because the walls are not
weakened bv Ref: 3.36

3-11. Before Installing a pneumatic 3-11. PIPING SCHEMATIC

control system, study the
of the system. Ref: 3.38

3-12. Control valves should always 3-12. CONTROLLED COMPONENT

be located as close as
Dosslble to the Ref: 3.39

3-13. If a valve requires adjustment, 3-13. ACCESSIBLE

It must be mounted so that the
adiustable parts are Ref: 3.40

3-14. Supply lines must be 3-14. SIZED

correctly to permit
proper control-valve operation. Ref: 3.42

3-15. To ensure their proper operation, 3-15. HEAT,COLD

control valves must be protected from
extreme and Ref: 3.43

3-16. Pneumatic cylinders are classified 3-16. THRUST

according to the way In which
Is absorbed. Ref: 3.47, Fig. 3-11

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 Self-Check Quiz 47

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

3-1. Which of the following is considered a major 3-6. The minimum bend radius for metallic tubing
cause of pneumatic system failures? is 3 V2 times the

□ a. Poor piping support □ a. bend angle

□ b. Polluted intake air □ b. tube circumference
□ c. Small air lines □ c. tube I.D.
□ d. Flexible hose lines □ d. tube O.D.

3-7. Flexible connecting air hoses should be

3-2. All piping between the compressor and
large enough so that the pressure drop
receiver or aftercooler should be
does not exceed

□ a. as short and straight as possible

□ a. 2.0 psi
□ b. supported by the compressor
□ b. 3.5 psi
□ c. made of welded steel
□ c. 4.5 psi
□ d. free of expansion joints
□ d. 5.0 psi

3-3. ASME codes require that all air receivers be 3-8. For best performance, pneumatic control
equipped with valves should be located as close as
possible to the
□ a. drains and safety valves
□ b. drains and shutoff valves □ a component they operate
□ c. pressure gauges and safety valves □ b. supply air line
□ d. pressure gauges and shutoff valves □ c. lubricating device
□ d. equipment control station
3-4. What is the recommended maximum allow
3-9. Control-valve circuits that require large
able pressure drop in a pneumatic system?
amounts of air for fast cycling are
usually fitted with
□ a. 3%
□ b. 5%
□ a. two compressors
□ c. 10%
□ b. two supply systems
□ d. 15%
□ c. an auxiliary resen/oir
□ d. oversized piping
3-5. Pneumatic system piping should be properly
supported and installed so that no 3-10. Cylinder mountings are classified by the

□ a. changes can be made □ a. diameter of the piston

□ b. strain is exerted on the equipment □ b. manner in which they absorb thrust
□ c. flexible fittings are required □ c. number of mounting lugs used
□ d. pressure variations occur □ d. size of the mounting lugs

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48 Lesson Three

SUMMARY

Much of the success of a pneumatic system sharp bends,elbows, and other restrictions that
depends on the proper Installation of system com can cause pressure losses.
ponents.The compressor should be Installed In a
well-ventllated area. The Intake should be located Most systems of less than 250 psi use copper tub
above the floor and turned downward,where mois ing Instead of smaller pipes. Hoses are generally
ture cannot readily enter It. Aftercoolers should be used as flexible connecting lines. The hose diam
easily accessible for cleaning. Receivers should be eter should be large enough so that the pressure
Installed with a drain valve and accumulated water drop through the hose does not exceed 5 psI.
should be drained off regularly.
Control valves should be positioned as close as
When you Install system piping, use pipe sizes possible to the component they are to operate.
large enough to maintain a minimum pressure Valves that require periodic adjustment should be
drop between the receiver and point of use. Select easily accessible. Cylinders must be mounted
an oversized pipe to provide an extra margin of only In the position for which they are designed.
safety. Use larger pipes for long runs and avoid

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

3-1. b. Polluted intake air. Ref: 3.01 3-6. d. TubeO.D. Ref: 3.27

3-2. a. As short and straight as possible. 3-7. d. 5.0 psi. Ref: 3.34
Ref: 3.09
3-8. a. Component they operate.
3-3. 0. Pressure gauges and safety valves. Ref: 3.39
Ref: 3.11
3-9. c. An auxiliary resen/oir. Ref: 3.42
3-4. 0. 10%. Ref: 3.14
3-10. b. Manner in which they absorb thrust.
3-5. b. Strain is exerted on the equipment. Ref: 3.47, Rg. 3-11
Ref: 3.21

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 3-5. Parker-Hannifin

Rgure 3-6. Parker-Hannifin
Rgure 3-7. Parker-Hannifin
Rgure 3-8. Parker-Hannifin
Rgure 3-9. Parker-Hannifin
Rgure 3-10. Foster Mfg. Co., inc. G. W. Murphy ind., Perfecting
Service Division
Rgure 3-11. Parker-Hannifin

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 O

o \

mm
 Lesson

System Maintenance

TOPICS

Planned Maintenance Control-System Maintenance

Compressor Maintenance Tool Maintenance
System Maintenance Maintenance Logs and Records

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to..

• Explain the concept of planned maintenance. Explain the proper maintenance of pneumatic tools.
• Describe the basic procedures for maintaining the Discuss the various types of maintenance logs and
compressor and other important components in a explain what kind of information is recorded in each.
pneumatic system.
• Describe the maintenance of industrial control circuit
components.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Planned maintenance 4.01 a program of daily, Master log 4.44, 4.45 a monthly or quarterly
weekly, monthly, and quarterly equipment checks log compiled from information taken from daily
checklists

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The continued operation of the machinery in your piant is important if produc
tivity is to be maintained. Many times an inoperative machine has iittle effect on
total production. However,the continued operation of all the plant equipment is
a good indication of the efficiency of the maintenance department.
Although some of the maintenance department's work is repairing equipment
breakdowns, most of its time is spent performing routine planned maintenance.
This Lesson describes how the use of a planned maintenance schedule can
benefit both you and the equipment. This Lesson also points out some of the
equipment checks to make,as well as how to set up a maintenance schedule.
Planned Maintenance
4.01 The best way to conduct plant maintenance
is with a planned maintenance program. Such a
program consists of daily, weekly, monthly, and
quarterly inspection schedules. Its purpose is to
ensure that all equipment is checked on a regular
basis. Although in this Lesson you are concerned
with the plant's pneumatic equipment only,
the same scheduling can apply to any type
of equipment.
4.02 Planned maintenance has an additional
benefit. Besides ensuring regular lubrication and
adjustments of the machine parts, it gives the
maintenance technician the opportunity to locate
possible sources of trouble. These problems
can then be corrected as a part of the preventive
maintenance program. The difference between the
two programs is that planned maintenance is
related only to the scheduling of lubrication and
normal adjustments, and preventive maintenance
corrects sources of trouble before they become
major problems.
4.03 The maintenance requirements of a pneu
matic system can be separated into four categories:
compressor maintenance, system maintenance,
control-system maintentmce, and tool maintenance.
Compressor Maintenance
4.04 Almost every plant continually adds new or
improved pneumatic equipment. Each addition
increases the load on the compressor. Although a
cylinder, control circuit, or air tool may not seem
to have any great effect on the total load, that load
gets larger and larger until someone complains that
the pressure is so low he can't get production.
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51
4.05 Usually, little thought is given to a compres
sor's capacity once it is installed. If a planned pro
gram of checking the compressor's recovery time has
been in effect, however, and if accurate records have
been kept, overloading can be detected quickly and
remedial action taken before it becomes serious.
Although compressors are designed to run at 100%
load, this is not good practice.
4.06 The compressor is the heart of the pneumatic
system. Without it, none of the pneumatically pow
ered machinery will operate. To ensure its continued
operation, check the compressor frequently. Should
an unsatisfactory condition be detected, remedy it
immediately or watch it closely until it can be correct
ed conveniently. Watch not only the physical compo
nents, but also the air pressure. The best way to check
and maintain the compressor and all associated equip
ment on a regularly scheduled basis is with a check
list, similar to that in Fig. 4-1 on the following page.
Some of the items to be checked are described in
more detail in the following paragraphs.
4.07 The intake air filter should be checked at least
daily to see that no foreign materials (paper, leaves, or
other debris) are partially blocking the intake. A par
tially blocked intake does not immediately damage
the compressor, but it reduces output volume. If the
blockage is great enough, the compressor may draw
oil fi'om the crankcase into the cylinder, resulting in
carbon deposits on the valves and piston heads.
4.08 Clean the intake filter thoroughly or replace it
at least quarterly—^more often if conditions warrant.
Filters on large or continuously operating compres
sors require more frequent cleaning than other com
pressors do. Clean the filter elements with an
52 Lesson Four

Fig. 4-1. A planned maintenance schedule

SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE CHECKUST

COMPRESSOR AND ACCESSORIES

Frequency of check
item Daily Weekly Monthly 6 months Yearly
Air pressure X X

Intake air filter X X

Crankcase oil level X X

Compressor bearings X

Crankcase vent X X

V-belts X

Cylinder valves X

Intercooler safety valve X

Dischaige line valves X

Reservoir safety valve X

Drain oil separator reservoir X X X

Aftercooler X X X

Moisture tra|» X X

Motor bearings X

Main air lines X

Compressor mountings X

alkaline-free hydrocarbon solvent, or in accordance
with the manufacturer's recommendations.
4.09 Check the oil level in the compressor
crankcase daily. Oil changes should be made in
accordance with the manufacturer's recommenda
tions, usually after 500 to 1000 hours, depending on
operating conditions. If the compressor is fitted with
an oil pressure gauge, check the pressure as fi-equent-
ly as possible.
4.10 Some compressors that are equipped to shut
down when the oil pressure is low only prohibit
the compressor from loading. They will not shut
down the electric motor drive. The compressor
will continue to mn but will not compress. If air pres
sure decreases below acceptable limits, check the
compressor immediately.
4.11 Crankcase ventilation is important on all
compressors, and it is critical on some types. Some
machines use a simple filter breather on the
crankcase, much like the oil filler cap on a car. It must
be kept clean to allow a free flow of air. Other
machines use a flapper valve on the crankcase. It
must be kept in good working condition so that it
seals properly or the compressor will pump oil.
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4.12 Belt-driven compressors are usually driven
by two or more V-belts. These are always furnished
in matched sets. When one or more of the belts
becomes worn, the entire set should be replaced.
Belts should be checked weekly for proper tightness.
They should be kept only tight enough to prevent
slippage, without overloading the motor or compres
sor bearings. Most manufacturers recommend
that there should be about 1/4 in. of slack for each
foot of distance between sheave centers. This slack
is measured midway between the sheaves, as shown
in Fig. 4-2. Be sure the belt is stopped before taking
the measmement.
4.13 You should remove the valve caps on the
cylinder heads every six months to one year. Thor
oughly clean the intake and discharge valves and
their seats. On a regular, once-a-week basis, manual
ly operate the safety valves on the intercooler, dis
charge line, and reservoir.
4.14 Whenever you are in the compressor area, it
is a good idea to check over the compressor. Pay
particular attention to the temperature of the cylinder
head, intake line, and discharge line. Check the oil
pressure, V-belt drive, and the normal operating
sound of the machine.
 System Maintenance 53

w 4.15 If you think that the compressor is not per Fig.4-2. Measuring V-belt slack
forming properly, make further checks to determine if
something is failing. For example, bad intake valves
result in a hot intake line. Bad discharge valves result Sheave centers
in reduced capacity or a hot discharge line. A hot
intercooler on a two-stage machine indicates either
bad low-pressure discharge valves, bad high-pressure
intake valves, or both.

4.16 If the system is equipped with an oil separator

in addition to the reservoir, both should be manually
drained each day—if possible, just before start-up.
This should be done even though the units may be fit
ted with automatic drains. During the draining opera
be cleaned with compressed air at least monthly to
tion, watch particularly for any excess oil that might
remove any dirt film on the surface. Most refiigerated
be discharged. This indicates clogged intake filters,
dryers are also equipped with moisture traps. Check
faulty crankcase ventilation, or worn piston rings.
the traps daily for proper operation.
4.17 If water cooling (compressor and aftercooler)
System Maintenance
is used, check daily for water leaks and for proper
operation of the water-supply valve. Keep a close
4.21 System maintenance requirements are basically
check on the temperature of the discharge water to
simple and straightforward. Drains and moisture traps
make sure it does not get too hot. Once each year, the
should be checked daily. If they are automatic, the man
water system should be thoroughly dismantled and
ual drain should be opened briefly to determine if mois
cleaned to remove any scale deposits.
ture is present Large amounts of moisture may indicate
that the automatic drain is not working. Separators in
4.18 If pneumatic power is supphed to the system by
the system should be treated in a similar manner.
several compressors, one should be set up as the lead
compressor. The others should act as standby or surge
4.22 Filters and filter/separators at individual
compressors. If desired, the lead compressor can be
machines and tool stations must also receive daily atten
alternated daily or weekly. A disadvantage of this prac
tice is that all of the compressors could wear out or tion. This is particularly important if they are equipped
widi manual drains. The level of contaminants is visible
break down at approximately the same time, because all
would have about the same number of operating hours. in many filter bowls. Some filters are equipped with
indicators that show how dir^ the filter is by means of a
4.19 In many systems, moisture-fi'ee air is essential pointer or arrow. The filter elements of both manual and
to system operation. Desiccants (chemical diyers) have automatic filters require regular cleaning. The fiiequency
proven to be one of the best devices for producing diy of cleaning largely depends on how quickly the system
air. Whenever they are installed, follow the manufactur becomes dirty.
er's maintenance recommendations closely for maxi
mum efiBciency. Oil carryover fiom the compressor can 4.23 You can clean some filter elements very simply
cause malfiinction and a rapid reduction in efhciency of by blowing compressed air through them. Others require
this type of dryer. These difficulties can be prevented by other cleaning techniques, such as boiling or soaking in
placing an oil separator or prefilter in fiont of the dryer. a detergent. Some elements are not intended to be
Drain the separator or prefilter daily. cleaned at all. They must be discarded and replaced after
a specified period of use. When a filter element is dam
4.20 Refiigerated dryers require very littie physi aged during cleaning,it should always be replaced.
cal maintenance beyond the recording of temperatures
and pressures. The frequency of these checks will 4.24 Insufficient air pressure is a frequent prob
depend on humidity conditions. If the refrigeration lem in a pneumatic system. Clogged filters are a
condenser is fan-cooled, the condenser coils should common cause of pressure drop at tool points.
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Fig. 4-3. An internally ruptured hose
Leaks or restrictions in flexible lines are other
obvious sources of pressure loss at tool points. Air
leaks are readily detected with the tool connected
but turned off. Restrictions such as kinks or inter
nal hose damage may show up in the form of vari
able performance as the tool position is changed.
Check the end fittings regularly for tightness and
the hose for damage. Internal hose damage may
show up as a bulge in the covering, as indicated in
Fig. 4-3.
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4.25 Remember that excessive line pressure is
just as bad as insufficient line pressure. Low pres
sure reduces the working efficiency of the tools and
control systems and is costly. Excessive pressure
results in accelerated wear, possible overstressing,
and premature failure of parts.
4.26 Lubricators at tool points and individual
machine control systems require daily attention to
ensure an adequate supply of oil. The rate of oil
injection into the air system can be checked by
observing the exhaust ports of air tools.
4.27 It is important that only the specified oil be
used to refill lubricators. Oil that has a different base
or viscosity may upset the lubrication rate. It may also
lack the necessary lubricating qualities. Light oils of
approximately SAE 10 viscosity, specially com
pounded for pneumatic systems, are normally used.
 Programmed Exercises 55

4-1. A planned maintenance program 4-1. REGULAR

ensures that equipment checks are
carried out on afnl basis. Ref: 4.01

4-2. The best way of ensuring that 4-2. CHECKLIST

an air compressor is properly
checked and maintained Is Ref: 4.06
through the use of afnl

4-3. How frequently should intake 4-3. DAILY

air filters be checked for blockage?
Ref: 4.07

4-4. How often should the belts on 4-4. WEEKLY

V-belt driven compressors be
checked for proper tension? Ref: 4.12

4-7. If more than one compressor 4-5. LEAD

supplies the pneumatic system,
usually one of them is set up Ref: 4.18
as a(n) comoressor.

4-6. The moisture traps and drains 4-6 MANUALLY

in a pneumatic system should be
checked each dav. Ref: 4.21

4-7. If a filter element becomes 4-7. REPLACE

damaged during cleaning,
the element. Ref: 4.23

4-8. Excessive wear and premature failure 4-8. HIGH or EXCESSIVE

of parts will likely be caused by
oressure in the air line. Ref: 4.25

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Control-System Maintenance
4.28 How well a control system functions depends
on the selection, installation, and proper maintenance
of the correct components. Air-control valves for
industrial control circuits are, for the most part,
designed and built for use with pressures up to 150
psi. These air-control valves include regulators; shut-
off cocks; and relief, sequence, flow-control, quick-
release, and directional-control valves.
4.29 The first valve in the control system should
be a manually operated shutoff valve. It is used to
isolate the control system from the main supply sys
tem. This valve should be of the vented or bleeder
type. Bleeder valves are designed to bleed all of the
air from the control system, eliminating trapped pres
sure. An example of a vented shutoff cock is shown in
Fig. 4-4. Note the provision for a padlock, which is
used to make sure the system is locked out during
maintenance work.
4.30 Whenever you work on a part of the circuit
that does not require pneumatic power, always make
certain that the shutoff cock is completely closed and
that the air in the circuit has been released. Even a
small amount of compressed air can be dangerous
when a valve cover or pipe connection is released.
Serious injuries can be caused by systems that are not
bled down or shut off.
4.31 Regulators vary in construction and their
method of adjustment. Nearly all are fitted with a
Fig. 4-4. A vented shutoff valve
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pressure gauge that reads the downstream or regulated
pressure in the system. Maintenance of regulators
consist of checking for leaks and proper setting. If the
regulator does not maintain a constant pressure in the
system, it should be repaired or replaced.
4.32 The valves found in a logic system are reli
able, compact, and relatively inexpensive. Very little
planned maintenance is needed other than to check
for leaks and tightness. Pay particular attention
to the exhaust of the directional valves. Too much
or too little oil in the exhaust can mean that the
wrong amount of oil is being fed from the lubricator.
A lack of lubrication can reduce the service life of
cylinder seals and packings, especially on cylinders
or valves that cycle frequently. Follow the manufac
turer's recommendations for cleaning and overhaul
ing these valves.
4.33 Almost all troubles in cylinder operation can
be traced to incorrect selection, faulty installation, or
both. A correctly sized cylinder, properly aligned and
mounted, can be expected to surpass its normal
life expectancy. Cylinder maintenance includes
checking the mountings daily for tightness. Loose or
worn pivot pins should be replaced before damage is
done to the mountings. Loose mountings or misalign
ment causes damaged rod and wiper seals, resulting
in leaks.
4.34 Cylinder should be removed from the
machine and completely overhauled at regular
intervals. All seals, packing, and rod bushings
should be replaced. The cylinder should be relubri-
cated in accordance with the manufacturer's recom
mendations. The overhaul period varies with the
type of cylinder, severity of operation, and the duty
cycle. Cylinders that cannot be repaired should
be replaced.
4.35 When cylinders are shut down or remain idle
for long periods of time, it is important to prevent
their drying out by lubricating them periodically. The
same holds true for cylinders that are stored for any
length of time. Also NEVER store cylinders in hot or
damp places.
Tool Maintenance
4.36 Pneumatic tool maintenance varies with the
size and type of tool. Although certain devices require

their own specific maintenance procedures, there are
some general rules that apply to all tools. Tool mainte
nance requires reasonable handling of the tool by the
operator, which means that the tools should not be
dropped or run at excessive speeds. It also means that
the tools should be lubricated properly on a regular
basis. This includes air-line or manual lubricauom
Probably the greatest cause of early tool failure is lack
of lubrication.
4.37 Scheduled maintenance on portable tools
should be the responsibility of a single individual
rather than part of each tool operator's job. Mainte
nance schedules depend on adequate records as well as
personal experience. Based on these two items, speci
fied inter\'als for stripping, inspection, and replace
ment of worn or damaged parts can be established.
Accurate records may also indicate how or by whom
certain tools are being abused. Keep in mind that
improper use may not always be the operator's fault. It
may occur simply because the tool is not adequate for
the job.
4.38 Spare parts that are frequently required for
scheduled maintenance should be carried in stock if
possible. If a large number of individual tools are
involved, however, it might not be practical to stock all
the component parts.
4.39 An alternative is to stock only a minimum of
spare parts and tools. In this manner, a faulty tool can
be replaced immediately. The failed tool can be disas
sembled later and the necessary parts ordered. When
the parts are received, the original tool can be repaired
and then placed in stock.
4.40 If major repairs are required, the tool is usual
ly retiimed to the manufacturer. With planned mainte
nance, a major breakdown is unlikely to occur until the
tool is nearing the end of its useful life. This is particu
larly true of workshop tools such as drills, grinders,
and impact wrenches.
Maintenance Logs and Records
4.41 The manner in which checklists, maintenance
logs, and records are established and maintained is
usually determined by the plant engineer or master
mechanic. These equipment-operation logs covering
specific pieces of equipment are an important part of
the planned maintenance program.
This malsnal is prolacted by U S Copyiight law. Copying by any optical, atsctiomc. or other
System Maintenance 57
4.42 Figure 4-5 on the following page shows a typi
cal daily maintenance report or checklist. You should
check the items on the list once each shift. It is best to
do this at the beginning of the shift (with the compressor
running), so you can check the lubricating oil level and
pressure, and the flow of water through the cooling unit.
4.43 As shown, the checklist should provide space
for the date, shift, and signature of the person making
the inspection. The remarks space is to be filled in as
appropriate. It should include information on oil level,
compressor temperatures, motor amperage (if avail
able), and other general comments. Acknowledgment
that the particular item was checked is indicated by
either a check mark or OK in the appropriate space.
4.44 These checklists are usually returned to the
plant engineer's office at the end of the shift. The plant
engineer or master mechanic can then leave a message
alerting the next shift to keep an eye on any point of
possible failure. All important information on the daily
log is usually transferred to a master log sheet. TTie daily
checklists are then filed by date as a matter of record.
4.45 Entries in the master log are usually made
monthly or quarterly. It is intended to furnish cumula
tive information. This includes the number of operat
ing hours, oil consumption, and parts used. A sample
quarterly master log is shown in Fig. 4-6 on the fol
lowing page. Note that several checkpoints that were
on the daily log have been dropped from the master
log. These are not considered important as a matter of
record as long as they are checked daily.
4.46 In some plants, the compressor operating time
is recorded on a 24-hour automatic recorder. When this
recorder is pemianently connected to the compressor
unloader system or to the pressure switch, an accurate
reading of the compressor loading time is obtained.
Some recorders are equipped with a totalizer which
automatically totals the number of loaded hours.
4.47 Another advantage of the 24-hour recording
chart is that peaks and lows in the compressor loading
can be directly related to a specific time of day. These
charts, such as those shown in Fig. 4-7 on page 59, are
filed as daily performance records after the cumulative
data are recorded on the quarterly master log sheet.
4.48 Records of control-valve and cylinder operat
ing cycles are usually obtained from production
e legal without pemiesran
58 Lesson Four

Fig. 4-5. A daily maintenance report

DAILY MAINTENANCE REPORT

Date:
Location: Compressor Room Shift! tgt Time: 1Ch30AM By: g- Poison
Machine Checkpoint Condition Remarks

Compressor No. 1 Intake filter OK

LP In. valves OK
LPDis. valve OK
HP In. valves OK
Compresso ^ Hot Installed new disc vaive -added 2
LP In. valves
LP Dis. valve OK

General Resen/oir press. 175

Reservoir drain OK Manual drain trace
Moisture separator OK Manual drain trace
Lead compressor m

Standby comp. #2
RItersused None
Oil used 2cft compn ssoroll
Parts used 2#133933 discharge valve kits
Other

Other remarks. installed new discharge vah/es HP side #f compressor - motor current normal,
aftercooier temp normal

records. Records of operating time can be used to
schedule routine maintenance, such as seal and bush
ing replacement. Service records of individual valves
and cylinders (including operating time, cycles, parts
used, and cylinder condition) can be invaluable in
determining when the component should be scrapped
and replaced. If one or more parts, such as piston seals,
constantly require repair (with everything else working
properly), it is often more economical to replace the
cylinder. It may be that the component is simply not
adequate for the job. Only accurate records can furnish
the necessary information for this decision.

Fig. 4-6. A monthly maintenance log

MONTHLY MASTER MAINTENANCE LOG

Location: Compressor #1 Peroict.

Hours loaded Accum. hours Accum. hours on

Date operation since overhaul since oil change consumption Parts

e-1 13 463 463

6-7 19 570 570

=-r
13 624 624 2ojt 2-1339^ valves
642 642
6-13
6-20 17
6-22 17 709 709
6-26 13 796 17 6ajt 1-51296 filter

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 System Maintenance 59

Fig. 4-7. Recording charts

mm

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60 Programmed Exercises

4-9. When breaking connections on 4-9. RELEASED or BLED DOWN

a pneumatic system, make sure
the system is isolated and the Ref: 4.30
air oressure is

4-10, The intervals at which pneumatic cylin 4-10. SEVERITY

ders should be completely overhauled
depend on the type of cylinder, duty Ref: 4.34
cycle, and of operation.

4-11. Early failure of pneumatic 4-11. LUBRICATION

tools can usually be traced
to a lack of Ref: 4.36

4-12. All portable tool maintenance 4-12. ONE PERSON (SOMEONE OTHER
should be the responsibility THAN THE OPERATOR)
of
Ref: 4.37

4-13. Maintenance logs and records 4-13. PLANNED

are an important part of the
maintenance prooram. Ref: 4.41

4-14. When is the best time to make 4-14. AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SHIFT
a maintenance check of the
compressor room? Ref: 4.42

4-15. All of the important information on 4-15. MASTER LOG

the daily checklists is transferred
to afn^ sheet. Ref: 4.44

4-16. Records of control-valve and 4-16. PRODUCTION

cylinder operation can be
obtained from records. Ref: 4.48

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 Self-Check Quiz 61

Answer the following questions by marking an''X"

in the box next to the best answer.

4-1. A plant that carries out daily, weekly, 4-6. What happens if the pneumatic system is
monthly, and quarterly checks has supplied with excessive pressure?
a good start on conducting
□ a. Component overstressing
□ a. emergency breakdowns □ b. Early failure
□ b. backlog studies □ c. Excessive wear
□ c. work order analysis □ d. All of the above
□ d. planned maintenance

4-2. The best way of regularly checking 4-7. Which of the following wiil affect the
a compressor is to use a iubricating qualities of a lubricant?

□ a. master log sheet □ a. Pneumatic system pressure

□ b. 24-hour recorder □ b. System component materials
□ c. checklist □ c. Viscosity of the oil
□ d. troubieshooting chart □ d. All of the above

4-3. How frequently should an air filter

4-8. Early failure of a pneumatic tooi is
intake be checked for blockage?
usualiy a result oif
□ a. Daily
□ a. excessive vibration
□ b. Weekly
□ b. iow operating pressure
□ c. Monthly
□ c. infrequent maintenance
□ d. Quarterly
□ d poor lubrication

4-4. When a pneumatic system is supplied

by several compressors, it is best to 4-9. The maintenance of a portable tool

□ a. have them ail operate at the same

time □ a. one person
□ b. have one operate as a lead □ b. the tool crib
compressor □ c. the operator
□ c. rotate their operation to distribute □ d. the whole maintenance department
their time
□ d. keep one as a spare

4-5. How often shouid you manuaiiy check 4-10. The accuracy and completeness of checklists
automatic moisture drains or traps? and operating logs are important to the

□ a. Daily □ a. emergency maintenance procedures

□ b. Weekly □ b. planned maintenance program
□ c. Monthly □ c. troubieshooting chairs
□ d. Quarterly □ d. production schedule

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62 Lesson Four

SUMMARY

Pneumatic power is usuaiiy selected because of and lubricants are of no use if they are not con
savings in cost.Those savings are affected by trolled by maintenance records. The cleanliness
how well or how poorly the system operates. Sys and proper lubrication of the system also
tem operation is determined by how well the sys depends on daily checklists.
tem is maintained.
The key to all planned maintenance is the mainte
The best method of ensuring good maintenance nance technician who is actually responsible for
is the daily checklist of system components. This the day-to-day duties of the program.To make the
list can furnish valuable data which, when proper planned maintenance program work, you must
ly evaluated, will help in scheduling manor and stick to the daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly
major overhauls,spare parts inventory, oil schedules. The amount of machine downtime is
changes,and determine when particular compo often a good indication of the maintenance team's
nents become obsolete. Inventories of spare parts devotion to the program.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

4-1. d. Planned maintenance. Ret: 4.01 4-6. d. All of the above. Ref:4.25

4-2. 0. Checklist. Ref: 4.06, Fig. 4-1 4-7. c. Viscosity of the oil. Ref: 4.27

4-3. a. Dally. Ref: 4.07 4-8. d. Poor lubrication. Ref: 4.36

4-4. b. Have one operate as a lead 4-9. a. One person. Ref: 4.37
compressor. Ref: 4.18
4-10. b. Planned maintenance program.
4-5. a. Dally. Ref: 4.21 Ref: 4.41

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 4-4. Westinghouse Air Brake co., Ruid Power Div.

Rgure 4-7. Honeywell, Inc.

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 ■V.;>

Lesson Five

Determining
System Failures

tr.

^O:

TPC Training Systems

^^£31005
 Lesson

Determining System Failures

TOPICS

Understanding the System Checking a Control-Valve Actuator

Troubleshooting Procedures Checking Sequence Valves
Locating Troubles Checking Master Control Valves
The Operations Manual Checking Interlocks
Checking the Air Supply Making Final Adjustments
Troubleshooting the Actuator System Operation
Checking the Control Valve

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• List, in proper sequence, the steps to be taken in Describe procedures for troubleshooting the actuator.
troubleshooting a pneumatic system. Explain how to check control valves, sequence
• Name and describe the five important parts of every valves, and interlocks.
pneumatic system's operations manual.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Operations manual 5.10 a compilation of general Interlock 5.40 a device installed in a pneumatic
information, system description and operation, system to keep the machinery from being operat
components and parts list, troubleshooting and ed at the wrong time
maintenance suggestions, and drawings and
schematics

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Pneumatics is defined as the science of using compressed air to perform work.
The amount of work performed by any given pneumatic circuit is iimited only by
the imagination of the person who designs the system and the components that
it contains. Aithough there are a great number of compiex pneumatic control
systems in use,the majority of pneumatic systems are made up of simple actu
ating and control devices.
Whether the system is simple or compiex, the method used to determine the
cause of a failure or breakdown is the same.The only difference is that the com
piex system requires more steps and time to complete the checkout. This Les
son sets up typical troubleshooting problems and then proceeds through the
steps required to locate the trouble, it also describes some of the ways to cor
rect the problems after they have been found.
Understanding the System
5.01 When a piece of pneumatic equipment fails to
operate, the cause of the problem may be in the air-
supply system, control valves, actuator, or in the
machine being operated by the system. Whatever has
caused the problem, or wherever the problem is locat
ed in the system, it is up to you as the maintenance
technician to locate and correct it.
5.02 The speed and accuracy with which you
reach the trouble and correct the problem is direct
ly related to two things—the complexity of the
system and how you troubleshoot it. While you
cannot do much about the complexity of the sys
tem, you can control the troubleshooting proce
dures.
Troubleshooting Procedures
5.03 Good troubleshooting involves a logical and
sequential method for locating the cause of the trou
ble in an inoperative machine. The special talent for
being a good troubleshooter comes from always fol
lowing a set, routine procedure for locating problems
instead of using a hit-or-miss approach that may
accomplish little.
5.04 The troubleshooting checks themselves are
determined by the type and number of components
in the system and the operations that the machine
performs. The actual sequences used to trou
bleshoot a pneumatic system usually vary from
plant to plant. The sequence in which the trou
bleshooting checks are performed is also influ
enced by the operating procedures of the plant's
maintenance department.
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65
Locating Troubles
5.05 The sequence of troubleshooting steps
described in this Lesson is based on two operations;
(1) determining if there is any air pressure in the sup
ply system and (2) checking for air in the pneumatic
system by starting at the actuator and working back to
the air-supply point. In many plants, the sequence
starts at the air supply and proceeds through the sys
tem to the actuator. Either way is correct and can be
used effectively.
5.06 When a pneumatically operated machine fails
to perform its operations, the first thing you should do
is obtain a copy of the pneumatic system's schematic
diagram. It will enable you to get an overall under
standing of how the system is supposed to function.
Remember that schematic diagrams do not necessari
ly show the relative position of the system compo
nents.
5.07 As you look over the drawing, try to get a
general understanding of the system operation before
you try to locate any specific piece of equipment.
After you have a general idea of how the system oper
ates, then try to locate the specific areeis that may be
causing the malfunction. When tracing through the
drawing, do so in a logical sequence.
5.08 Referring to the bill of material on the
schematic drawing is the most positive way to identify
system components. Some valves look alike but are
entirely different in function and operation. The part
number and model number are all-important in identi
fying the valving and components in a system. Under
standing how the component works gives you a better
grasp of the system's operation. In some plants, each
66 Lesson Five

Fig.5-1. A typical maintenance record sheet

MAINTENANCE RECORD

Machine ^Sforminepress Date Instaited 3-27

T&G Inc.
Location 3ay4&hop2 Manufacturer.

Operat'ng air pressure. 30psi Motor Horsepower

Maintenance Perfomier Date Name

Changed oil & filters in reduction gears 3-10 Jack

Replaced the clamp cylinder air supply line(cracked thread at qylinder.) 3-14 Tom

Adjusted clamp cylinder piston rod connection atthe clamp. 9-23

Tom

Adjusted cylinder cushions 1-4

3ob

Replaced the clamp cylinder air supply line(cracked thread at cylinder) e-29 Jack

Installed new seals in press palm buttons. 12-3 George

component in the system is marked with a number The arrangement of the sections is a matter of prefer
matching the item number shown on the schematic. If ence

this is done,the components are much easier to locate.

5.09 There are two additional guides that are help
ful when you are troubleshooting a pneumatic system.
These are the troubleshooting chart on page 75 of this
Lesson and the maintenance record for the system,
such as the one shown in Fig. 5-1. The troubleshoot
ing chart suggests several possible problem causes.
The maintenance record presents a factual record of
previous problems and the corrections that were made
to the system to eliminate those problems. Inspection
of a maintenance record will quickly reveal recurring
problems.
The Operations Manual
5.10 An operations manual should accompany
every pneumatic system. These manuals are usually
made up of five parts:
general information
system description and operation
components and parts list
troubleshooting and maintenance suggestions
drawings and schematics.
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5.11 Operations manuals should be kept on file in
the plant engineer's office and should be available to
maintenance personnel. If possible, the maintenance
record should be kept in the same file. Any changes
made to a system should be noted in the manual,
along with the date and the initials of the person
responsible for the change.
5.12 General information. This section provides
an overall picture of the system's physical arrange
ment, features, and what the system is designed to
accomplish. The system description and operation
section provides a concise description of signal, logic,
and actuation functions. The airflow path through the
system and the sequence of events are also explained
in this section.
5.13 Components and parts lists. The page from
a typical components and parts list section shown in
Fig. 5-2 gives the parts breakdown of each compo
nent. This breakdown identifies the individual parts in
the component and shows how they are assembled.
Many times the parts list contains a description of the
operation, installation, and maintenance of the indi
vidual components.
5.14 Troubleshooting and maintenance sugges
tions. A troubleshooting chart and recommended
 Determining System Faiiures 67

maintenance procedures are included in this part of
the manual. The troubleshooting chart serves as a
guide for determining the cause of a failiu'e. It usu
ally lists points at which you can check the system
by sight and by sound. It also lists probable causes
of many malfunctions and corrective steps that can
be taken to eliminate the problems. The trou
bleshooting chart at the end of this Lesson gives
some suggested causes and corrections of pneumat
ic system problems.
5.15 Drawings and schematics. This section
should contain a complete system schematic as well
as all subsystem schematic and detailed drawings.
The item niunbers that identify components should be
included as necessary. Drawings of special linkages
or assemblies of one or more components are also
included in this section.
5.16 To help you understand the operation of the
system, the schematic diagram and bill of material
should be accompanied by a written description of
either the overall system operation or its individual
components. With this aid, you can trace the flow of
air through the various conditioning units, control
valves,logic and power valves, and actuators.

Fig.5-2. A manufacturer's parts list

Shuttle valve ■>—N-

0<

MC
1

iJli
J tadius- h H-

Inlet f
port p

l\r,
^ ' Q diameter
Dimensions
Piece
numt)er Pipe taps A B c D E F G H J K L M N

P54350-1 V8--27
1V4 2% 3/32 2V8 3/32 2V32 1®/16 1^/32 1^/32
P54350-2 V4"-18
P54350-3 V-18 21/2 IV4 1^/8 SVg 33/4 ®/l6 ®/32 31/4 2V64 29/32 1^3/16 2V8 33/3
P54350-4 V2"-14
P54350-6 %'-U
37/,6 1^/32 2®/,6 4®/32 53/16 ^/16 ^3/32 43/8 '%2 13/i6 23/8 2"/i6 4
P54350-8

Parts list
Piece
number Port size Screw (1) Washer (2) Cover (3) Diaphragm* (4) Gasket* (5) Body (6)
P54350-1 V8" t t P54326 P5112-1 P5111-7 P54325
P54350-2 V4" t t P54326-1 P5112-1 P5111-7 P54325-1
P54350-3 %" P49835-19 P49898-9 P54979 P5112-2 P5111-2 P54978

P54350-4 V2" P49835-19 P49898-9 P54979-1 P5112-2 P5111-2 P54978-1

P54350-6 3/4- P49835-15 P49898-10 P54981 P5112-3 P5111-3 P54980
P54350-8 1" P49835-15 P49898-10 P54981-1 P5112-3 P5111-3 P54980-1

'Recommended spare parts to be retained In stock at ail times.

"Shuttle valve with Vg" or V4" ports use screw w/integral washer, Pc. No.P49502-1.

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68 Lesson Five
Checking the Air Suppiy
5.17 One of the first things to check in an inopera
tive system is that a sufficient supply of air is avail
able at the machine. Also make sure that all electrical
power is turned on. Machines that have more than one
air supply have to be checked more thoroughly.
Although the power is on at the machine, you may
find that a valve or a circuit breaker back in the sup
ply system is disconnected, isolating the system.
Check these points first.
5.18 Another cause of malfunction may be a
plugged filter that does not permit the proper flow of
air. A filter can allow enough air through it to gener
ate an adequate reading on the supply pressure gauge,
and still not allow enough flow when the system is
operated.(A mptured or leaking supply line will pro
duce similar results.)
Troubleshooting the Actuator
5.19 After making sure that an inoperative system
has power, depressurize the system. Then disconnect
the actuator (cylinder or motor) from the load con
nection to see if it will operate. Chips or small
pieces of scrap frequently become caught in the
machinery, preventing actuator operation. Discon
necting the actuator will indicate whether or not the
malfunction is in the machine. Air-actuated com
pound-leverage systems, such as those used on
presses, sometimes travel past the center point(espe
cially if the press is operated under no-load condi
tions). In these instances, the linkage must be manu
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ally returned to its normal position before the press
can be operated.
5.20 Cylinders that operate infi*equently, or have
been out of service, can freeze up because of dried-
out lubricant, corrosion, and/or deterioration of rubber
parts. Cylinders exposed to severe or unusual temper
ature conditions must also be protected against
fi-eeze-up. While the cylinder is disconnected, check
for frozen pins, rod bushings, bent piston rods, and
damaged cylinder tubes.
5.21 Another cause of inoperative actuators is
lack of air. Leaks in the supply lines are readily
detected, but a crimped supply hose or line might be
hidden fi'om view. In automated machinery, it is pos
sible that a part or piece of scrap may fall into the
machine and dent a line or block a hose. In such
cases, the cylinder would probably extend or retract
at a less-than-normal rate of speed. A slow-operating
cylinder may also have leaking piston seals. If the
actuator slowdown occurs suddenly, look for dam
aged lines.
5.22 When piston seals become worn and leak, w
air continually escapes through the exhaust port. In
addition, the cylinder does not develop enough force
to do the work expected of it. The cross-section dia
gram of a cylinder and valve in Fig. 5-3 shows what
happens when this occurs. Either one or both of the
piston seals may leak, producing this reaction. Pis
ton seal wear usually occurs evenly on both seals, so
air leakage ordinarily occurs in both directions of
piston travel.
 Determining System Failures 69

5.23 In some instances the piston rod breaks from Fig. 5-3. Worn piston seals
fatigue at the point where the piston is attached to the
rod. When this occurs, the cylinder extends as air is
admitted to the cylinder. When the airflow is reversed, Supply
the piston assembly returns, but the rod remains
extended. If the seal between the broken piston rod
and the piston is not damaged, no leakage will occur
and the exhaust at the directional power valve will be
normal.

Checking the Control Valve

5.24 If the actuator and mechanical linkage have

free movement and are in good operating condition,
loosen or di.sconnect the lines to the cylinder and
cycle the system. If there is no indication of airflow,
the problem is either in or ahead of the control
valve. The cause of trouble in a control valve can be
located by performing the following tests.

5.25 If the valve action is sluggish, check the

moving parts for insufficient lubrication or swollen
seals. If it is a pilot-operated valve, check the pilot or unintentional operation of other valves or actua
supply pressure. Other reasons for sluggish valve tors.

movement include heat, swollen or deteriorated

packings, and binding caused by excessive operat
ing pressure. Unbalanced poppet valves are particu
larly sensitive to excessive supply pressures.
5.26 A clogged exhaust muffler may also result
in slow actuator movement. In systems having
manifold-mounted control valves, the retarded
exhaust flow from one valve may cause back pres
sure in an exhaust passage, resulting in malfunction
5.27 Worn packings, valve seats, and valve bodies
can cause leakage within the valve. Abnormal internal
leakage in one valve of a manifold valve stack can
starve other valves in the stack. If the valves are inter
nally piloted, spring-centered or spring-returned, loss
of pilot pressure may cause them to oscillate when the
operating signal is received. Broken springs and valve
stems are other possible causes of control-valve mal
function.

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70 Programmed Exercises

5-1. What is the first thing to check for when 5-1. AIR PRESSURE IN THE SUPPLY
troubleshooting a pneumatic system? SYSTEM.

Ref: 5.05

5-2. Components shown on a schematic 5-2. BILL OF MATERIAL

drawing can be positively identified by
referrino to the Ref: 5,08

5-3. Which section of a pneumatic system's 5-3. THE SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND
operation manual describes the airflow OPERATION SECTION
path through the system?
Ref: 5.12

5-4. A manufacturer's parts list shows the 5-4. ASSEMBLED

individual parts of a component and
how they are Ref: 5.13

5-5. Which section of the operations man 5-5. THE DRAWING AND SCHEMATIC
ual includes drawings of special SECTION
assemblies?
Ref: 5.15

5-6. When checking the air supply to an 5-6. ELECTRICAL POWER

inoperative machine, also check the
suddIv. Ref: 5.17

5-7. A cylinder can be checked for proper 5-7. LOAD

operation by disconnecting it from the
Ref: 5.19

5-8. If there is no indication of airflow to a 5-8. CONTROL VALVE

cylinder, the cause of trouble is in or
ahead of the Ref: 5.24

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Checking a Controi-Vaive Actuator
5.28 Frequently, control valves fail to shift because
the actuating device does not operate. If the system
malfunction is located in the control-valve area, check
both the valve and the actuator. If the actuation of the
control valve is manual, it is very easy to locate any
problem. Look for connecting pins, levers, cams, and
linkages that are worn from use or have been dam
aged in operation. They can directly influence the
operation of the control valve and actuating mecha
nism.
5.29 The failure of a solenoid-actuated control
valve cannot be determined as easily as that of a
manual valve. In addition to electrical failures,
mechanical failures can cause solenoid actuators to
be inoperative. These include broken straps or
plunger blocks, sheared clevis pins, and misalign
ment between the solenoid and valve due to faulty
mounting.
5.30 Electrical failures can be determined with the
, aid of electrical instruments. Most solenoid coils that
actuate pneumatic valves are designed for continuous
duty. If a solenoid fails prematiurely, take electrical
resistance readings to determine if the coil is open,
shorted, or groimded. Open coils result from physical
damage to the coil that severs the coil wire. An open
circuit in a solenoid coil can also be caused by a short
circuit resulting in arcing and intense heat. The heat
can be severe enough to melt the wire and open the
circuit. Coil failure can usually be detected with a
volt-ohmmeter.
5.31 Insulation failures occur from overheating. If
a solenoid coil is in operating condition but you do
not have voltage, look for the source of trouble in the
electrical supply system. Fuses may have blown or
circuit breakers tripped.
5.32 Pneumatic or hydraulic pilot actuators on
pneumatic control valves are usually very simple in
construction. Most consist of a small piston or
diaphragm located on the end of the main control
valve. Most of the inlets to the pilot actuators are very
small, and can become clogged easily. This is espe-
V ciaUy true when pilot passages are within the valve
body, where they do not have a direct path to the pis
ton operator. Removing the obstmction almost always
restores the valve to service.
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Determining System Failures 71
Checking Sequence Valves
5.33 Whether or not the pneumatic system has
sequence or logic valves, the same troubleshooting
procedures will apply in most cases. The sequence or
logic portion of a pneumatic system can be complex
and sophisticated. It is almost always necessary to
refer to the schematic diagram and system description
of operation before troubleshooting can be done effi
ciently.
5.34 The valves in the logic circuits are usually
small (Vs-in. and V4-in port sizes). Their function is
to sense, time, sequence, interlock, and direct signals
to the power valves. Components used in these cir
cuits include shuttle valves, check valves, flow-con
trol valves, quick-release valves, cam-limit valves,
three-way and four-way sequence valves, and vol
umes (timing circuit reservoirs). If any one of these
components fails to operate properly in a machine
cycle, the net result is a false stroking or malfunction
at the actuator.
5.35 There is very little that can fail in a timing
volume. However, if the connection in a circuit is
made at the top of the volume, moisture will probably
condense in the volume. Since there is no means of
draining the condensate, liquid will gradually fill the
volume and change its timing capacity. This means
that an actuator would operate before its schedule
time and jam the machine. Check to be sure that all
parts of the system will drain when exhausted, espe
cially dead-ended timing volumes(small air chambers
in series with restrictor valves and pilot actuators).
5.36 Dirt, pipe scale, thread sealant, and other for
eign materials cause most of the problems in logic
circuits. Contaminants can cause check valves and
shuttle valves to leak and can interfere with the
adjustment of flow-control valves. A shuttle valve that
leaks can usually be detected by an exhaust from one
input valve when another input valve is operated.
5.37 Complex systems should be piped with
plugged tees at strategic points so that air-pressure
gauges can be installed to help locate malfunctions.
One pressure-indicating device that can be perma
nently installed is a pop-up indicator, such as that
shown in Fig. 5-4 on the next page. These indicators
operate on a very small amount of signal air and are
sensitive to pressures of about 10 psi.
Fig. 5-4. A pop-up pressure indicator
No tiOW
Checking Master Control Valves
5.38 Master control valves are the input, or signal
ing, valves that initially direct or admit control air sig
nals through the logic circuits to the valves that con
trol the actuators. In a malfunctioning system that has
multiple sequence-control stations, first try operating
the system from another control station. If the system
operates satisfactorily from the second station, the
malfunction is in the first control station. The proper
troubleshooting approach is to isolate the portion of
the system where trouble is occurring, then locate the
malfunctioning component.
5.39 Pneumatic systems that repeat a cycle over
and over have provisions for either manual or auto
matic operation. If the machine or system does not
repeat as intended, be sure that the selection valve is
fully in the AUTOMATIC position. Automatic recy
cling systems are usually provided with an emergency
stop. Be sure that the control is in the RUN or RESET
position before attempting to operate the system.
Checking Interlocks
5.40 Interlocks are installed to protect the machinery
fi-om being operated at the wrong time. They ensure effi
cient operation of the machinery and increase operator
safety. Interlocks may also be used to sense operating
pressure that is too high or too low. They may respond to
lubricating oil pressure, detect the presence of raw mate
rial in the feed to a machine, or sense a broken cutting
tool. Although their functions are too numerous to men
tion, they all have the same purpose—SAFETY.
5.41 Interlocks may be in the form of two-way,
three-way, or four-way valves that either block or per
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mit the flow of air to the logic circuits. They may be
operated mechanically by a cam, lever, button, or
pedal. There are also pilot-operated interlocks activat
ed by an electric solenoid, pneumatic power, or
hydraulic power. Troubleshooting an interlock is the
same as troubleshooting any other control valve.
Check for free movement and obstruction.
WARNING
Never operate a machine In production
with the interlocks bypassed.
Making Final Adjustments
5.42 After the failure has been determined and the
fault corrected, go back over the entire system. Oper
ate it through the automatic and manual cycles several
times to be sure that one failure has not weakened or
jeopardized the normal function of another compo
nent. While operating the system, try the reset and
emergency stop to check their operation. Also, adjust
all flow-control valves in timing and speed circuits.
5.43 If time permits, it is a good practice to stay
with the machine for a brief time to observe its per
formance in actual production operation. In some
cases, failures are due to some wrong maneuver by
the machine operator.
5.44 Make notes about system operation in the
instruction manual or in the maintenance record simi
lar to those shown in Fig. 5-1. Include the nature of
the system failure and what steps were taken to cor
rect it. If a failure with similar symptoms should
occur again, you may save time and trouble by check
ing for the same malfunction first.
System Operation
5.45 Before you can troubleshoot a pneumatic sys
tem successfully, you must first understand its opera
tion. The system shown schematically in Fig. 5-5
involves a fan directly coupled to an electric motor on
one side and a clutch/diesel engine on the other. The
pneumatic control system must start the diesel engine
in the event of a power failure. When power is
restored, the fan will continue to be engine-driven
 Determining System Failures 73

Fig.5-5. A pneumatic control system

26
P/S
Clutch 18
27

Fan Diesel engine

G
28
13

P/S Throttle
actuator Air
starter

10

20psl 18
Fuel

11 rO 10 O pressure
10

12 20 psi

12
11
s < n

Low Norm Clutch Auto 10

/\.
SOpsI
s ® ss
21 22 23 24
11
11
O
12
Manual
clutch
Auto Man. throttle Auto
Man. /-v ^ speed
start { )Increase
cz:

20

In I In I Out 1 28 In Out

12

J'X
o

X r\.

P/S 15

Supply
125 psi

Note: Solenoid X energized only when electric power is supplied to fan rrK>tor.

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74 Lesson Five
until it is manually reset. Using the schematic, trace
the flow of air through the system to see how it oper
ates,
5.46 Supply air, at 125 psi, enters the system and
is distributed to the normally closed starting valve (4),
and the clutch interlock valve (7). Control air passes
through the filter (1) and the regulator (2) where it is
reduced to 100 psi. From the regulator it flows to the
selector valve (17), where it can be directed to either
the normally open emergency start valve (3), or to the
manual start valve (18) and the manual clutch speed-
control valve (19). The pressure switch (15)indicates
acceptable supply pressure by lighting the green light
(22). If the supply pressure drops below 110 psi, the
pressiu-e switch (15) turns off the green lights, and
turns on the red light(21).
5.47 For manual operation, the selector valve (17)
is set in MAN, and the manned start valve (18) is
depressed. Signal air is directed through the shutde
valve (12) to the pilot end (A) of the starting control
valve (4). At the same time a signal is directed to port
12 of the relay valve (5). When the starting control
valve(4)shifts, supply starting air is admitted through
the valve to the engine air starter. After the engine
starts, fiiel pressure shifts the relay valve (5), which
connects ports 12 and 11. The signal air then acts on
pilot B of the starting control valve (4) which, com
bined with the spring force, closes the valve, shutting
off the starting air.
5.48 With the engine now running, the clutch-
operating valve (19) is moved to the clutch-engaging
position. Signal air flows fi-om port 1, through the
shuttle valve (10) and acts on the clutch interlock
valve (7). As the valve shifts, the 125 psi supply air
(available at port 12) flows through the relay and
quick-release valve (9), engaging the clutch. W^th the
clutch engaged, the pressure switch (13) lights the
amber light(23).
5.49 As the handle of the clutch-operating valve
(19)is moved in the INCREASE direction, the signal
air increases proportionally and flows from port 8
through the shuttle valve (11) and the flow-control
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valve (16) to act on the throttle actuator (8). Fan
speed is then increased to the desired operating
speed.
5.50 For automatic operation, the selector valve
(17) is set in the AUTO position, and signal air is
directed to the normally open emergency start valve
(3). At the same time, the pressure switch (14) lights
the blue light(24).(The emergency start valve is actu
ated, or closed, when the electric motor is running.)
Should the electric power fail, the emergency start
valve (3) will shift to the open position, directing sig
nal air through the shuttle valve (12) to the pilot end
(A) of the starting control valve (4). The emergency
start signal initiates the same sequence of events in
the starting circuit as the manual start. At the same
time, signal air fi-om the emergency start valve (3) is
also directed through the autospeed valve (20) to port
12 of the relay valve (6).
5.51 When the engine begins to run, the fuel
pressure shifts relay valve 5, which directs signal
air to close the starting control valve (4). The fuel
pressure also shifts relay valve 6, connecting port
12 to port 11. This allows signal air to pass through
shuttle valve 11 and flow-control valve 16 to the
throttle actuator (8). Signal air passing through
shuttle valve 11 is also directed to shuttle valve 10.
This air acts on the clutch interlock valve (7), which
admits supply air to the clutch, coupling the engine
to the fan.
5.52 In addition to the starting and control air sys
tem shown in the diagram, there is also a safety tim
ing or interlock circuit. This is composed of the
metering valve (28)the volume (27), and the pressure
switch (26).
5.53 When the starting control valve (4)admits air
to the engine starter, a small amount of air is bled
through the metering valve (28) and directed to fill
the volume (27). If the engine does not start before
the volume is filled, the pressure switch will soimd an
alarm signaling a "fail start." A switch in the alarm
circuit silences the alarm when the system is on man
ual operation.
 Determining System Faiiures 75

Pneumatic System Troubieshooting Chart

Problem Causes Solutions

Insufficient air volume 1. System demands exceed deliveiy. 1. Check compressor for discharge capacity.
2. Check the number of pneumatic components In the system.
3. Check the air consumption of each component
4. Check for leaks In the piping.

2. System leakage excessive. 1. Check all fittings and pipes.

2. Check and repair ail leaking joints.
3. Check ail actuators for leaks.

3. Clogged Intake lines. 1. Clean the Intake filter

2. Check the compressor Intake valves.
3. Check the Intake valve unloader.
4. Check the size of the Inlet pipe.

Low air pressure 1. System demands exceed dellveiy. 1. Check the compressor discharge pressure.
2. Check the reservoir safety valve.
3. Check the system regulator valves.
4. Check for system leaks.

2. System leakage excessive. 1. Check the compressor discharge pressure.

2. Check the reservoir safety valve.
3. Check the system regulator valves.
4. Check for system leaks.

3. Low compressor discharge pressure. 1. Check for clogged Intake lines.

2. Check for worn Intake valves.
3. Check for wom discharge valves.

Oil In the system 1. System demands exceed delivery. 1. Check the compressor capacitor.
2. Check the oil separator size.
3. Check the air consumption of the components.

2. Oil coming from the compressor. 1. Check the compressor piston rings.
2. Check the compressor discharge valves.
3. Check the compressor Intake valves.

3. Malfunctioning oil lubricators. 1. Check the lubricator adjustment

2. Check the oil viscosity.
3. Check the air consumption of the components.

Moisture In the system 1. System demands exceed delivery. 1. Ched< the compressor capacity.
2. Ched< the air consumption of the components.

2. Moisture carry-over. 1. Check the air cooler capacity.

2. Check the air cooler efficiency.
3. Check the moisture separators.
4. Check the system drain legs.
5. Check the location of the intake filter.

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76 Programmed Exercises

5-9. ACTUATOR
5-9. If a control valve will not shift, check the
valve and the
Ref: 5.28

5-10. Which is easier to determine, the failure 5-10. MANUAL VALVE

of a solenoid-actuated control valve or
the failure of a manual valve? Ref: 5.29

5-11. An open circuit in a solenoid coil can be 5-11. SEVERED WIRE

caused by arcing, intense heat, or a(n)
in the coil. Ref: 5.30

5-12. If a solenoid coil is in operating condi 5-12. ELECTRICAL SUPPLY SYSTEM

tion but you do not have voltage, the
source of the trouble is probably in the Ref: 5.31

5-13. The primary cause of failure in timing 5-13. MOISTURE CONDENSATION

volumes is
Ref: 5.35

5-14. The most common cause of problems 5-14. FOREIGN MATERIAL

in loqic circuits is
Ref: 5.36

5-15. The main purpose of installing inter 5-15. SAFETY

locks in a pneumatic circuit is for
Ref: 5.40

5-16. Information on system failures and cor 5-16. MAINTENANCE RECORD

rective steps should be entered in the
machine's Ref: 5.44

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 Self-Check Quiz 77

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

5-1. The manner in which problems are located 5-6. The best method of checking a cylinder for
and corrected in a pneumatic system is related proper operation is by
to the
□ a. disconnecting it from the load
□ a. number of men In the maintenance □ b. actuating it by hand
crew □ c. increasing the operating pressure
□ b. methods used for troubleshooting □ d. calculating its output force
□ c. machine's operating hours
□ d. amount of downtime available 5-7. Failure to get airflow at the cylinder means
there is trouble ahead of the
5-2. The first item to check when you are trou
bleshooting a pneumatic system is the □ a. storage reservoir
□ b. control valve
□ a. machine production rate □ c. shutoff cock
□ b. time of last overhaul □ d. pressure regulator
□ c. operator's qualifications
□ d. supply air pressure 5-8. Which of the following should be checked if a
control valve is inoperative?
5-3. The components on a schematic drawing can
be positively identified by referring to the □ a. Exhaust muffler
□ b. Pilot pressure
□ a. bill of material □ c. Valve actuator
□ b. component marking tags □ d. Ail of the above
□ c. manufacturer's instruction manual
□ d. system operation sheet 5-9. What is the purpose of installing interlocks in
a pneumatic circuit?
5-4. The manufacturer's parts list does which of
the following? □ a. Production control
□ b. Reduced maintenance
□ a. Lists the parts of components □ c. Safety
□ b. Describes component operation □ d. All of the above
□ c. Shows the assembly of parts
□ d. All of the above 5-10. Recording information about system failures
and corrections in the maintenance record
5-5. When you check the supply air during will
troubleshooting, also check the
□ a. improve machine life
□ a. operator's log sheet □ b. reduce troubleshooting time
□ b. machine position □ c. increase maintenance time
□ c. electrical power □ d. keep the operator informed of prob
□ d. type of part in the machine lems

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78 Lesson Five

SUMMARY

When a piece of pneumatic equipment fails to working properly, you should then check the con
operate, it is up to you,the maintenance techni trol valve and its actuator. Sequence valves, mas
cian,to locate and correct the problem. The first ter control valves, and interlocks should also be
step in doing this is to obtain a copy of the sys checked.
tem's schematic diagram, which will familiarize
you with the system's operation. Then you can When you have detected and corrected the fault,
trace the system in logical sequence and try to go back over the entire system. Operate It
find the trouble spot. through the automatic and manual cycles several
times and check the operation of the reset and
Begin your system check by first determining if emergency stop. Adjust all flow-control valves In
there is any air in the supply system.Then check timing and sequence circuits. Finally, record the
for air by starting at the actuator and working nature of the failure and what you did to fix it.
back to the air-supply point. If there is sufficient This should be done in the instruction manual or
air and If the actuator and mechanical linkage are in the maintenance record.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

5-1. b. Methods used for troubleshooting. 5-6. a. Disconnecting it from the load.
Ret: 5.02 Ref: 5.19

5-2. d. Supply air pressure. Ref: 5.05 5-7. b. Control valve. Ref: 5.24

5-3. a. Biil of material. Ref: 5.08 5-8. d. All of the above. Ref: 5.25, 5.26

5-4. d. All of the above. Ref: 5.13, Fig. 5-2 5-9. 0. Safety. Ref: 5.40

5-5. 0. Eiectrical power. Ref: 5.17 5-10. b. Reduce troubleshooting time.

Ref: 5.44

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 5-2. Westinghouse Air Brake Co., Fluid Power DIv.

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DEVELOPING PNEUMATIC TROUBLESHOOTING SKILLS

Lesson Six

Troubleshooting
Air Compressors

rrr

TPC Training Systems

;^^->!'u31006
 Lesson

Troubleshooting Air Compressors

TOPICS

Cooling Reciprocating Compressors Control Systems

Compressor Lubrication Rotary Compressors
Compressor Valves Vane Compressors
Crankcase Ventilation Rotary-Screw Compressors
Piston Rings and Bearings Centrifugal Compressors

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Describe methods of cooling and lubricating recipro Identify problems associated with the control system
cating compressors. of a compressor.
• Explain the proper maintenance of compressor Describe the basic maintenance requirements of
valves. rotary, vane, rotary-screw, and centrifugal
compressors.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Closed cooling system 6.07 a cooling system in Dry-screw compressor 6.37 a type of rotary
which water is circulated through a radiator or screw compressor in which timed rotors are
heat exchanger instead of passing directly driven through a set of timing gears
through the compressor
Oil-control rings 6.21 piston rings that are usual
ly thinner than compression rings, but made with
a at least one tapered edge

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The air compressor is the power source for ail pneumatic systems in any
particular plant, if the compressor falls, or does not provide sufficient air, all of
the systems It supplies are put out of service. Uninterrupted compressor
service can be ensured through the constant application of routine planned
maintenance at regular intervals.

This Lesson describes the two basic types of compressors, reciprocating and
rotary, and the control systems used with each of them. The Lesson also
describes the regular maintenance procedures for each type of compressor,
some problems that can occur when the compressor is not properly maintained,
and suggestions for getting the compressor back in operation when
failure occurs.

Cooling Reciprocating Compressors detergent or steam, is required. Be careful that no

6.01 Because of the similarity of their construe-
tion, reciprocating compressors of all sizes have many
common problems. One of these is heat. Heat is
caused by the compression of the air molecules as the
volume of the air is reduced to increase its pressure.
6.02 Heat generated during compression is con-
trolled in two ways: by cooling and by limiting the
pressure of the compressed air. The pressure devel-
oped in a single-stage compressor is usually restricted
to about 120 psi. In this range, the heat of compres-
sion is held below SOOT. If higher pressures are
desired, several stages are used, with intercoolers
placed between every two stages.
6.03 As shown in Fig. 6-1, the heat of compression
generated in the cylinder of a reciprocating compres-
sor is removed in three ways: lubrication, cooling by
incoming air, and conduction through the cylinder
walls. Of the three, the conduction of heat through the
cylinder walls is the most effective.
cleaning agent enters the compressor. Also, make sure
that the compressor is cool during cleaning,
6.06 If the compressor is water cooled, external
cleaning is usually not required to improve heal trans
fer. External cleaning, however, is a sign of good
housekeeping on the part of the maintenance depart-
meat. It also helps in locating possible sources
of trouble from oil leaks or valve malfunction. Clean-
ing the internal water passages may be required if
the cooling water contains mineral deposits or sedi-
ment. If mineral deposits cause scale buildup in the
water passages, an annual or semiannual cleaning
is required.
6.07 Many water-cooled compressors have what is
called a closed cooling system. This is much like the
cooling system of an automobile. The cooling water is
Fig. 6-1. Cooling in a compressor cylinder

6.04 After the heat passes through the cylinder

Incoming air
walls, it is transferred to a cooling liquid or radiated
into the surrounding air. Whether cooling air or water
is used to remove the heat from the cylinder walls
depends on the size of the compressor and its location
in the plant.
Conduction
6.05 If circulating air is used for cooling, the exte
rior of the cylinder must be kept as clean as possible.
This may be difficult because of the finned construc
tion of the cylinder. However, a monthly cleaning
with compressed air will usually maintain a good, Lubricating oil
clean surface condition. If the surrounding air is dusty
or oily, more frequent cleaning, possibly with a
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 Fig. 6-2. Compressor lubrication
Splash
recirculated through an air-cooled radiator or liquid-
cooled heat exchanger instead of passing directly
through the compressor. Whichever type is used,
maintenance is required on the heat exchanger. A liq
uid type requires the removal of scale buildup, while
the air type requires the removal of dirt with an air
hose. The air-cooled radiator has to be cleaned more
frequently than the liquid-cooled heat exchanger.
Compressor Lubrication
6.08 There are two methods of lubricating recip
rocating compressors—splash and pressurized.
Splash lubrication, the simpler of the two, is com
monly used on compressors driven by motors of 5
hp or less. Pressurized lubrication is almost always
used on larger compressors, although a small
amount of lubricant splashing occurs while the com
pressor is running. Both methods of lubrication are
shown in Fig. 6-2.
6.09 The oil pumps of most pressurized lubrication
systems are driven by the compressor crankshaft
through a set of reduction gears. The pumps are usu
ally of the spur-gear, positive-displacement type,
delivering oil at 20 to 40 psi. Some extremely large,
permanently installed compressors are fitted with sep
arately mounted oil pumps. The pumps have their
own independent drive motors and sumps or reser
voirs. Whichever type is used, lubricating oil is sup
plied to the connecting rod bearings, piston pins,
crankshaft bearings, and cylinder walls.
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Oil pump
Pressurized
6.10 Recommended compressor oils include both
detergent and nondetergent types. Use only the oil
recommended by the manufacturer of your compres
sor or an approved substitute oil. Do not substitute
another oil without approval. Substitution of a non-
recommended oil can void the warranty. Follow
the manufacturer's instructions for oil changes as
well. Most manufacturers recommend an oil change
after 50 hr of operation. The second change should
take place 100 hr after the first. The first two changes
remove most of the break-in residue. Thereafter,
oil should be changed about every 500 hr of
compressor operation.
Compressor Valves
6.11 In reciprocating compressors, most of the
maintenance is required on the intake and discharge
valves. In small compressors, the service life of dis
charge valves ranges from 5000 to 10,000 hr. The
intake valves last approximately twice that long. In
compressors above 15 hp, discharge-valve life may be
as short as 2000 hr, while intake valves last 5000 to
10,000 hr.
6.12 The shorter life of discharge valves is a
result of heat and accumulation of carbon deposits.
Valve life is also related to the springs' resistance to
fatigue failure. Bad valving (weak or worn out
valves) reduces the volumetric efficiency of the air
compressor through leakage. This results in reduced
output. Reduced compressor efficiency is most
 Troubleshooting Air Compressors 83

noticeable in increased operation. The compressor

starts more often and runs longer. It also remains WARNING
stopped for only short periods of time. (This might Use only recommended solvents to clean
also indicate an undersized compressor.) If the valves. If flammable solvents are used,an
compressor operates by valve unloading, it will stay internal explosion can occur when the
loaded longer, and its unloaded periods will compressor is started.
be shorter.

6.13 One indication of leaky intake valves is Crankcase Ventilation

increased temperature of the intake pipe. A leaky
discharge valve can be detected by increased com- 6.17 Although
All it might seem unimportant, the
pressor operation and excessive motor current draw. crankcase ventilating system in an air compressor
On an engine-driven compressor, the engine may requires a certain
< amount of attention. The breather
have noticeable difficulty in driving the compressor is the key part of the crankcase ventilating system,
or it may run hotter than it should. because it maintains the crankcase at atmospheric
pressure. In
Ir some compressors, it is connected to the
6.14 A two-stage air compressor is more difficult intake side of the low-pressure cylinder. On other
to troubleshoot from the standpoint of valve trouble. compressors,
compress< the breather is piped directly to
As just stated, excessive motor current draw and atmosphere.
the atmospl
extended compressor operation occur if any of the
discharge valves are bad. Also, excessive intercooier 6.18 Cri;
Crankcase ventilators connected to the intake
pressure indicates leaking valves in the high-pres- side of the
th( compressor readily relieve pressure
sure side. Low intercooier pressure means the valves buildup in the
t crankcase but have one disadvantage. If
in the low-pressure side are leaking. Excessive inter- the intake filter becomes fouled, the pressure drop
cooler pressure is usually indicated by the continu
ous popping of the intercooier safety valve. Replace
defective valves promptly, because fragments of a 6-.. A typical compressor valve
Fig. 6-3
broken valve can drop into the cylinder and cause i
serious damage.

6.15 The valve maintenance schedule depends on ^

the manufacturer's recommendations and the
construction of the valve. If you are not exactly sure
how frequently the valves on your compressor
should be cleaned and inspected, start with an i
interval of every 1000 operating hours. After several
inspections, you can extend the interval if
conditions allow.

6.16 Most valve maintenance involves removing

and disassembling the valve. An exploded view of
a typical valve is shown in Fig. 6-3. Most valves are
held together by one or two bolts. When these
are removed, the valve sections simply fall apart.
When assembling the valve, check for proper valve
travel or lift. Also make sure the valve is installed i
squarely in its seat and that the proper gaskets 1
(if any) are installed. Always check the '
manufacturer's instructions for proper disassembly
and assembly procedures.
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84 Lesson Six
across the intake filter causes a vacuum in the
crankcase. This can cause crankshaft seal leakage and
also draw in oil vapor. When the pressure drop is
equalized, the crankshaft seal allows oil leakage to
occur. Excessive vacuum in the crankcase of an air
compressor can also lift the oil pressure relief valve
(if it has one) resulting in low oil pressure and
improper lubrication.
6.19 Compressors that ventilate the crankcase
directly to the atmosphere usually do so through a
flapper-type check valve or a small filter. Keep the fil
ter clean, or the flapper valve in good working order.
Failure to do so may increase crankcase pressure and
cause excessive oil consumption. Abnormally high
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airflow fi-om the crankcase breather indicates excessive
blow-by past the pistons. This may be caused by worn
piston rings, scored cylinders, or a broken discharge
valve. Also, some compressor manufacturers depend
on the flapper valve to maintain a small vacuum in the
crankcase to reduce or control oil consumption.
6.20 Intake filters require more fi-equent attention
than many of the other compressor components.
Check intake filters daily for materials obstructing the
intake area. Clean the filter itself at least once a
month. Cleaning should be done more fi-equently in
dirty locations. If an oil bath is used, change the oil in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions
(about every 100 hr).
 Programmed Exercises 85

6-1. The heat of compression Is 6-1. PRESSURE

controlled by cooling and by limiting
the compression Ref: 6.02

6-2. Name the three methods

6-2. LUBRICATION,INCOMING AIR. CON
DUCTION THROUGH THE CYLINDER
used to cool a compressor.
WALLS

Ref: 6.03

6-3. A water-cooled compressor that 6-3. CLOSED

recirculates Its cooling water Is said
to be afn^ system. Ref: 6.07

6-4. The oil pumps used In most 6-4. COMPRESSOR CRANKSHAf=T

pressurized lubrication systems
are driven from the Ref: 6.09

6-5. The components In a reciprocating 6-5. VALVES

compressor that require the most
maintenance are the Ref: 6.11

6-6. Burned discharge valves In a 6-6. CARBON DEPOSITS

reciprocating compressor are
the result of heat and the Ref: 6.12
accumulation of

6-7. The key part In a crankcase 6-7. BREATHER

ventilation Is the
Ref: 6.17

6-8. Compressors that ventilate 6-8. FILTER

the crankcase directly to the
atmosphere usually do so through a Ref: 6.19
check valve or a small

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 Fig. 6-4. Methods of pressure control
Motor control
Pressure
switch
Start/stop
Piston Rings and Bearings
6.21 The piston rings used in reciprocating com
pressors vary in design, but are divided into two
types—compression and oil control. Compression
rings are generally made of cast iron, finished to very
close tolerances. In most compressors, they can be
in.stalled in only one position, because the outer edge of
the ring is tapered. The wide part of the ring should be
placed at the bottom for better oil control. Oil-control
rings are made with at least one tapered edge. They are
usually thinner than compression rings. Again, the
taper is for oil control. Usually very little maintenance
is required for pistons or piston rings.
6.22 Either sleeve or antifriction bearings are used
in reciprocating compressors. Some compressors use
both. Generally, antifriction bearings are used for sup
porting the crankshaft. Sleeve bearings are used for the
connecting rods of the pistons. However, some com
pressor manufacturers use antifriction bearings on the
connecting rods as well as the crankshaft. Like pistons,
very little maintenance is required for the bearings. If
bearings fail, a major overhaul is usually required.
Control Systems
6.23 Many operating problems occur in the control
system of the compressor. Starting unloaders are one
source of starting problems. If the motor has any diffi
culty in starting the compressor after the system has
been running, the trouble may be in the starting
unloader system. One way to check this is to let out
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Untoaderi
Load/unload
all of the air in the compressor reservoir and start the
compressor again. If the compressor starts easily, the
starting unloader is probably faulty. If the compressor
still refuses to start, the trouble is probably in the
motor or electrical system and an electrician will have
to check out the electrical controls.
6.24 In compressors that use a vent-type starting
unloader, difficulty in starting is usually caused by the
check valve in the discharge line. Along with other
maintenance items, inspect the vent and check valve
periodically for proper operation. Compressors using
starting unloaders actuated or piloted by oil pressure
or centrifugal flyballs in the crankcase should be
checked more frequently. Because both of these sys
tems are rather special in nature, study the manufac
turer's instruction manual carefully before attempting
any repairs.
6.25 The remainder of the control system in a
compressor controls the pneumatic system pressure. It
consists of either a pressure switch (if it operated
start/stop) or an unloader valve (if operated
load/unload) as shown in Fig. 6-4. The start/stop
mode of operation is used in applications involving
intermittent air demand or low air consumption. The
pressure switch starts the compressor when the pres
sure drops below a given point, and stops the com
pressor at a high pressure point. In installations in
which air demand is high or fairly constant,
load/unload operation is usually more desirable. In
this case, the reservoir pressure activates a valve that
regulates the compressor intake.
 Troubleshooting Air Compressors 87

6.26 In start/stop applications, frequent starting Fig.6-5. Water flow control valve
may cause the motor to overheat. Most motors have a
rated temperature rise of 104 to 122'F(40 to 50°C). If
you think the motor is overheating, check the motor
temperature with the proper instrument. Some com
pressors are furnished with both control systems and
include a pressure switch, an unloader valve, and a Control

manual selector valve that allows you to select either

mode of operation.

6.27 Difficulties with a pressure switch are usually

caused by faulty electrical contacts or a ruptured pres
sure diaphragm. If either of these faults is found,
replace the pressure switch with a new one. Although
the pressure switch seldom requires attention, cutout-
pressure and range adjustments are sometimes
required. If adjustments are required, check the sys
tem to determine why the adjustment was needed.
6.28 Water-cooled air compressors often have
additional controls to regulate the flow of cooling
water to the compressor and/or heat exchanger. These
controls are usually thermostatically operated, and
resemble the one in Fig. 6-5. Often the system is
equipped with a solenoid valve that reduces the cool
ing water or shuts it off completely while the com
pressor is stopped or unloaded.
Rotary Compressors
6.29 The maintenance of rotary compressors is as
varied as the types of compressors. Each has special
maintenance considerations that relate to its particular
design only. For this reason, it is important to consult
the manufacturer's instruction manuals for specific
details about the different types.
6.30 Several maintenance items are the same
for all rotary compressors—lubrication, bearings,
and seals. Although specific requirements vary with
each compressor model, they are all based on the
same considerations.
6.31 Oil lubrication methods can be divided into
two groups: lubrication for the bearings and drive
gears, and lubrication for lubricating and cooling the
lobes of contacting rotors. Each ^plication requires a
different type of lubricating oil. Because they are spe
cial, the oils cannot be used interchangeably. It is
even a good idea to store the oils in different places to
prevent their misuse. Oil and filters should be
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Closing
eement
Vfflve
changed approximately every 1000 operating hours
under normal conditions.
6.32 Bearings and seals do not require the fiiequent
attention that proper lubrication does. However, when
you are checking or changing the lubricating oil, check
the shaft and bearing seals to make sure they are not
leaking. If they are, note it on the maintenance sheet
and correct the condition as soon as possible (without
interfering with the shop production schedule).
6.33 One difference between rotary compressors
and reciprocating compressors is that rotary compres
sors do not require any intake or discharge valves.
This reduces their efficiency, but the disadvantage is
offset by higher operating speeds. Only centrifugal
and axial flow compressors are not positive-displace
ment compressors. All other rotary compressors have
some means of sealing or isolating the compressor
intake from the discharge. This gives them the posi
tive-displacement capability.
Vane Compressors
6.34 The items that require the greatest amount
of maintenance in a vane compressor are the
impeller vanes. The vanes are generally made of a
laminated plastic and form the compressing cham
ber by remaining in full contact with the cylinder
wall during operation. The contact is maintained
during rotation by centrifugal force or by helper
springs. Springs placed behind the vanes eliminate
clatter at low speeds. The vanes can be removed and
Fig. 6-6. Removing the impeller vanes Fig.6-7. A rotary-screw compressor

replaced when the end cap is removed, as shown in other. The rotors are classified as being either
the compressor pictured in Fig. 6-6. timed or self-driven. Timed rotors are driven
through a set of timing gears located in one
6.35 To improve their service life, most vane com end of the housing. They are often referred to
pressors are lubricated (and cooled) by oil injected as dry-screw
into the cylinder through small nozzles. When this is
done, the compressor produces oil-laden air. This oil 6.38 In a self-driven, rotary-screw compressor,
must be removed from the air by an oil separator one of the rotors is driven by the power source and
located in the discharge line of the compressor. How it, in turn, drives the second rotor. The driving
ever, much of the oil settles out in the air reservoir. motion causes surface contact between the rotor
Therefore, the air reservoir is also used for oil storage. lobes. To prevent rapid wear, the rotors are lubri
The oil is then pumped back and injected into the cated and cooled by oil injected into the compres
cylinder. In larger compressors, the oil is frequently sor casing. The oil also provides an air seal
circulated through a heat exchanger and filter before between the two rotors and the rotor casing.
it is returned to the cylinder.
6.39 Maintenance on screw compressors is simi
6.36 Because a rotary compressor has no inlet lar to the maintenance of rotary-vane compressors.
valves, it cannot be unloaded in the same manner as Most maintenance is directed toward bearing and
a reciprocating compressor. Therefore, some means seal troubleshooting and oil removal. Check the
of restricting airflow, such as damper valves rotor bearings and seals at approximately 1000-hr
or diaphragms at the compressor intake, is often intervals. Worn bearings are the most frequent
used. The airflow-restricting method selected for a cause of rotor and casing damage, so they require
specific compressor is determined by the the most attention. Ensuring the proper injection of
compressor's manufacturer. the lubricating oil into the compressor and its
removal later on are probably the next major items
Rotary-Screw Compressors of maintenance. Check the level of oil in the reser
voir frequently and regularly. Frequent checks of
6.37 As shown in Fig. 6-7, the rotary-screw com the oil level are important to ensure a constant sup
pressor consists of two helical, intermeshing rotary ply of oil to the injection nozzles. It is also impor
screws or rotors. These rotors revolve inside a tant that the oil is completely removed from the air
close-fitting compressing chamber, drawing air in at as it passes through the oil separator before it is
one end of the chamber and discharging it at the discharged into the compressed air system.
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 Troubleshooting Air Compressors 89

V^ Centrifugal Compressors the oil within the gear casing. Very little mainte
nance is required on the compressor impellers
6.40 Centrifugal compressors require the same themselves. This is because of their noncontacting
kind of bearing and seal maintenance as other rotary design. Normally, the only impeller maintenance
compressors. Frequent inspections for oil leaks required is occasional cleaning to remove buildups
around the rotating shafts are important in keeping on the vanes.

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

Problem Causes Solutions

Low intercooler 1.Intercooler drain valve open. 1.Close drain valve.

pressure (full load 2.Plugged air filter. 2. Remove and clean the air filter.
operation) 3. LP suction and/or(fischarge valves leaking.(Hottest valve 3.Clean or replace leaking valves.
Is probable cause.)
4.LP untoader plunger spring t>roken allowing plunger to rest 4. Replace unloader plunger spring.
on valve disc, retarCDng valve action.
5.Leaking daphragm In HP suction valve allowing high pres 5.Clean or replace HP suction valve.
sure air to backflow through unloading lines and partly
unloading LP valve.
6.Leaking intercooler relief valve. 6. ReconcStion or install a new relief valve.
7.Badly worn LP piston rings.(Check for excessive blowby 7. Recondition the LP cylinder and install new piston rings.
through crankcase breather.)

High intercooler 1. Leaking HP suction and/or discharge valve.(Hottest valve 1.Clean or replace leaking valves.
pressure (full load Is prot>able cause.)
operation) 2. HP unloader plunger spring broken allowing plunger to rest 2. Replace unloader plunger spring.
on valve disc restricting valve action.
3. Plugged Intercooler core. 3. Remove and clean Intercooler.

Unit wiil not unload 1.Control stuck, check for dirt or varnish. 1.Clean or replace the pressure control valve.
(receiver relief valve 2.Diaphragm ruptured in HP unloading valves. 2. Replace HP(fiaphragm.
blows) 3. Unloading valve plunger spring broken. 3. Replace broken plunger spring.
4.Air to control shut off. 4.Open the valve to the pressure control valve.
5.Riter in control tine or control plugged. 5.Clean or replace the filter.
6. Unloader line leaking. 6.Tighten or replace the line.

Low air pressure 1. Compressor too small for air demand. 1.Install a second or larger compressor.
2. Air leaks in system. 2.Tighten ail leaking connections.
3. Plugged or restricted air filters. 3.Remove and clean the air filter.
4.Suction unloading valves partly open.Refer to adjustmenL 4.Adjust unloading valves.
5.Badly worn piston rings. 5. Recondition cylinders and replace the piston dngs.
6. Unit under speed. 6.Check speed of motor and drive belt ratia

Short valve life 1. Dirt entering unit. 1.Install better filters.

2. Lift of valve too great 2.Adjust valve travel to proper limits.
3.Corrosive vapors entering unit 3. Move or modify intake line.
4. Misacgustment of suction unloading plunger. 4.Adjust unloader plunger in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations.
5. Uneven or worn valve seat 5. Replace valve seat
6.Weak or collapsed valve spring. 6. Replace valve spring.

Noisy valves 1.Loose assembly. 1.Tighten the valve assembly.

2. Unloader spring broken. 2. Replace the unloader spring.
3.Broken or weak valve spring. 3. Replace the valve springs.
4. MIsadjustment of unloader plunger travel. 4.Adjust unloader plunger In accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations.

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90 Lesson Six

ROTARY COMPRESSOR TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

Problem Causes Solutions

Rrst-stage 1.Fouled intercooler, causing high first-stage discharge 1.Clean intercooler tubes and shell.
discharge air pressure.
temperature 2. Unloading valve not fully opened,or clogged. 2.Clean valve and replace any worn parts.
excessive. 3. Clogged intake filter. 3.Clean intake filter.
4. Insufficient or high temperature Inlet water. 4. Increase water gpm or provide cool water supply.
5.Scale or residue txiildup In water Jacket. 5.Clean water Jacket, and fitter or treat water supply as
required.
6. High Inlet air temperature. 6. Relocate Intake filter to dean,cod air source.
7. Insufficient or wrong lubricating oil. 7. Use correct oil and feed rates recommended In instruction
manual.
8.Swelled or warped rotor blades. 8. Dry out or replace rotor blades.

Second-stage 1. Rrst stage malfunction. 1. Follow first stage sequence.

discharge air 2.Fouled intercooler, causing high inlet air temperature. 2.Clean intercooler tubes and shell.
temperature 3.f=buled aftercoder,causing high second-stage discharge 3.Clean aftercooler tubes and shdi.
excessive. pressure.
4. Insufficient or high temperature inlet water. 4.Increase water gpm or provide cod water supply
5.Scale or residue buildup In water Jacket. 5.Clean water Jacket, and filter or treat water supply as
reqdred.
6.Insufficient or wrong lubricating oil. 6. Use correct dl and feed rates recommended In Instruction
manual.
7.Swelled or warped rotor blades. 7.Dry out or replace rotor blades.

Undue noise, 1.Worn bearing. 1. Replace bearing.

vibration, or 2. Excessive blade wear. 2. Replace blades and check lubrication.
peiiocfic knoddng. 3. Erratic cylinder wear. 3. Rebore, redowel, and check lubrication.
4. Insufficient lubrication. 4. Increase lube feed rate.
5. Rotor contacting cylinder or heads. 5.Check temperature and pressure conditions;check internal
clearances.
6. Misalignment. 6. Realign units.
7.Swelled or warped rotor blades. 7. Dry out or replace rotor blades.

Compressor will 1. Faulty pressure switch or 3-way solenoid pilot v£tlve. 1. Repair or replace switch or valve.
not unload properly 2. Clogged control air line or ports in 3-way solenoid pilot 2.Clean air line and 3-way valve.
valve.
3. Unloading valve dirty or Internal parts worn. 3.Clean or replace unloading valve parts.

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 Troubleshooting Air Compressors 91

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92 Programmed Exercises

6-9. The items that require the greatest 6-9. IMPELLER VANES
amount of maintenance in a vane com
pressor are the Ref: 6.34

6-10. SPRINGS
6-10. Contact between impeller vanes and
the cylinder wall Is maintained during
Ref: 6.34
rotation by centrifugal force or

6-11. The service life of Impeller vanes Is 6-11. LUBRICANT

extended by the use of afnl
Ref: 6.35

6-12. In large vane compressors, lubricating 6-12. HEAT EXCHANGER

oil Is frequently circulated through a(n)
and filter before It is Ref: 6.35
retumed to the cylinder.

6-13. Rotary compressor discharge pressure 6-13. INTAKE

can be controlled by using damper
valves at the compressor Ref: 6.36

6-14. The rotors of a rotary screw compres 6-14. SELF-DRIVEN

sor are classified as being either timed
or Ref: 6.37

6-15. The rotor bearings and seals of rotary 6-15. 1000

screw compressors should be checked
at about -hr Intervals. Ref: 6.39

6-16. Most of the maintenance of the 6-16. CLEANING

Impellers In centrifugal compressors Is
limited to the Imoeller. Ref:6.40

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 Self-Check Quiz 93

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

6-1. Heat generated in a reciprocating compressor 6-6. Which of the following indicates leaky intake
is controlled by cooling the compressor and valves in a reciprocating compressor?

□ a. regulating the compressor speed □ a. Increased intake pipe temperature

□ b. limiting the compressor pressure □ b. Increased compressor operation
□ c. installing an aftercooler unit □ c. Increased motor current draw
□ d. goveming the intake temperature □ d. Increased intercooler pressure

6-2. Which of the following is used to cool a 6-7. The start/stop switch of a compressor is
compressor cylinder? actuated by

□ a. Lubricant □ a. system temperature

□ b. Incoming air □ b. the intercooler temperature
□ c. Conduction through the cylinder walls □ c. a timer
□ d. All of the above □ d. system pressure

6-3. If a water-cooled compressor has a closed 6-8. The flow of water through the heat exchanger
system, it means the and compressor of a water-cooled system is
regulated by a(n)
□ a. water is recirculated
□ b. compressor is sealed as a unit □ a. pressure switch
□ c. compressor requires no extemal □ b. unloading valve
cooling □ c. thermostatic valve
□ d. compressor must be operated □ d. ball valve
indoors
6-9. Under normal conditions, the oil and filters in
6-4. In compressors that have pressurized lubrica a rotary compressor should be changed after
tion systems, the oil pumps are driven by approximately how many operating hours?

□ a. the compressor crankshaft □ a. 50 hr

□ b. a V-belt drive □ b. 100 hr
□ c. a separate electric motor □ c. 500 hr
□ d. an air motor □ d. 1000 hr

6-5. Most of the required maintenance on recipro 6-10. In what two ways are the rotors of rotary
cating compressors is on the screw compressors classified?

□ a. aftercooler □ a. Powered and free

□ b. intercooler □ b. Timed and self-driven
□ c. intake and discharge valves □ c. Actuated and nonactuated
□ d. pressure control switch □ d. Driven and free-wheeling

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94 Lesson Six

SUMMARY

The various types of reciprocating compressors If you suspect a problem In the control system of
have many common problems. One of these is the compressor plant, let ail the air out of the
heat, which can be removed by lubrication, by compressor reservoir and start the compressor
cooling with incoming air, or by conduction again. If the compressor then starts easily,the
through the cylinder walls. The last way is the starting unloader is probably faulty. If the com
most effective. If circulating air is used, keep the pressor refuses to start the trouble is probably in
cylinder's exterior walls as clean as possible. the motor or electrical system.

Compressors are lubricated by either the splash Rotary compressors require two different types of
or pressurized method. Use only the oil recom oil—one for lubricating the bearings and drive
mended by the compressor manufacturer. Also, gears and another for the lobes of contacting
follow the manufacturer's guidelines for oil rotors. Be sure not to interchange the oils. On
changes. Most valve maintenance consists of vane compressors,the impeller vanes require the
removing,disassembling,and cleaning the valve most maintenance. Most maintenance of screw
correctly, and that it is properly sealed when you compressors involves bearing and seal trou
install it. bleshooting and oil removal.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

6-1. b. Limiting the compressor pressure. 6-6. a. Increased intake pipe temperature.
Ref: 6.02 Ref: 6.13

6-2. d. All of the above. Ref: 6.03, Fig. 6-1 6-7. d. System pressure.
Ref:6.25, Fig. 6-4
6-3. a. Water is recirculated. Ref: 6.07
6-8. 0. Thermostatic valve.
6-4. a. The compressor crankshaft. Ref:6.28, Rg.6-5
Ref: 6.09, Fig. 6-2
6-9. d. 1000 hr. Ref: 6.31
6-5. c. Intake and discharge valves.
Ref: 6.11 6-10. b. Timed and self-driven. Ref:6.37

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Rgure 6-3. Gardner-Denver Co.

Rgure 6-5. Ashcroft(Dresser Ind., Inc.)
Rgure 6-7. Falit>anks, Morse DIv. Colt Industries

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DEVELOPING PNEUMATIC TROUBLESHOOTING SKILLS

Lesson Seven

Troubleshooting
Control Valves

fr.

^ D

^O:
 Lesson

Troubleshooting Control Valves

TOPICS

Troubleshooting Controls Checking a DC Solenoid

Troubleshooting a Circuit That Will Not Start Troubleshooting Improper Sequence Operation
Checking Manual Overrides Improper Valve Shifting
Checking the Circuit Sequence Valves Shifting Without a Shift Signal
Checking for Locked Controls Changes in Control Timing
Checking for Mechanical Interference Miscellaneous Control-Element Problems
Electrical Solenoids Lubrication Problems
Checking an AC Solenoid

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Outline how to Isolate a control malfunction in a pneu Describe the proper procedures for checking electric
matic circuit. solenoids.
• Explain how to troubleshoot a nonstarting or nonop- Explain how to check for problems related to valve
erating circuit, improper sequencing of the circuit, and shifting, control timing, and lubrication.
miscellaneous problems related to the equipment.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Lockout exhaust valve 7.09 a safety feature that Sealed current 7.23 the decreased current at the
enables maintenance personnel to block off parts end of a solenoid's stroke, when the plunger is
of a pneumatic circuit from line pressure seated

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 97

The control valves of a pneumatic system are Important to the continued and
efficient operation of the system and the machines it operates or powers, with
out the continuous smooth functioning of the control valves, the pneumatic
system will become inoperative or, even worse, malfunction. Malfunctions are
more serious because they can cause machine and tool damage and Injury to
the operator. ^

This Lesson describes the ways to troubleshoot a control valve and its actua
tors. Sometimes troubleshooting the actuators is more important than trou
bleshooting the control valve. If the malfunction occurs In the control valve area
of the system, the entire section should be checked out before the machine is
restored to productive operation.

Troubleshooting Controls Troubleshooting a Circuit That Will Not Start

7.01 A control malfunction can best be isolated 7.04 Troubleshooting a pneumatic system that will
by analyzing the performance, or lack of perfor not start, or has stopped in midcycle, requires that the
mance, of the components in the pneumatic cir following checks be made:
cuit. If a circuit is malfunctioning, first make a
thorough check of the machine mechanisms to 1. Is electric power available?
determine whether the problem is caused by
something other then the pneumatic circuit. In a 2. Is pneumatic power available?
production machine, these problems might
include: absence of raw stock, parts doubled up, 3. Are manual overrides engaged?
production of parts of the wrong size, or parts
wedged in the machine. If none of the above 4. Are the manual controls properly positioned?
applies, then perhaps the interlocks have tripped
and shut down the circuit. 5. Is the circuit in sequence?

7.02 If you determine that a problem has
occurred within the local circuit, a logical system
atic method of locating the problem is required.
This sequence of checks varies with each plant
and each pneumatic system. No one method or
order of troubleshooting a circuit and its controls
is best for all conditions. Most procedures are a
compromise between speed, ease, and strict,
systematic approach.
7.03 When troubleshooting a control valve,
there are three things to check for—a nonstarting
or nonoperating circuit, improper sequencing of
the circuit, and miscellaneous problems related to
the equipment. In each of these speciHc areas,
there are several items to check while trou
bleshooting the circuit. Some of the items are
related. They can be checked during one phase of
troubleshooting, and then skipped or eliminated
when you check the system a second or third time.
These three specific areas are dealt with individu
ally in this Lesson.
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6. Are any controls locked (stuck)?
7. Is there any mechanical interference?
8. Are the solenoids actuating?
The checks required for each of these questions are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
7.05 Is electric power available? If the circuit
will not start and all cycle-initiating and sequencing
requirements are present, check to make sure both
pneumatic and electrical power sources are connected
and energized. The electrical supply can be checked
easily if pilot lights are provided to indicate power
availability, blown fuses, or open circuit breakers.
Possible problems areas are iUustrated in Fig. 7-1 on
the following page.
7.06 Is pneumatic power available? The avail
ability of pneumatic power is checked first in the cen
tral system and then by reading a local gauge to
 Fig. 7-1. Pneumatic circuit problems
Air supply
Control valve
determine the available pressure. If the circuit is
intended to operate at low pressures, incorrect read
ings are possible if high-pressure (150 psi or 300 psi)
gauges have been installed. Use a pressure gauge with
a full-scale value not over 150% of the expected
working pressure.
7.07 It is possible in a new or recently overhauled
circuit to find components with blockages in the flow
path. You can check for this by starting at the supply
point and working toward the circuit to find where the
restriction exists. When checking out components
Fig. 7-2. A lockout exhaust valve
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Actuator
Electrical supply
O O
o o
J o o
Emergency Control panel
stop
Pilot valves
that can provide a shutoff function, such as speed
controls or needle valves, make certain that none has
been closed.
7.08 If all checks indicate that pressure is avail
able, loosen connectors on components to verify pres
sure at that point. BE SURE to wear eye protection.
Also look for pinched tubing or hose and any ship
ping seals or protectors that may have been left in
place when the component was installed. Make sure
all check valves or control valves (such as four-way
valves) are properly connected, and that all connec
tions match the flow diagram.
7.09 As a safety feature, many new circuits are
furnished with a lockout exhaust valve, like the one
shown in Fig. 7-2. This valve makes it possible for
maintenance personnel to block off part of the circuit
from line pressure. The valve is constructed so locks
can be put on the actuating mechanism making it
impossible for someone to restore air pressure acci
dentally while the circuit is being serviced. If such a
valve is installed and is in the off position, whether
locked or not, make certain that it is safe to restart
the cycle.
Checking Manual Overrides
7.10 Are manual overrides engaged? Before
checking the overrides, turn the air pressure and
electricity off. Then check all overrides and manual
controls to see that they have not been locked into
an actuated position. Check each override by

Fig, 7-3, Direct-operating control valves
operating it and making certain it is free and in a
neutral position.
7.11 Are the manual controls properly posi
tioned? Check manual controls such as levers, push
buttons, and foot treadles that are used to control the
circuit sequence or its emergency actuation to make
certain that they have not overridden the control
sequence of the circuit.
Checking the Circuit Sequence
7.12 Is the circuit in sequence? At times, a circuit
will not start even when supplied with air pressure
and the proper electrical power. This can happen in
some circuits if there is a momentary power loss
(electric and/or pneumatic) while the circuit is in
operation. In some circuits such a loss of power may
put the circuit out of sequence or stop it entirely.
7.13 The problem can be checked out by actuating
each of the controls manually in their proper sequence.
Actuation should begin with the control operated
last—the one that caused the circuit to be in the cycle
position at which it stopped. If the circuit does not
start by manual actuation of the last operating control,
manually actuate the next control in the sequence. If
this does not cause the system to start, make checks
for blockage, loss of power, and tripped overrides.
Checking for Locked Controls
7.14 Are any controls locked (stuck)? Often con
trols become locked. That is, they will not operate
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Troubleshooting Control Valves 99
when their normal actuating signal is applied. If they
are direct-operating controls (mechanical or manual),
such as those shown in Fig. 7-3, you will usually dis
cover the sticking or inability to shift while following
other troubleshooting procedures. Electrically or pres
sure-actuated valves can be checked easily if they
have been provided with manual-override actuators.
7.15 Valves stick and become inoperative for many
reasons. Contamination and improper lubrication are
the most common. Contaminants include chips, sand,
dirt, moisture, and other particles. Most contaminants
are carried along the air line and become lodged in
the controlling element. Some contaminants can be
eliminated if a noncorroding material is used for the
supply lines. Do not use black gas pipe for air lines.
Black pipe is not treated for corrosion resistance and
will rust after coming in contact with moisture.
7.16 Occasionally, sintered metal parts are sup
plied with filters and lubricators. A severe pulsation
of the airstream can break off small pieces of the filter
medium and carry them downstream where they may
be caught between moving parts. In addition, sand
from cores, burrs from machining operations, and
other foreign material are sometimes left in the con
trol component. If circuit problems are caused by
such material, remove and clean the faulty control
element. High-speed flushing, ultrasonic cleaning,
and solvent cleaning are all acceptable.
7.17 From time to time, dirt from the surrounding
atmosphere is introduced into the fluid power system.
»mogal without permisaion.
 A thread sealant is recommended to achieve an
Fig. 7-4. Mechanical interference (excessive
torque) in a control valve effective seal at all threaded joints without
deforming the softer metal parts.

7.19 Mechanical binding also occurs when

excessive torque is applied to the fasteners that
mount the control on a machine member or mani
fold, as illustrated in Fig. 7-4. Check for mechan
ical binding of the control member by backing
the mounting screws out slightly. Control valves
Overtightened using soft gaskets for sealing between the valve
body and its base are most likely to have this
problem. Using the thinnest, hardest gasket that
will still give a seal reduces or eliminates the
This occurs when lines or ports are left open in a dirty problem. Use a torque wrench, set according to
atmosphere. Quick-connect couplings placed ahead of the manufacturer's recommendations, to tighten
control valves can also admit dirt to the system. In nuts or bolts. Also, make certain that the mating
some applications where the action of the exhaust faces are clean, flat, and free of defects.
valve is quite sharp, there is a tendency for the valve
literally to suck in atmospheric air. This occurs at the Electrical Solenoids
end of the cycle as the valve exhaust momentarily
outruns the internal air being exhausted. This condi 7.20 Are the solenoids actuating? Many times
tion is usually solved by installing a muffler on the a control valve is inoperative because the sole
exhaust line to control or regulate the airflow. noid will not actuate the valve. To find out why,
check the solenoid circuit for continuity. Do this
Checking for Mechanical Interference by disconnecting one solenoid lead from the con
trol circuit and taking an ohmmeter reading
7.18 Is there any mechanical interference? Most across the two solenoid leads. If the circuit is
valve malfunctions caused by mechanical interference complete, the ohmmeter will show a resistance of
are a result of improper installation techniques. Valve several ohms for the solenoid coil. (The valve
body deformations are a result of excessive torque manufacturer's literature should give the correct
applied to the valve bodies and connecting pipes. solenoid resistance.)

Fig. 7-5. Solenoid coil electrical resistance readings

i
Shorted Normal Broken wire
ground

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 Troubleshooting Control Valves 101

^ 7.21 A resistance reading of0 Q,as shown in Fig.

7-5, indicates a solenoid winding that is shorted to
ground. Shorted solenoid coils are often caused by
high temperatures or high voltages. An infinite read
ing (oo) across the solenoid coil indicates an open cir
cuit caused by a broken wire. Broken wires result
from something hitting the coil or excessive vibration.

7.22 Other causes for bumed-out solenoid coils

besides those mentioned are: low voltage, interrupted
or improper stroke, and dirt. Before going into the
causes of solenoid failure, it will be helpful to review
how solenoids operate.

7.23 Solenoids are activated by a magnetic field

set up by the flow of electrical current in the coil.
Altemating-current solenoids have a high inrush cur
rent at the start of their stroke. At the end of their
stroke, when the plunger is seated, or sealed, the cur
rent flow decreases. In many solenoids, the ratio of
inrush to sealed current is often 5 or 6 to 1. However,
the rating of the solenoid coil is based on the sealed
or holding current.

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102 Programmed Exercises

7-1. When you troubleshoot a control valve, 7-1. SEQUENCE

check for a circuit that will not start,
miscellaneous equipment problems, Ref: 7.03
and improper of ooeration.

7-2. If the circuit will not start, make 7-2. PNEUMATIC, ELECTRIC
both the and
power are on. Ref: 7.05

7-3. When troubleshooting a blockage in 7-3. PINCHED or KINKED

airflow to a component in a new circuit,
check for tubina or hoses. Ref: 7.08

7-4. Before actuating an override for 7-4. OFF

any control, all of the system
power should be tumed Ref: 7.10

7-5. A control circuit can stop or get out of 7-5. POWER LOSS
sequence if there is a momentary
while the circuit is ooeratina Ref: 7.12

7-6. Small pieces of the filter medium 7-6. PULSATIONS or SHOCK

can break off if the system is
subjected to severe Ref: 7.16

7-7. Most valve malfunctions caused 7-7. INSTALLATION

by mechanical interference are
a result of improper Ref: 7.18

7-8 Often an electrically operated control 7-8. SOLENOID

valve will not operate because the
will not actuate the valve. Ref: 7.20

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Checking an AC Solenoid
7.24 If the voltage supplied to the solenoid coil is
too low, the solenoid will either stroke slowly or
will not complete the stroke at all, stopping short of
the seated position. When this happens, the solenoid
will continue to draw excessive current. The contin
ued high current creates heat that the solenoid is not
designed to handle, causing the coil to bum out.
7.25 An improper or incompleted stroke of the
solenoid plunger is caused by any of several factors.
One of these is the energizing of two opposing sole
noids at the same time. This can be caused by the
improper location of one or more electric limit
switches or an improperly designed or wired circuit.
7.26 Other causes of incomplete stroke are
extreme temperatures, swollen seals, and interfer
ence with control-valve movement. Dirt, rust, bro
ken parts, or any foreign material caught in the con
trol valve can prevent the seating of a solenoid
plunger when the coil is energized. Dust, dirt, or
small particles of magnetic materials are often
attracted into the space between the coil and
plunger, preventing movement of the plunger. Keep
ing the solenoid enclosure securely fastened and
reasonably sealed will help to prevent problems in
the solenoid coil.
7.27 A bumed-out coil can be identified by its
dark appearance or brittle insulation. The cause
(low voltage or improper stroke) can be pinpointed
by checking the voltage at the solenoid during the
"power on" cycle. Whatever the cause of the
improper stroke action, most solenoids cannot toler
ate more than 10 seconds of inrush current before
burning out.
7.28 Solenoids can be protected by using dual-
element fuses rated at the solenoid's sealed current.
This usually keeps the solenoid from burning out.
However,fuses allow the solenoid to heat up, possi
bly causing failures such as intemal shorts or wire
breaks in the coil. This occurs more frequently in
applications that have high cycling rates. The first
sign of any problem is a buzzing noise. This is gen
erated by the solenoid as it repeatedly impacts and
then bounces away from the end position. The buzz
is actually the vibration at the frequency of the
applied voltage.
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Troubleshooting Control Valves 103
Checking a DC Solenoid
7.29 A basic difference between ac solenoids and
dc solenoids is that the dc solenoid coil current is the
same whether it is fiilly open or seated. There is no
high inrush current needed to start a valve member
moving when the solenoid is first energized. Because
the starting and operating current are identical, dc
solenoids are not subject to inrush burnout.
7.30 Direct-current solenoids can bum out under
certain conditions, however. And most conditions
which cause dc bumout are similar to those which
affect ac solenoids. Included are high-voltage surges,
short circuits caused by insulation breakdown as a
result of vibration or shock, and burnouts caused by
high current flow.
Troubleshooting Improper Sequence Operation
7.31 Troubleshooting a pneumatic circuit that is
out of sequence, or does not follow the sequence of
operations it is supposed to perform, is similar to
troubleshooting a nonstarting circuit. The similarity is
in the logical procedures to follow while tracing
through the system, and in the number of components
involved that can cause improper operation and
sequencing problems.
7.32 Pneumatic circuits that have a specific
sequence of operation can malfunction for three basic
reasons. These include valves that shift improperly,
valves that shift without a shift signal, and changes in
the timing of the shift signal. In many cases, two or
more of these malfunctions can occur at the same
time, and can be caused by the same problem. When
you are troubleshooting the system, always look for
more than one cause for a malfunction. Also, look for
more than one possible problem that could result from
the cause of the malfunction when you have identified
it. Never be satisfied that correcting one problem or
cause of a problem will solve all the operating prob
lems of the system.
Improper Valve Shifting
7.33 Many times valves can be shifted manually,
yet the circuit response is still not correct. One reason
for this is directly related to the amount of pressure
available to the circuit. The available pressure can be
checked by connecting temporary gauges (if the
104 Lesson Seven
Fig. 7-6. Maintaining pressure with an accumulator
Supply
V Accumulator
<}-K> V
r{>
Check valve
Sequence veilves
system does not already have them permanently
installed). Air demands from other machines connect
ed to the common air supply may periodically reduce
the air pressure to a point where the circuit is trouble
some. This situation can be corrected by installing an
air chamber or accumulator (with a check valve) to
provide a steady source of air at a reasonably constant
pressure. This solution is diagramed in Fig. 7-6.
7.34 The amount of air available at a valve, like
the amount of pressure, is also crucial to its operation.
Suppose the supply line to a pilot-operated valve is
undersized and the valve is connected to a low-flow
resistance device. In that situation, low flow in the
supply line may cause the valve to hesitate or, in
extreme cases, even fail to shift completely. Restric
tions in the exhaust—such as an oily, wet, or iced
muffler—^may also prevent the valve from shifting.
7.35 If pilot-operated valves are slow in shifting,
there are several things to check for. In addition to
checking the pressure and airflow, make certain that
the air-supply line is fiill-size and unrestricted. Sharp
bends or dents will affect the flow. Wherever possible,
connect pilot pressure lines to external exhausts.
The valve will be able to shift more easily because the
exhaust pressure restrictions that sometimes occur
in manifolds will be minimized. In critical situations,
supply the pilot lines with an external source of
air pressure.
7.36 Momentary contact valves used in sequencing
circuits are usually of the dual solenoid type. To shift
properly, they must be energized for a period of from
15 to 30 milliseconds. Problems occur when the sig
naling or control devices are actuated on the fly. The
electrical impulse then is often too short for the pilot
valve and the main valve to respond. This results in a
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momentary pulse of pressure which short-strokes the
positioning of the valving elements. This, in turn,
causes valve leaks and loss of control.
Valves Shifting Without a Shift Signal
7.37 Most valves subject to shifting without sig
nals are two-position momentary contact valves. Gen
erally, the valve shift is caused by one of two fac
tors—vibration or momentary loss of pressure. If the
valve is subjected to vibration, a detent attachment
will reduce the tendency of the valve to shift. If the
vibration is severe and on the valve centerline, try
moving the valve to another position or at right angles
to the vibration. If this does not work, remove the
valve from the vibrating members.
7.38 When a valve shifts because of momentary
loss of supply pressure, install a volume chamber
ahead of the valve. The chamber will serve as an
accumulator and ensure a constant supply of air. A
check valve can also be used to isolate the chamber
from the rest of the circuit and prevent loss of such
trapped air. Momentary loss of air can occur in both-
common and independently supplied air systems.
Changes in Control Timing
7.39 Timing problems that occur in pneumatic cir
cuits are generally traceable to flow-control
or restricting devices in the circuit. These flow-con
trol devices are similar to the typical pneumatic
speed-control valves shown in Fig. 7-7. Usually, the
problems in these devices are caused by improper set
tings, changes in pressure, or changes in the
metering device.
7.40 The settings of the timing devices seldom
change. If they do, something has loosened. If the
locknut is loose, check and reset the adjustment and
lock the nut. Where severe vibration exists, a special
locking device may be required. Pressure supplied to
the circuit is usually constant and can be checked by
adding a pressure gauge to allow readout. If there is
no pressure regulator in this portion of the circuit, add
one to obtain control.
7.41 The greatest number of timing problems
occur because the metering orifice restriction or vol
ume has changed. This can be caused by dirt, chips,
oil, condensed water, varnish, or any combination of

Fig. 7-7. Flow-control devices
Rxed orifice
these. A restricted orifice in adjustable valves is usu
ally identified by a sharp change in the flow with a
very small change in the flow adjustment. Changes in
timing delays caused by liquids in the volume cham
bers are more difficult to identify. If drying devices
are impractical it may be necessary to resize or relo
cate the control elements.
Miscellaneous Control-Element Problems
7.42 Many control valve malfunctions are caused
by leaks. Leaks in a pneumatic system not only affect
circuit performance, but they are expensive and irri
tating. They can be located with the help of listening
devices, a small piece of tissue paper, or soapsuds.
Applying soapsuds to the connecting joints is proba
bly the most effective, but creates a cleanup problem.
7.43 Whenever a leak is located, it should be
repaired as soon as possible. Interior leaks in compo
nents are usually repaired by replacing the appropri
ate seals or worn parts. Leaks at threaded joints can
be sealed with Teflon® tape. Be sure none of the tape
breaks off and gels carried into the airstream.
7.44 In some systems, circuit leaks are a must and
they should not be closed off. Certain types of regula
tors must be vented if they are to work efficiently.
There are also special control and operating compo
nents that require constant bleedoff. If you think you
have found one of these valves, check the manufactur
er's instruction book before .sealing them.
7.45 Exhaust air noise can sometimes present a
problem in an industrial application. The noise is usu
ally controlled with mufflers, or silencers. Make sure
the units are large enough to prevent any significant
restriction (backpressure) in the exhaust airflow.
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Troubleshooting Control Valves 105
Adjustable
metering valve
Excess backpressure directly affects the operation of
control valves and actuators. Also make sure that the
mufflers are installed so the air blast and any con
densed moisture will not be sprayed at operators or
people passing by.
7.46 Although filtration of all circuits is recom
mended, the filters must be maintained properly if
they are to remove the moisture effectively. Install fil
ters in locations where they will be easy to service.
Where practicable, use an automatic drain device to
dispose of condensed liquid.
Lubrication Problems
7.47 Another important key to good valve opera
tion is good preventive maintenance, particularly
lubrication. Most of the control valves used in pneu
matic systems will stick or bind when they are not
properly lubricated. To ensure adequate lubrication,
meter the lubricating oil into the airstream as close
to the valve as possible. Generally, a light spindle oil
is recommended. Check the manufacturer's instruc
tion manuals for the proper type of oil to be used in
your system.
7.48 Heavy oils are usually not recommended,
because they can gum up or form varnish on the mov
ing parts of the valve and in its bore. This is especial
ly true if the valve remains in one position for long
periods. If varnish does form, clean all of the valve
parts thoroughly, then use a recommended oil.
7.49 Sometimes the lubricant attacks the internal
seals of the control valve. This occurs most frequently
when a nonrecommended lubricant is used. If the
controls stick, check to see if the seals are swollen or
soft. Many commonly used seals swell excessively
(lAegaJ withoul permisaion
106 Lesson Seven
when wetted by certain types of lubricating oils.
Low-grade light oils that seem to be suitable for use
in air-line lubricators frequently cause varnish
buildup and attack the valve seals. When an
improper oil has been used, the air line should be
blown free of the old oil and thoroughly flushed
with new oil.
7.50 Even a lubricant that is normally satisfactory
can cause problems in some cases. Valves that are
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supplied for use with unlubricated air systems will not
tolerate any lubncant on the moving parts at all. If a
lubricant is introduced, the valve freezes.
7.51 However, most valves require a steady diet of
lubricating oil to function properly. In both cases, the
key to proper lubrication is to follow instructions.
Where proper lubrication cannot be maintained,
replace the component with one that will work well
with the rest of the system.
 Troubleshooting Control Valves 107

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108 Programmed Exercises

7-9. Low voltage to the solenoid coll will 7-9. INCOMPLETE

cause a slow or stroke.
Ref: 7.24

7-10. Improper sequence in a pneumatic 7-10. TIMING

circuit is caused by valves that do
not shift properly, valves that shift Ref: 7.32
without a signal, and changes in
the of the sianal.

7-11. If a valve is manually shifted and 7-11. AIR PRESSURE

the circuit response is not correct,
the cause may be low Ref: 7.33

7-12. If a pilot-operated valve is slow in 7-12. AIR-SUPPLY LINE

shifting, you should check the
pressure and airflow, and also make Ref: 7.35
sure that the Is unrestricted.

7-13. To shift properly, momentary 7-13. MILLISECONDS

contact valves must be energized
for a period of 15 to 30 Ref: 7.36

7-14. If a valve shifts because of 7-14. VOLUME CHAMBER

momentary loss of supply pressure,
one solution is to install a(n) Ref: 7.38
ahead of the valve.

7-15. Exhaust mufflers installed on control 7-15. BACKPRESSURE

valves must not create
Ref: 7.45

7-16. Swollen seals in a control valve usually 7-16. LUBRICANT

indicate that an improper
was used in the pneumatic system. Ref: 7.49

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 Self-Check Quiz 109

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

7-1. Which of the following Items should be 7-6. What will cause a slow or incomplete
checked when you are troubleshooting a solenoid stroke?
control valve?
□ a. High voltage
□ a. A circuit that will not start □ b. Low voltage
□ b. Improper circuit sequence □ c. High current
□ c. Miscellaneous equipment problems □ d. A short circuit
□ d. All of the above

7-7. What is the optimum energizing time required

7-2. If a control valve will not supply air to the
to shift a momentary contact valve?
actuator even if all checks indicate pressure
Is available, check for
□ a. 1 to 5 milliseconds
□ b. 5 to 10 milliseconds
□ a. an open safety valve
□ c. 15 to 30 milliseconds
□ b. pinched tubing
□ d. 1 to 3 seconds
□ c. a frozen actuator
□ d. an open circuit
7-8. Problems in timing circuits are usually
7-3. In some circuits, a momentary power loss traceable to
during operation can
□ a. solenoids
□ a. damage the tubing □ b. directional control valves
□ b trip a manual override □ c. flow control valves
□ c. short out a solenoid □ d. slow moving actuators
□ d. put the circuit out of sequence
7-9. What Is the best source of Information about
7-4. Mechanical Interference In a malfunctioning
the type of oil to use with a control valve?
control valve is usually caused by
□ a. Manufacturer's Instruction manual
□ a. Improper Installation of the valve
□ b. Local oil dealer
□ b. Improper selection of the valve
□ c. Dally work sheet
□ c. moisture In the system
□ d. All of the above
□ d. excessive operation

7-5. One of the major causes of electrical 7-10. What do swollen seals in a control valve
valve malfunction Is usually Indicate?

□ a. an Inoperative solenoid valve □ a. The system contains moisture

□ b. excessive air pressure □ b. The system Is not lubricated
□ c. an overextended cylinder □ c. Improper lubricant was used
□ d. Insufficient mainline pressure □ d. The valve cycles too frequently

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110 Lesson Seven

SUMMARY

When troubleshooting a control valve, you must Improper valve shifting occurs when the wrong
check for a nonstarting or nonoperative circuit, pressure or wrong amount of air is available at
improper sequencing of the circuit, and problems the valve. Improper shifting can cause problems
related to the equipment. If the circuit will not in the sequence of operations. Valves can
start, even with all cycle-initiating and sequencing shift without receiving a signal if subjected to
requirements met, check to make sure that electri vibration or momentary loss of pressure.
cal and pneumatic power are available. Check out Sequencing problems are also caused by
components that can shut off, lock out,or over changes In control timing, usually due to
ride functions. Turn off the air pressure and elec some restriction in the metering orifice.
tricity liefore checking manual overrides.
Leaks In the system and faulty lubrication are
A defective solenoid can also cause control other reasons for control valve malfunctions.
valve failure. To check for failure causes,
replace the solenoid and observe its action
in the operating circuit.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

7-1. d. All of the above. Ref: 7.03 7-6. b. Low voltage. Ref: 7.24

7-2. b. Pinched tubing. Ref: 7.08 7-7. c. 15 to 30 milliseconds. Ref: 7.36

7-3. d. Put the circuit out of sequence. 7-8. c. Flow control valves. Ref: 7.39
Ref: 7.12
7-9. a. Manufacturer's instruction manual.
7-4. a. Improper installation of the valve. Ref: 7.47
Ref: 7.18, Fig. 7-4
7-10. c. Improper lubricant was used.
7-5. a. An inoperative solenoid valve. Ref: 7.49
Ref: 7.20

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 7-2. Westinghouse Air Brake co., Fluid Power Div.

Figure 7-3. Ross operating Valve Co.

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Lesson Eight

Troubteshooting
Cylinders

fr.
,r',<

VO^:

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

Troubleshooting Cylinders

TOPICS

Cylinder Definitions Checking for Misalignment

Cylinder Construction Worn Packings
Troubleshooting and Repair General Installation Techniques
Correct Cylinder Size Speed Controls
Adequate Air Pressure

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Define the different types of pneumatic cylinders. Explain general installation techniques for cylinders
• Describe the construction of a typical cylinder. and accessories.
• Describe the proper procedures for troubleshooting
cylinders, including checking for misalignment, worn
packings, and adequate air pressure.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Linear actuator 8.01 a control device that Threaded cylinder 8.04 a type of pneumatic
converts energy into straight-line motion cylinder in which the heads are screwed onto
Tie-rod cylinder 8.03 a common type of pneu the tube
matic cylinder consisting of four rods holding the Welded cylinder 8.04 a type of pneumatic cylin
heads in position on the cylinder body or tube der in which the heads are welded to the tube

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Cylinders are probably the most common type of pneumatic actuator in the
industrial plant today. Without a cylinder many machine toois and fixture jigs
would not be able to perform their operations. Because of the way they are
actuated and used, cyiinders require a good part of the maintenance
craftsman's time.
Aithough pneumatic cylinders require only a few basic maintenance checks to
keep them operating, these steps must be performed on a reguiar basis. This
Lesson describes the pneumatic cyiinder's more common maintenance
requirements and suggested maintenance procedures. It also points out some
of the operating problems that occur when cylinders do not receive sufficient
air. AH of this information is necessary if you are to troubieshoot pneumatic
cylinders properly.
Cylinder Definitions
8.01 Because pneumatic cylinders convert the
energy of compressed air into straight-line motion,
they are often referred to as linear actuators. During
operation, the air pressure acting on the piston surface
creates a force that is sufficient to move the piston.
The result of the force moving through a distance is
work, which is represented by the formula: work =
force X stroke.
8.02 Pneumatic cylinders are manufactured in a
variety of diameters, stroke lengths, and mounting
arrangements. Although the physical construction of
the different cylinders varies, the operating functions
are identical. Based on construction, the three most
common types of pneumatic cylinders are: tie-rod,
threaded, and welded. Several other cylinder types are
also available, however, as shown in Fig. 8-1 on the
following page.
8.03 Tie-rod cylinders are used for most industrial
applications. They usually have four rods holding
the heads in position on the cylinder body or
tube. Although a tie rod cylinder is the easiest type of
pneumatic cylinder to repair, it also has some disad
vantages that are directly related to its construction.
These advantages will be discussed later in
this Lesson.
8.04 Threaded cylinders have the heads screwed
onto the tube. They are manufactured without tie rods.
This construction is common in the food machinery
industry, where cleanliness is important. Welded
cylinders have the heads welded onto the tube. They
are similar in shape to threaded cylinders. Welded
cylinders are generally considered nonrepairable.
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113
They are replaced completely when they wear out.
Some other nonrepairable cylinders include retaining
rings in their assembly or a formed connection
between the head and tube.
Cylinder Construction
8.05 Because the cylinder is the component that
actually performs the work in a pneumatic system,the
materials used in its construction are important. To
troubieshoot cylinders properly, you must know the
various materials used in their construction.
8.06 The major parts of a pneumatic cylinder are
the heads, tube, piston, piston rod, rod bearing, tie
rods, and seals. All are subject to wear,stress, and cor
rosion. The material specified for cylinder construc
tion varies depending on the manufacturer and the
^plication. The materials discussed in this Lesson are
the ones commonly used by most manufacturers.
8.07 Cylinder heads are usually made from plate
steel or cast iron. In some instances they are made
from aluminum or bronze. Although the heads are not
subjected to wear due to motion, they are subject to
corrosion. Corrosion has little effect on the strength of
the head, but it does provide a warning that there is
difficulty in the rest of the system, particularly in the
filtration and water removal sections.
8.08 Pneumatic cylinder tubes are usually plated
brass or steel. The inside of the tube is usually plated
to improve its service life and reduce corrosion.
Cylinders subjected to extremely corrosive atmos
phere may also be plated on the outside. For some
applications, the tubes are made of aluminum or
fiberglass. Aluminum tubing is used where weight is
Fig. 8-1. Types of pneumatic cylinders

a factor. Fiberglass is used in corrosive environments or
where the cylinder has to operate without lubrication.
8.09 Pistons vary in shape and in construction
materials, as shown in Fig. 8-2. However, most are
made from cast iron. The methods used to attach
the piston to the piston rod also vary. Most manu
facturers use threaded connections with pins or
locking nuts. If the piston is fitted with cushions,
they may be an integral part of the piston, or may
be attached.
8.10 In addition to being furnished with two piston
rings, most pistons have an 0-ring located between
the piston and the piston rod. This inner seal does not
present a maintenance problem, but care should be
used when assembling the piston to the rod to avoid
damaging the seal.
8.11 Piston rods are generally made from high-
strength steel that is turned, ground, and polished.
Many are then hard chrome plated for protection from
wear and corrosion. The rods may or may not be case

Fig. 8-2. Piston constructions

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 Troubleshooting Cylinders 115

hardened, depending on the manufacturer, but case- Fig. 8-4. Cross sections of formed seals
hardened rods are by far the more commonly used.

8.12 Food-processing plants or areas where the

atmospheric conditions are corrosive usually require
stainless-steel piston rods. In such cases the stainless
steel is selected for its high corrosion resistance. The
rod may also be chrome plated for wear resistance. If
the rod material is not readily identified, a magnet can Static sea s

be used to determine if the material is steel. If the Piston seals

magnet does not stick, the material is stainless steel.

8.13 Most industrial pneumatic cylinders are sup

plied with a bushing (or gland) in the front head. This
gland acts as a support, or bearing, for the piston rod
as it travels back and forth during its work cycle. As
shown in Fig. 8-3, this gland also acts as a retainer for
the rod packing or seals. Most glands are made from
Viton®. The seal shapes most commonly used are
ductile iron or bronze. Usually they can be removed
shown as cross sections in Fig. 8^. These shapes apply
from the front of the cylinder without disassembling
to both piston and piston-rod seals. O-rings generally
the entire unit. Again, care must be exercised during
are used for static seals, such as head-to-tube, piston-
assembly to prevent damaging the seals.
to-rod, and head-to-gland. The V-cup-shaped packings
8.14 A piston-rod wiper (or scraper) is usually are used for .sealing the piston and piston rod.
installed on the outermost portion of the gland
to remove any dirt or contamination from the piston 8.16 Most pneumatic cylinder seals have a maxi
rod. In addition to removing dirt from the piston rod, mum heat resistance of ISO to 200^ (82 to 93''C).
the wiper keeps foreign material from being drawn Applications that involve higher temperatures or other
into the packings. A second seal placed farther inside harmful conditions require special seals. Most
the gland acts as a packing gland, sealing the cylinder manufacturers offer recommendations for
cylinder pressure. such conditions.

8.15 The seals used in pneumatic cylinders are gen 8.17 Many times the selection of the packing for a
erally made from Buna-N rubber, polyurethane, or cylinder is determined by the plant engineering or

Viton® is a registered trademari; of E.l.DuPoiit De Ncmours & Co.. Inc.

Fig. 8-3. Piston rod gland parts

Cylinder head

Piston _
rod seal Piston rod

Rod wiper
Piston rod gland
Gland seal-

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116 Lesson Eight

maintenance departments. Usually, they are best • Is there misalignment between the cylinder
qualified to know the conditions under which the and the load it is to move?
cylinder is to operate. When examining a cylinder
for a potential heat problem, remember that the • Are the piston packings or piston-rod
cylinder itself generates heat through internal packings wom,allowing pressure to escape?
friction. The ambient temperature is not the only
factor to consider. This is especially true of You should check each of these items whenever
nonlubricated applications. you are troubleshooting a pneumatic cylinder.
They are discussed in the following paragraphs.
8.18 Buna-N and polyurethane are popular mate
rials used for cylinder seals. Of these, polyurethane Correct Cylinder Size
has higher resistance to abrasion and a longer wear
life than does Buna-N. However, both of these 8.22 As a rule, cylinder size does not have to be
materials have temperature limitations of about checked in a system that has been in operation for any
200°F (93°C). Other materials are required for length of time. These cylinders have already proven
applications where heat is a problem. their ability to perform the jobs for which they were
selected. If the system is a new one, however, or an old
system that has had its load requirements increased,
8.19 Viton® has good heat-resistant characteris
you should check the cylinder size as part of the
tics, to about 350"? (177°C). If higher heat
troubleshooting procedure.
resistance is necessary. Teflon® can be used. Teflon
will withstand heat of approximately 500°F
8.23 When checking cylinder size, check not only
(260''C). However, before using these seal materi
the cyhnder, but the size and position of the part is has
als, check with the individual manufacturer for
to move. Many times, the cylinder is adequate for nor
his recommendations.
mal operation, but the load it has to move is larger than
normal. If this is the case, check the ^plication to see
8.20 Tie rods usually are made of high tensile if the larger load occurs with any regularity. If larger
strength steel with either cut or rolled threads, and loads are handled frequently, then the cylinder size
are prestressed by the manufacturer during should be increased.
assembly. Tie-rod nuts may or may not be of the
locking type. Prestressing with the proper amount Adequate Air Pressure
of torque usually eliminates the need for locknuts.
Although tie rods themselves require very little or 8.24 Insufficient air volume or air pressure can be
no maintenance, they do present a problem when caused by many factors. Many times the air supply to
the pneumatic cylinder is overhauled or repaired. the cylinder becomes blocked, making the unit inopera
Often they are improperly torqued, which causes tive. Another reason is an improperly sized compressor.
internal misalignment. Once you determine that the compressor is not the
problem, the next thing to do is to check the regulator
Troubleshooting and Repair setting. Make sure it is set for the operating pressure
required by the system.
8.21 Probably the first knowledge you will have of
a cylinder problem is when the unit fails to operate or 8.25 If the regulator setting is correct, check for line
perform the function for which it is intended. In that blockage. You can trace for blockage by working back
case, you must usually answer the following questions: from the cylinder. First, check the muffler or exhaust
ports. Next, check any speed-control valves in the sys
• Has the correct cylinder been chosen to do tem. These valves should be installed with a restricted
the job? exhaust and a fi-ee flow into the cylinder. (Usually,
there is an arrow or other mark on the valve showing
• Is the air pressure at the cylinder adequate for the proper flow direction.) Examine them for proper
the force required? orientation and fiee air passage.
®Viton and Teflon are reisteied trademarks of E. I. du Font de Nemours & Co.,Inc.
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8.26 Usually,the next item to check is the direction
al control valve. This valve may be any one of many
styles and types. Lesson Seven explained the various
inspections used to tell if the valve is passing air or is
blocked. Be sure the valve port is fully open to the
cylinder. Check for both internal restrictions and full
shifting of the valve. In addition, check the valve con
trols(solenoids or pilot valves)if they are included.
8.27 The filter/regulator unit is next in sequence.
Although the regulator has been previously checked for
proper setting, it should now be examined for blockage
or malfunction. To check for a malfunction in the regu
lator, discoimect the lines behind the control valve and
shift the valve. Many times a leaking diaphragm will
indicate satisfactory pressure when the system is at rest,
but will not function when demand air is required.
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Troubleshooting Cylinders 117
8.28 Next, check the filter screen and the vari
ous passages in the unit. Clogged filters are a
common source of trouble. Although they do not
completely stop the airflow, they reduce it to a
level which causes the system to malfunction.
From the filter back to the main line is usually
nothing but piping. Check this for breaks, leaks,
and blockage.
8.29 If the installation is outdoors or is subject
ed to low temperatures, check for frozen air lines.
Condensed water accumulates at the low spots in a
system and can block the air supply if it freezes. If
possible, install drain plugs in these low spots and
check them periodically for water. If moisture is a
continuing problem, it will be necessary to install
an air dryer to solve the problem.
118 Programmed Exercises

8-1. Most industrial applications 8-1. TIE-ROD

call for cviinders.
Ref: 8.03

8-2. Corrosion on a cylinder head does not 8-2. FILTRATION, WATER REMOVAL
affect its strength very much, but it does
indicate difficulty with the system Ref: 8.07
and sections.

8-3. State two reasons for 8-3. IMPROVE THE SERVICE LIFE,
plating the inside of cylinder tubes. REDUCE CORROSION

Ref: 8.08

8-4. Stainless-steel piston rods are 8-4. CORROSION

used in food-processing equipment
because they are resistant. Ref: 8.12

8-5. A gland or bushing acts as a(n) 8-5. BEARING

for the piston rod.
Ref: 8.13

8-6. What is the purpose of the piston-rod 8-6. REMOVE DIRT FROM THE PISTON
wiper? ROD

Ref: 8.14

8-7. Most seals used in pneumatic 8-7. 200

cylinders can withstand temperatures
of up to ®F. Ref: 8.16

8-8. The need for iocknuts may be 8-8. PRESTRESSING

eliminated by the cvlinder
tie rods. Ref: 8.20

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 Troubleshooting Cylinders 119

Checking for Misalignment

Fig. 8-5. Piston-rod scoring
8.30 Misalignment is a very common cylinder
trouble. Misalignment can be either internal (within
the cylinder) or external (between the cylinder and
another component). External misalignment is the Piston rod
more common, occurring in the form of side-loading.
This means that the thrust of the cylinder piston rod is
Cylinder
not in a straight line (for fixed-mounted cylinders).
Score marks
8.31 Sideloading can u.sually be identified by wear
marks on the pi.ston rod and rod gland. As shown in
Fig. 8-5, the longitudinal wear marks appear on the
piston rod opposite the side where the bending force
is applied. These marks are caused by the rod rubbing
against the side of the gland. Sometimes the misalign
ment will appear in the fomi of chatter marks on the
piston rod. Chatter marks can be detected both by
sight and by touch. They indicate that they cylinder is 8.35 Improper tie-rod torque can be another source
of internal misalignment. When the tie-rod nuts are
not traversing smoothly. The gland will also show evi
dence of this rubbing.
tightened, they must be torqued in a manner that pre
vents the heads from tilting or cocking. They should
8.32 If the sideloading is severe enough, the piston be tightened equally in small amounts, and in a cross-
rod may break. In most cases the break will be at the corner manner. If the heads are not square with the
undercut sections of the rod where it is threaded and
centerline of the cylinder, the piston rod will bind in
attached either to the load or to the piston. In addition, the gland, as shown in Fig. 8-6. Although the rod will
external misalignment is usually transmitted back to
score, as it does in external misalignment, the rod and
load connections will match.
the piston, causing it to score the I.D. of the tube.

8.33 To troubleshoot a cylinder for external mis 8.36 Double-ended cylinders are generally more
alignment, cycle the cylinder without the load susceptible to internal misalignment than single-
attached. The cylinder should stroke smoothly with ended cylinders because of the two piston rods con
out the load. Also, by extending the loose piston rod, nected at the central piston. The combination of
you can see if it mates easily with the load connec
tion. If it does not, align the cylinder to eliminate the
sideloading. If the cylinder is pivot mounted, check
for binding at the pivot points. There areas should be Fig. 8-6. Results of improper tie-rod torque
well lubricated, and the pivot points should be exam
ined for centerline error. Cylinder
Tie rods

8.34 Internal misalignment occurs between the

piston and the piston rod. To prevent this problem, the Piston
piston must be securely attached to the piston rod. If Piston rod rod gland
the cylinder appears to be binding without the load, it
is probably caused by a loose piston. Score marks on
the tube and not on the piston rod indicate a loose pis interference
ton. The cylinder will not operate long under these
conditions, and the tube and packing will be
destroyed quickly. Most manufacturers prevent this
by using some type of locknut or lockpin at the pis- End caps

ton-to-rod connection.
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120 Lesson Eight
piston-to-rod connection and the two glands in the
heads increases the probability of internal misalign
ment Although the cylinders are properly assembled
at the manufacturer's plant, problems can develop
during shipment and installation.
Worn Packings
8.37 The items replaced most often on a pneumat
ic cylinder are the packings and seals. Even under
normal operating conditions, these items wear out and
require replacement. Piston rod packings are usually
simple to replace. In most instances, the gland can be
removed easily from the cylinder head after the cylin
der is disconnected from the load.
8.38 After removing the gland, you can remove the
old piston rod packing and wiper, and install the new
parts. Examine the gland for wear and clean it. If it is
worn or damaged, replace it. Exercise care when
installing the new packing to prevent cutting or nick
ing the lips of the seals.
8.39 Piston leakage can be caused by worn seals or
a scored tube. To check for such leakage, move the
piston to fiill stroke and check the exhaust port of the
valve for a continued passage of air. If air continues to
leak from the exhaust port, remove the piston from the
cylinder to replace the packing. After removing the old
packing, clean the piston and install the new packing.
8.40 With the piston removed, clean and examine
the tube I.D. If it is scored, replace the tube. Also
examine the connection between the piston and the
rod, making sure that the piston is fastened securely
to the rod. While the cylinder heads are disassembled,
check the cushion seals for signs of wear.
8.41 Generally, cushion problems are quite obvious.
Either the cushions do not work or they work too much,
causing boimce. If the piston is banging into the cylin
der head, the cause may be a faulty cushion or poor
adjustment. If adjustments to the needle screw do not
help, the cushion parts are probably wom. Usually the
cushion seals wear first. However,check the sleeves for
score marks while the cylinder is disassembled.
8.42 Before assembling the cylinder, make sure the
new O-ring seals are installed between the tube and
the heads. When these new seals are in place, carefully
insert the piston into the tube. Assembly and
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disassembly procedures are easier if you use a manu-
facturer's parts drawing like the one shown in Fig. 8-7.
After the cylinder is assembled and installed, adjust
the cushion action until a smooth stop is attained.
General Instaliatlon Techniques
8.43 Early failures in pneumatic systems are often
due to poor installation techniques. The failures can
be reduced by following a few simple procedures.
When cylinders are shipped from the manufactmers,
the ports are sealed by some type of port plug. These
plugs protect the intemal parts by sealing out damag
ing dirt and grit that could enter during transit or stor
age. Do not remove these plugs until you are ready to
connect the piping.
8.44 Before connecting any components, wipe
and/or blow all pipe and fittings clean of dirt, scale,
and thread chips. BE SURE to wear eye protection.
Many seemingly sound installations have failed to
operate properly because of failure to follow these
elementary procedures.
8.45 Accurate moimting and alignment are essen-
tial to proper cylinder performance. By eliminating
sideloading, you increase packing and bearing life. As
shown in Fig. 8-8 on page 122, mounting surfaces
must be straight and parallel for fixed-mounted cylin
ders. Make sure the end of the piston rod is properly
aligned before you bolt the cylinder rigidly into posi
tion. Use shims where necessary to accomplish this
alignment. Foot-mount or end-lug cylinders should
have fitted bolts or dowels to prevent them from shift
ing during their work cycle.
8.46 Bearings for pin or trunnion mountings must
be parallel and in line. Also, the action of the piston
rod and the device to which it is connected must be in
the same plane. Any deflection in the piston rod as it
is extending can put sideloading stresses on the unit.
Remember that even though a pivot-mounted cylinder
arcs as it travels throughout its stroke, this arc is still
in a single plane.
8.47 Dirt or abrasive material adhering to the pis
ton rod can cause excessive rod and gland wear>-
Although the purpose of the wiper is to remove such .
foreign matter, many times the accumulation is more
than the wiper can handle. This may be the case in
welding shops and foundry applications. A piston-rod

Fig.8-7. A cylinder parts drawing
boot, like the one drawn in Fig. 8-9 on the following
page, will often solve this problem. Remember, how
ever, that the boot is vulnerable to damage and must
be inspected regularly.
8.48 Sometimes an accessory such as an eye, cle
vis, or bracket (Fig. 8-10 on the following page) is
attached to the piston rod. When you connect any of
these items to a piston rod with a pin or jamnut, use
the wrench flats for holding the rod. NEVER use
a pipe wrench on the rod itself. Pipe-wrench marks
damage the finish and eventually ruin the wiper
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Troubleshooting Cylinders 121
IDA
10A
and packing. Also, make sure the pivot points have
lubrication fittings.
8.49 Cylinder lubrication is necessary for proper
cylinder performance, unless the unit has special
packings for dry air. Interrupted or infi-equent action
of the cylinder can often cause a lack of lubrication. A
regular system of planned maintenance and/or posi
tive lubrication is the best way to prevent this prob
lem. Make sure the lubricators are not placed too far
away from the cylinder to perform as desired. The
closer they are to the cylinder, the better.
Fig. 8-8. Using shims for cylinder mounting Fig. 8-9. Piston rod boots

Para e ines—

liUill
Mounting surface Cylinder Piston rod

8.50 Cushions and speed-control valves are two
factors in problems with cylinder speed. Give proper
attention to these two items during installation. Near
ly all cylinders can be obtained with an internal cush
ion. The amount of cushion effect is usually
adjustable. It should allow the piston to come to a
smooth stop without banging.
8.51 Note in Fig. 8-11 that, as the piston approach
es the end of its stroke, the cushion sleeve (or spear)
enters the cylinder head and restricts the flow of
air from the port. The shape and design of the cushion
sleeve, along with the mating portion in the cylinder
head, determine how quickly the air passage is closed
off. The air trapped in the cylinder is then bled
off through the needle valve adjustment. Therefore,
this adjustment is critical to the performance of
the cushion.
8.52 Remember that the only function of the cush
ions is to protect the cylinder from damage. They
should not be used for dissipating the energy of the
moving load attached to the cylinder piston rod.
8.53 External stopping devices are used to absorb
moving-load energy. They may be springs, rubber
bumpers, other cylinders, or hydraulic shock
absorbers. In all instances, they are installed to stop
the load before the cylinder piston reaches the end of
its stroke.
Speed Controls
8.54 Speed-control valves work on the same prin
ciple as the cushion—restricted airflow. However, the
speed-control valve acts during the entire stroke of the
cylinder, not just near the end of the stroke. It is the

Fig. 8-10. Cylinder accessory attachments

Eye bracket

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speed-control valve that governs or regulates the
action of the cylinder, ensuring its smooth travel.
Without a speed-control valve, the cylinder could
advance or retract very quickly. In fact, some speed
controls permit fast flow in one direction and restrict
ed flow in the opposite direction.
8.55 Remember one additional point about speed
control—the speed of an air cylinder is a function of
the airflow. Therefore, make sure that the piping,
valving, and ports are large enough for the speed
required. Little is gained by increasing the cylinder
Fig. 8-11. Cylinder cushion parts
(iiii
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Troubleshooting Cylinders 123
size without increasing the air-supply lines corre
spondingly. Increasing the pipe size without increas
ing port size will also have a limited effect on airflow.
8.56 An existing cylinder is often required to give
increased speed. In such cases the port size may be
the only factor that prevents the increased speed.
Usually, the ports can be increased in size. Where
it is not possible, additional ports may be the solu
tion. Cylinders with more than one port are becoming
common, especially in high-speed automated
foundry equipment.
124 Programmed Exercises

8-9. What are the two types of pneumatic 8-9. EXTERNAL,INTERNAL

cylinder misalignment?
Ref: 8.30

8-10. When troubleshooting a 8-10. LOAD

cylinder for extemal misalignment,
first disconnect the Ref: 8.33

8-11. The pneumatic cylinder parts 8-11. PACKINGS

replaced most frequently
are the and seals. Ref: 8.37

8-12. Early pneumatic system failure 8-12. INSTALLATION

is often a result of poor
techniques. Ref: 8.43

8-13. Good cylinder performance 8-13. ALIGNMENT

depends on accurate mounting
and of the cylinder. Ref: 8.45

8-14. The piston rod can be protected 8-14. BOOT

in extremely dirty applications
bv usina a oiston-rod Ref: 8.47

8-15. Infrequent cylinder action 8-15. LUBRICATION

can result in improper
cylinder Ref: 8.49

8-16. The function of an internal 8-16. CYLINDER

cushion is to protect the
from damage. Ref: 8.52

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 Self-Check Quiz 125

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

8-1, Pneumatic cylinders are 8-6. What is the probabie result of improperly
frequently referred to as torquing the tie rods on a pneumatic cylinder?

□ a. nonrotating actuators □ a. Piston-rod faiiure

□ b. linear actuators □ b. Cyiinder head failure
□ c. horizontai positioners □ c. Cushion failure
□ d. verticai rams □ d. Internal misalignment

8-7. Troubieshooting a pneumatic cylinder

8-2. Plating the I.D. of a cyiinder tube for externai misalignment shouid
effectively improves its be done with the

□ a. service life □ a. air pressure increased

□ b. strength □ b. system in automatic operation
□ c. appearance □ c. cylinder disassembled
□ d. lubrication qualities □ d. load disconnected

8-8. During installation, which of the

8-3. The major reason for using a
following items has the greatest
stainiess-steei piston rod is its
effect on cylinder performance?
□ a. improved strength
□ a. Placement of the filter
□ b. improved appearance
□ b. Placement of the lubricator
□ c. corrosion resistance
□ c. Alignment with the load
□ d. nonmagnetic qualities
□ d. Number of connections

8-4. Piston-rod packing glands are usually located The best way to protect the piston rod from
wear in an abrasive environment is to use a
□ a. inside the piston-rod bushing
□ b. on the end of the cushion □ a. piston-rod boot
□ c. outside the rod bushing □ b. piston-rod wiper
□ d. inside the cyiinder head □ c. piston-rod pressure seal
□ d. double-ended cylinder

8-5. What is the maximum temperature 8-10. Proper lubrication of infrequently used
limit for most pneumatic cylinder seals? cylinders can be best accomplished by

□ a. 150°F □ a. special oils

□ b. IBCF □ b. planned maintenance
□ c 200°F □ c. heavy-duty lubricators
□ d. 225^ □ d. doubling the normal oil consumption

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126 Lesson Eight

SUMMARY
W
Pneumatic cyiinders require oniy a few basic When a cyiinder problem occurs, you must check
maintenance checks, but these must be per four things—^the size of the cyiinder,the air pres
formed on a reguiar basis,in order to maintain sure at the cyiinder,the alignment between the
pneumatic cyiinders, you must be famiiiar with cyiinder and the load,and the piston or piston rod
their construction and use. According to their packing.The air supply to the cylinder must not be
construction, pneumatic cyiinders are ciassed as blocked, and the compressor should be the right
tie-rod, threaded,or weided cyiinders. The major size for the system. Misalignment(Internal or
parts of the cyiinder are the heads,tube, piston external) is a common problem,as are worn pack
and rods, rod bearing ,tie rods, and seais. Cyiin ings and seais, which must be replaced regularly.
der heads are usuaiiy made from piate steei or
cast iron. The tubes are plated brass or steei, in Correct cyiinder Installation helps prevent prob
most cases,and the insides are usuaiiy plated. lems later. Make sure cyiinders are clean, accu
Most pistons are cast iron and are attached to the rately mounted and aligned, and correctly lubricat
piston rod with pins or locking nuts. ed according to the manufacturer's Instructions.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

8-1. b. Linear actuators. Ret: 8.01 8-6. d. Intemal misalignment. Ref: 8.20

8-2. a. Sen/ice life. Ref: 8.08 8-7. d. Load disconnected. Ref: 8.33

8-3. c. Corrosion resistance. Ref: 8.12 8-8. c. Alignment with the load. Ref: 8.45

8-4. a. Inside the piston-rod bushing. 8-9. a. Piston-rod boot. Ref: 8.47
Ref: 8.13,8.14
8-10. b. Planned maintenance. Ref: 8.49
8-5. 0. 200®F. Ref:8.16

Contributionsfrom the foliowing sources are appreciated:

Figure 8-1. Westinghouse Air Brake Co., Ruld Power DIv. Hanna
Dlv., REX Ruld Power Group Galland Henning Mfg.
Co. Blmba Mfg. Co. Aienair Corp.
Rgure 8-3. Hanna Div., REX Fluid Power Group
Figure 8-7. Westinghouse Air Brake Co., Fluid Power Div.
Figure 8-10. Parker-Hannifin
Figure 8-11. Hanna Div., Rex Fluid Power Group

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Lesson Nine

Troubleshooting
Air Motors

xr.
,r.,<

\o-

TPC Training Systems

 Lesson

n Troubleshooting Air Motors

TOPICS

Uses for Air Motors Air-Motor Troubleshooting

Checking for Sufficient Air Vane Motors
Contaminated Air Radial-Piston Motors
Lubrication Axial-Piston Air Motors
Air-Motor Abuse Percussion Tools
Hose and Clamp Maintenance

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain how to check for sufficient clean air when Describe the operation and maintenance of vane,
troubleshooting an inoperative air motor. radial piston, and axial-piston air motors.
• Explain how to keep hoses, clamps, and couplings in
good condition.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Drip lubricator 9.13 a type of in-line lubricator Bridge 9.46 the bottom part of the barrel of a
that admits small drops of lubricant to the percussion tool
airstream, to be carried to the air motor as a mist

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Troubleshooting air motors Is usually a fairly simple task. Generally, air-motor
malfunctions develop as a result of troubles In the air-supply system ahead of
the air motor, or are caused by mechanical failures of the Internal parts of the
motor. Internal failure can be traced to contaminated air or lack of lubrication.
Operator abuse of the motor also contributes to mechanical failure. All of these
problems and their corrections are discussed In this Lesson.
Good, planned maintenance practices for portable air tools are described In
detail. This Lesson also covers the proper procedures for their preventive
maintenance and repair.
Uses for Air Motors
9.01 Industrial air motors generally are limited to
applications such as small-sized mixing motors, pump
motors, and air-operated hoists. A large number of air
motors, however, are used for small- and medium-
sized portable pneumatic tools. Basically, air motors
used in tools and other pneumatic equipment are of
the same design and construction as other air motors.
They differ only in the way in which they are used,
and in the types of housings in which they are placed.
9.02 There are two things to consider when trou
bleshooting an inoperative air motor:
• Is there sufficient air at the air motor?
• Is there something wrong with the air motor itself?
Both questions must be answered if you are to trou-
bleshoot the air motor properly. For your benefit,
these two troubleshooting considerations are dis
cussed in separate sections in this Lesson.
Checking for Sufficient Air
9.03 Although pneumatic motors are machined to
close tolerances, they are designed to operate under
severe conditions. Without a sufficient supply of properly
treated air, however, they will not fimction at peak effi
ciency. Planned maintenance of the air-supply system
makes troubleshooting easier. If you know tiie air-supply
system has been maintained properly, the air supply is
easy to check and rule out as a cause ofsystem problems.
9.04 Troubles in the air-supply system that lead to
improper operation of an air motor can be traced to
four main causes:
contaminated eiir
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129
• improper lubrication
• abuse of the air motor (particularly in
portable tools)
• poor air-supply equipment(hoses and piping).
These causes, their effect on the pneumatic motors,
and the ways to correct them are described in the fol
lowing portions of this Lesson.
Contaminated Air
9.05 The importance of clean air to the operating
components has been stressed throughout previous
Lessons. Air motors are no different. Without clean,
filtered air, air motors will have a limited service life.
This is especially true of high-speed motors in
portable tools.
9.06 Generally, the installation of
^terj^op legs, coolers, and separators wULreduce
the amount of moisture aiid solid contain^ants car
ried through the air-supply system. However, if these
devices are to be effective, they must be properly
installed and maintained on a regular basis. The sug
gested order and placement of different components
in the air-supply system is shown in Fig. 9-1 on the
following page.
9.07 Aftercoolers, separators, and water traps in
the air line reduce the work load placed on filters.
They do not take the place of filters, however. Filters
are necessary to remove the finer particles not trapped
by these moisture-removing components.
9.08 Traps should be installed where they will be
the most useful. If they are to be effective, they
should not be positioned haphazardly. The best posi
tions include low points in the piping, low flow rate
130 Lesson Nine

Fig. 9-1. Placement of air-treatment equipment

/S\
=—EZ

Aftercooler
Water leg Cool room Water legs
Receiver
Compressor Lubricator Lubricator Lubricator

Si!
Filters
Filter To air tool To air tool To air tool

Regulator Regulator Regulator

places, and in areas immediately after cool-tempera
ture areas. Automatic moisture drains are always a
help. They are required especially where the traps are
installed in locations that make hand draining imprac
tical. In plant installations with a large air system and
many traps, automatic moisture drains are a must.
9.09 When selecting the filters for a pneumatic
system, you must consider the required degree of
Fig.9-2. Location of tool strainers
filtration. Choose filters of ample size to achieve max
imum efficiency with a minimum restriction of air
flow in the compressed-air system. Most air-motor
manufacturers will recommend specific air-filter sizes
for specific installations.
9.10 Although filters are installed in the pneumatic
system, most manufacturers install a fine-mesh strain
er within the air motor. These strainers are located at
the inlet ports (see Fig. 9-2). They prevent particles of
dirt and rust, which cause severe abrasive wear, from
entering the tool. Strainers must be cleaned regularly
for longer motor life.

Lubrication

9.11 Lubrication, like clean air, is important for

long air-motor life. Without lubrication, excessive
wear and binding or rubbing will take place. An air
motor revolving at 3000 rpm without lubrication will
not last very long.

9.12 Two types of lubricators are used with air

-Valve seat- motors—the in-line and the internal lubricator. The
— O-ring— type used in a specific application depends on the
manufacturer's preference and on the design of the air
-Valve- motor. Usually, internal lubrication systems are for
lubricating oils only. If grease lubricants are required
-Spring-
for gears or bearings, they are added separately.
■ Strainer-

9.13 In-line lubriccaors are made in several varieties.

Each type uses a different method of dispensing oil to the
air in the supply line. Drip lubricators are the most popu
lar type. When operating,they admit small drops oflubri
cant to the airstream. The oil is then dispersed by the
moving air, and is carried to the air motor as a fine misL
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Fig. 9-3. Correct installation of lubricators
/a
Lubricator
To air tool
Single outlet
9.14 The amount of oil dispensed to the air system
is controlled by an adjustable needle valve. The drip
rate is usually visible through a small sightglass or
other inspection port. Whichever type of lubricator is
used, it must be located as close as possible to the air
motor it is supplying. Also, each air motor or tool
should have its own lubricator. If more than one air
motor is connected to a supply line, install a lubrica
tor for each motor or tool, as shown in Fig. 9-3.
9.15 Lubricators built into the air motor operate in
a slightly different manner. Mth internal lubricatorSy
the amount of oil admitted to the airstream is con
trolled either by the air pressure that powers the motor
or by an adjustable needle valve. Both of these meth
ods of regulating lubricant supply are shown in Fig.
9-4 on the following page.
9.16 In the air pressure regulated lubricator, a
small amount of air is taken from the supply line
and directed to the reservoir. The amount of air is
regulated by a small needle valve. As the tool is
operating, the air pressure in the reservoir is slightly
less than that used in the tool. When the tool is
stopped, the air pressure in the reservoir increases.
When the tool is started, several drops of oil in the
form of a fine mist are admitted to the air motor in
the tool.
9.17 Tool lubricators equipped with a needle
valve are simpler in construction. These oilers are
basically wick lubricators. Oil from the reservoir
flows past the needle valve to the felt (or porous
metal) wick. As the air supply travels past the wick,
oil is drawn fi-om the wick as a fine mist and carried
into the air motor. The amount of oil admitted to the
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Troubleshooting Air Motors 131
3 C
ySN
Lubricator Lubricator
To air tool To air tool
Double outlet
air motor can be checked by holding a clean paper
in front of the exhaust airflow.
Air-Motor Abuse
9.18 Nonportable air motors are subject to little
if any abuse. Portable tools, however, are often
abused by operators who do not respect tools. The
greatest damage to the tools results from their
being dropped, buried, or run over. The best way to
ensure that tools are not abused is to train operators
in their correct use. Remember that pneumatic tools
make the operator's work easier for them. If they
damage them, they will not have them available,
and you will probably have an extra repair job
to perform.
Hose and Clamp Maintenance
9.19 The poor condition of hoses and couplings is
the major cause of improper air supply to air motors.
Maintenance of all hoses, clamps, and couplings is
important to equipment operation. Store rubber and
synthetic hoses in cool, dry places. Hoses should be
hung on wooden pegs, coiled on shelves, or left on
hose reels. Allow air to circulate around the hose
to protect the fabric covers from mildew. Long
lengths of hose connected to portable tools should
also be kept coiled when not in use. DO NOT exceed
the manufacturers' recommended line pressures
at any time.
9.20 Proper handling of a hose is also important to
its service life. Do not bend, jerk, twist, or stretch
hoses. Also, do not drag them over rough surfaces. If
the hose is connected to a portable tool from an
Fig. 9-4. Internal air-motor lubrication

In-line lubricator

overhead supply line, use a self-coiling hose like the 9.21 When selecting industrial hose clamps or
one shown in Fig. 9-5. If one is not available, use an couplings, check for weight, ease of installation,
overhead balancer to keep the hose up and out of the strength, uniform clamping action, and the ability to
way. Also, support the tool independently, not by the provide a permanent seal. The clamps should have no
hose. Clean and drain any hose that has been sub sharp protrusions or comers that can cause hose dam
merged during usage. age or personal injury. If possible, standardize the
clamps (by manufacturer, not by size) throughout the
system. Several types of hose couplings and clamps
are shown in Fig. 9-6.
Fig. 9-5. Retractable air hoses
9.22 The following basic principles are important
when installing couplings. Cut the end of the hose
square and cleanly. A tight fit between the hose and
fitting is necessary, so do not cut out the hose to make
fitting easier. Lubricate the nipple and inside of the
hose with a soapy solution if fitting is difficult. Never
use oil or grease on couplings.
Tool support
Self-coiling 9.23 After inspecting the coupling and removing
hose all burrs and rough spots, place the coupling in a vise
and force the hose over the sleeve, keeping it as
straight as possible. If the coupling parts thread
together over the hose, make sure the threads do not
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 Troubleshooting Air Motors 133

become crossed during assembly. Draw band cou

plings down evenly, and keep the band free of kinks. Table 9-1. Portable tool test equipment

Air-Motor Troubleshooting Adequate air supply

Prony brakes (different capacity for different size tools)
Tachometers — rotary and reed
9.24 The actual procedures used to troubleshoot Airflow meters
an air motor depend somewhat on the type of air Calibrated fans for loading rotary motors
motor being worked on. The different types of air Loading brake for testing impact tools
Torque wrench
motors used with pneumatic system (vane, radial
Scales
piston, and axial piston) are discussed separately in Hand honing machines
the remainder of this Lesson. Generally, trou Arbor press

bleshooting and repair techniques are described as Equipment for checking spindle alignment
Work space, cleaning tanks, and accessory equipment
they relate to portable air tools and not to perma Calibrated pressure gauges
nent installations. Impacting tools (chipping ham Stop watch
Micrometers
mers, sealers, and rams) are also covered.
Test plate for chipping hammers

9.25 One consideration that is very important to

the service life of all pneumatic tools, regardless of
their usage or design, is the way in which planned have been machined to close tolerances, and proper
maintenance programs are implemented and carried alignment must be maintained during assembly.
out. No matter how elaborate the program or how These close fits are necessary to eliminate air leak
frequently the air-supply system is maintained, it age so the maximum amount of work can be
will not help unless the air motors themselves are obtained from the force of the air.
routinely inspected and repaired. Both planned and
preventive maintenance programs must be followed
if the air motors and tools are to do their jobs
properly. Some of the tools required for a good,
effective planned maintenance program are listed in
Table 9-1.

9.26 When you repair air motors or tools,

remember that they are precision built. Exercise
care when disassembling and assembling them. Do
not use force when fixing air tools—use patience
and handle them carefully. All of the internal parts

Fig. 9-6. Hose clamps

itiiDtl I''k

Clamps
* -
Threaded

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134 Programmed Exercises

9-1. When beginning to troubleshoot 9-1. IS THERE SUFFICIENT AIR? IS

an air motor, what two items THERE SOMETHING WRONG WITH
must be considered? THE AIR MOTOR?
Ref: 9.02

9-2. Troubleshooting the air-supply 9-2. PLANNED MAINTENANCE

system is easier if a good
program is in effect. Ref: 9.03

9-3. The service life of air motors is 9-3. FILTERED

limited unless the air is clean,
drv. and Ref: 9.05

9-4. The selection of a filter for 9-4. REQUIRED DEGREE OF

a pneumatic system should FILTRATION
be based on the
Ref: 9.09

9-5. The two types of lubricators 9-5. IN-LINE LUBRICATORS,INTERNAL

used with air motors are LUBRICATORS
and
Ref: 9.12

9-6. Oil flow in internal lubricators is 9-6. AIR PRESSURE

controlled by an adjustable
needle valve or by Ref: 9.15

9-7. Hoses should be stored to permit 9-7. MILDEW

the free circulation of air around
them. This protects the fabric Ref: 9.19
covers from

9-8. If a hose coupling requires lubrication 9-8. SOAPY SOLUTION

during installation, use a(n^
Ref: 9.22

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 Troubleshooting Air Motors 135

Vane Motors 9.29 Vanes are not only the heart of the air motor,
but also the parts that wear the fastest. The leading
9.27 Vane air motors are used more frequently edge of each vane, which contacts the cylinder, travels
than any other type. Because the rotor and vanes very fast and must be in excellent condition if the
rotate at a high speed, most vane motors are connect vane is to seal the air properly. Vanes that appear
ed to a gear train of some kind. The gearing reduces worn or are obviously loose should be replaced if the
the speed to an acceptable working level and develops air motor is to continue to operate efficiently. If worn
the torque required. A good example of this is the air vanes are not removed, they can break and become
hoist shown in Fig. 9-7. wedged between the rotor and the cylinder.

9.28 When troubleshooting a vane air motor, ask 9.30 While the cylinder is disassembled for
yourself these questions: repairs, inspect its inside surface for irregularities. If
the cylinder is rough or scored, it should be honed out
• Is there an unrestricted flow of air at the or replaced before new vanes are installed. If it is
recommended pressure? scored, check the filters or screens to make sure they
are functioning properly. Also check the end plates
• Are the lubrication and filter systems working and see if they need to be refaced or replaced. Most
correctly? manufacturers recommend that the bearings be
replaced each time the smaller vane air tools are
• Have the wearing parts been checked and disassembled. On larger air motors, this can be done
replaced on a planned schedule? less frequently.

(Generally, wearing of the internal parts causes the air 9.31 Planetary, spur, or helical gears are used in the
motor to become inoperative.) gear trains of vane air motors. The types of gears used

Fig. 9-7. Vane motor driven hoist

Strainer

Oil reservoir

Brake
[
8 I
I
Reversing throttle

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 Fig. 9-8. A pneumatic grinder

Governor Overspeed trip

Governor
throttle valve

Art>or shaft

Wheel guard

Gnnding wheel

in a particular tool depend on the manufacturer and the 9.33 TTie safe speed of the grinder is regulated by
horsepower of the motors. If the air motor is furnished the air-motor governor. Consequently, it deserves
with gears, inspect, clean, and change the lubricant in frequent attention. Most governors are of the
them on a periodic basis to ensure long life. Normally flyweight type and are preset at the factory. If dirt,
this is done during the regular planned maintenance wear, abuse, or maladjustment causes the governor to
inspections or preventive maintenance repair periods. become inoperative, a second overspeed safety
coupling will shut off the air supply if the motor
9.32 Give special attention to grinders. In addition speed becomes excessive.
to the basic considerations already discussed, inspect
the arbor or motor shaft of a pneumatic grinder, such 9.34 Impact wrenches are widely used throughout
as the one in Fig. 9-8, to determine whether or not it industry for assembly and maintenance work. Most of
is bent or the threads damaged. Wheel flanges must these tools are powered by a vane air motor, which
match and be kept in pairs. Regularly check the bolts, drives a hammer mechanism. The hammer mecha
washers, retainers, and clamps on guards to see that nism is made with a square end on which a socket can
they are tight and in good condition. Check the free be placed. The hammer mechanism delivers hammer
speed of each grinder periodically and make sure the like blows through the socket to the nut being tight
proper wheels and guards are used. ened. Many different kinds of impact tools are manu
factured for various applications.

WARNING 9.35 The impact-wrench driving head shown i"

Never run a grinder without the wheel Fig. 9-9 allows the air motor to run continuously,'
guards properly in place. driving a spring-loaded hammer mounted on helical
cam grooves. Under free-running conditions, the
hammer jaws engage the anvil jaws to rotate the
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 Troubleshooting Air Motors 137

anvil and the socket. As soon Fig. 9-9. An impact-wrench driving head
as the nut tightens, the resis
tance of the hammer to
rotation causes the hammer to
move up the helical cam
groove as the air motor Cam ball Ball cam
continues to rotate. When the
Hammer
hammer clears the top of the Motor drive shaft

anvil jaw, it rotates half of a -Hammer spring

revolution. At this point, the
anvil jaw allows the hammer
to be returned to its original
position by a spring, causing Hammer case

it to strike a blow. After each

blow, the hammer rebounds
and again backs up the helical
cam until it completely
clears the anvil jaws for each intervals, the condensation of moisture in the oil
successive blow.
slowly destroys the effectiveness of the lubricant.

9.36 Because of the constant metal-to-metal con

9.40 The maintenance of the physical parts of radi
tact of the hammer to anvil, these parts wear relatively al-piston air motors centers around the piston rings,
quickly and lose their effectiveness if not replaced bearings, gears, and throttle controls. Most radial-pis
periodically. Replace the jaws when they become ton motors have individual cylinders that can be
tapered at a 30' angle. removed and replaced when wear occurs. The length
of time between cylinder changes depends on the con
9.37 Lubrication within the impact mechanism dition of the supply air, lubricant, and severity of
itself is very important. Many tools have reservoirs operations. Air-motor throttles require little attention,
to ensure adequate lubrication. In addition, the com except for an occasional cleaning.
plete unit should be disassembled, cleaned, and
greased as the demand requires. How often this 9.41 The bearings and gears also require little
should be done depends on the manufacturer's rec
attention other than occasional scheduled inspections.
ommendations and on the number of hours the tool
Check the gear teeth for pits, chips, and wear. Both
is in service.
antifiiction and sleeve bearings are used in radial-pis-
Radial-Piston Motors
ton air motors. Usually sleeve bearings are used only
for the piston connecting-rod bearings. When inspect
9.38 Although radial-piston air motors are used for ing an air motor, check the oil reservoir vent plug to
many different industrial applications, the most popu make sure it is in place and clean. If it is plugged,
lar use is for air hoists, as shown in Fig. 9-10 on the pressure will build up in the housing and force lubri
following page. Because of their slower operating cant out of the shaft seals.
speeds, radial-piston air motors require less mainte
nance than other air motors. Axial-Piston Air Motors

9.39 Lubrication is the most critical part of their 9.42 Axial-piston air motors differ in construction
maintenance. Radial-piston motors are lubricated by a and operation from radial-piston motors, as shown in
splash-type system. The external housing of the pis Fig. 9-11 on the following page. Although there is a
ton motor acts as an oil sump. Periodic checks of the rotary air distributor, the axial-piston motor has a sep
sump will ensure the proper oil level. Scheduled oil arate throttle control. The pistons and cylinders are
changes are required to maintain the quality of the also different in construction. As shown, the pistons
lubricating oil. If the oil is not changed at regular are made without piston rings. This means that a
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 Fig. 9-10. A radial-piston air motor
closer fit between the piston and cylinder is required.
When the pistons or cylinders become worn, the
cylinder can be honed oversized and new oversized
pistons can be used. Or the cylinder can be resleeved
to retain its original size, and the pistons can
be renewed.
9.43 An air-line lubricator is used to lubricate the
pistons and cylinders. The gears and "wobble plate" that
Fig. 9-11. An axial-piston air motor
I protected by U. S. Copyngbl lew. Copying by any optical, etectronk. or other means is OegoJ without pemussion
Replaceable cylinders
Oil reservoir
convert the linear motion to rotary motion are lubricated
manually with grease during planned maintenance
inspections. The antifriction bearings that support the
air distributor and drive shafts are pressure lubricated
through an external fitting on a scheduled basis. Other
planned inspections for axial-piston air motors general
ly follow those of radial-piston air motors.
Percussion Tools
9.44 Percussion tools are used widely in industry.
They include chippers, riveters, nail drivers, sand
rammers, and scaling hammers. Although they
involve linear and not rotary air motors, they convert
the force of the compressed air into work.
9.45 Troubleshooting a percussion tool is very
easy. Either the tool is not receiving any air, or it is
worn enough to need repair. To ensure smooth
control of the supply air, the throttle linkage of
chipping hammers should receive regular
inspections and maintenance. Worn O-rings and
throttle parts lead directly to poor throttle control
and excessive loss of compressed air. This results in
inefficient power output.
 Troubleshooting Air Motors 139

9.46 The steel nozzle pressed into the barrel of the 9.47 Another important point to check on
tool, as shown in Fig. 9-12, should be checked for wear percussion tools is the tightness of the handle to the
periodically. Nozzle wear is caused by the rubbing of body or barrel. A loose handle results in thread
the tool against the nozzle, and results in air loss and damage that .shortens the life of the tool. When the
tool misalignment. These conditions allow the piston to barrel wears, it becomes egg-shaped. This can be
hit the bottom part of the barrel, called the bridge. This corrected by honing the barrel and using an
eventually leads to handle and barrel breakage. oversized piston.

Fig. 9-12. A percussion chipping hammer

Stee nozzle

Exhaust deflector

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140 Programmed Exercises

9-9. Which type of air motor is used more 9-9. VANE

frequently than any other type?
Ref: 9.27

9-10. In a vane air motor, the are 9-10. VANES

the parts that wear out the fastest.
Ref: 9.29

9-11. When you replace vanes, inspect the 9-11. CYLINDER

surfaces for irreqularities.
Ref: 9.30

9-12. The governor on a grinder air motor 9-12. MALADJUSTMENT

can be rendered inoperative by dirt,
wear, abuse, or Ref: 9.33

9-13. The anvil jaws of impact wrenches 9-13. 30®

should be replaced when they become
tapered to afn) angle. Ref: 9.36

9-14. When they become worn, the cylinders 9-14. REPLACED

of most radial-piston air motors can be
removed and Ref: 9.40

9-15. The pistons of axial-piston air motors 9-15. PISTON RINGS

are made without
Ref: 9.42

9-16. Troubleshooting a percussion tool 9-16. WORN PARTS

consists of checking for the lack of air
and for Ref: 9.46

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 Self-Check Quiz 141

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

9-1. When troubleshooting an inoperative air 9-6. How should pneumatic tool hoses be stored?
motor, you should first determine if it
□ a. Neatly coiled
□ a. has a damaged hose □ b. In a cool, dry place
□ b. is receiving sufficient air □ c. In a manner which will allow for air
□ c. has wom bearings circulation
□ d. is properly lubricated □ d. All of the above

9-2. Which of the following could result in air- 9-7. When is a good time to inspect the cylinder of
motor malfunction? a vane motor?

□ a. Operator abuse □ a. When the motor is disassembled

□ b. Insufficient lubrication □ b. When you lubricate the bearings
□ c. Contaminated air □ c. Once each year
□ d. All of the above □ d. When replacing the packing

9-3. If air-line filters and moisture separators are 9-8. The safe speed of a grinder air motor is con
to be effective, they must be trolled by the

□ a. serviced occasionally □ a. pressure regulator

□ b. serviced regularly □ b. throttle valve
□ c. installed near the compressor □ c. govemor
□ d. installed near the receiver □ d. overspeed coupling

9-4. Which of the following considerations is the 9-9. Radial-piston air motors require less mainte
most important when you select a filter for a nance than other air motors because they
pneumatic system? have

□ a. Motor horsepower □ a. a positive lubrication system

□ b. Number of tools used □ b. slower operating speeds
□ c. Degree of filtration required □ c. fewer moving parts
□ d. Operating speed □ d. heavier design and construction

9-5. When is oil admitted to the motor in 9-10. The lubricating oil of a radial-piston air motor
intemal air-motor lubricators that are must be checked frequently to ensure that the
air pressure regulated? oil does not

□ a. While it is running □ a. increase in volume

□ b. As it starts □ b. becomes overheated
□ c. As it stops □ c. become moisture-laden
□ d. On a timed cycle □ d. become air-entrained

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142 Lesson Nine

SUMMARY

Air motors cannot function efficiently without a Check periodically to make sure there is enough
sufficient supply of clean air. By properly main oil in the sump.Change the oil as called for in the
taining the air-supply system, you can reduce the maintenance schedule. Check the physical parts
possibility of contaminated air causing an air of the air motor for cleanliness and signs of wear.
motor malfunction. However, problems can still
be caused by improper lubrication, air-motor Axial-piston air motors require a close fit between
abuse, and poor air-supply equipment. the piston and cylinder. You can hone out or
resleeve the cylinder to its original size when it
Vane air motors are commonly used with pneu becomes worn. Manually lubricate the gears and
matic equipment.The vanes are quick to wear wobble plate.
and should be replaced when they appear worn
or loose. Hone out or replace rough or scored Percussion tools are easy to troubleshoot. Regu
cylinders. Inspect, clean, and lubricate the larly inspect the throttle linkage of chipping ham
gears periodically. mers. Check the steel nozzle periodically for
signs of wear. Make sure the tool handle fits tight
Lubrication is the most critical part of to the body.
maintenance for a radial-piston air motor.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

9-1. b. Is receiving sufficient air. Ref: 9.02 9-6. d. All of the above. Ref: 9.19

9-2. d. Ail of the above. Ref: 9.04 9-7. a. When the motor is disassembled.
Ref: 9.30
9-3. b. Serviced regularly. Ref:9.06
9-8. c. Govemor. Ref: 9.33
9-4. c. Degree of filtration required.
Ref: 9.09 9-9. b. Slower operating speed. Ref: 9.38

9-5. b. As it starts. Ref: 9.16 9-10. c. Become moisture-laden. Ref: 9.39

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 9-2. Gardner-Denver Co.

Rgure 9-4. Ingersoll-Rand, Inc.
Rgure 9-6. Courtesy of Anchor Coupling Co., Inc. & Punch-Lok Co.
Figure 9-7. Ingersoii-Rand, Inc.
Rgure 9-8. Ingersoll-Rand, Inc.
Rgure 9-9. Ingersoll-Rand, Inc.
Figure 9-10. Ingersoll-Rand, Inc.
Figure 9-11. Gardner-Denver Co.
Figure 9-12. Ingersoll-Rand, Inc.

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Lesson Ten

Pneumatic/Hydraulic
Systems

TPC Training Systenis

31010
 Lesson

J] Pneumatic!Hydraulic Systems

TOPICS

Air-Gil Tanks Fast-Advance Cylinders

Air-Hydraulic Boosters Combined Alr-Oll cylinders
Pressure boosters Pneumatic Cushioning
Single-Pressure Booster Systems Alr-Hydraullc System Interlock
Dual-Pressure Booster systems Pneumatic Servos
Hydraulic-Control cylinders Troubleshooting Alr-Oll Systems

OBJECTIVES

After studying this Lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain why and how compressed air and hydraulic Describe the advantages and disadvantages of
pressure are combined. combined air-oil cylinders.
• Describe the role of boosters in pneumatic/hydraulic Explain how pneumatic and hydraulic actions can be
systems. interlocked.
• Explain how single-pressure and dual-pressure Discuss the proper troubleshooting procedures for
booster systems work. air-oil systems.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Air-oil booster 10.06 a device that amplifies the Air-hydraulic system 10.23 a combination of a
low-pressure air of a pneumatic system to provide simple hydraulic cylinder and an oil dashpot with
high-pressure oil for operating hydraulic systems its own separate, closed, hydraulic circuit

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 145

Because air is compressibie, pneumatic cyiinders or actuators are unsuitable

for some applications. To overcome this disadvantage, pneumatic systems may
be combined with hydraulic components, which have smoother control
of movement.

When the pneumatic system controls the hydraulic components, the hydraulic
system is referred to as being active. When the pneumatic system performs the
work and the hydraulic system provides the control, the hydrauiic system is
referred to as being passive.

This Lesson describes the ways in which pneumatic and hydrauiic systems
work together. You must understand how these hybrid systems operate before
you can troubieshoot them. The troubleshooting techniques and procedures
used to determine causes of failures in these systems are the same as those for
the separate systems. The only difference is that the combined system is more
complex,so troubleshooting and repair require more time.

Air-Oil Tanks extemal load, or by spring action. As it returns, it forces

10.01 Compressed air and hydraulic pressure are
combined in many ways in an industrial plant to pro
duce work or to control movement. One of the simplest
ways of using these combined energy sources is as a
damping and pressure-transmission fluid system. As
shown in Fig. 10-1, the combined pneumatic/hydraulic
circuit is separated only by the surface of the oil itself.
Basically, this is a simplified hydraulic system without
a hydraulic pump. Because the hydraulic oil is pressur
ized by compressed air, the pressure achieved in the
system is substantially lower than that in a convention
al hydraulic system. To overcome this lower pressure,
relatively large work cylinders are required for any
thing except low output force. The hydraulic end of the
system is similar to a pneumatic system, except that it
is damped and is capable of positive speed control.
oil fi-om the cylinder back into the tank. The returning
fluid is passed through a check valve for fast return.
10.04 The same air-oil principle can be applied to the
double-acting hydraulic cylinder shown in Fig. 10-2 on
the following page. For a double-acting cylinder, sepa
rate air-oil tanks supply each side of the piston with oil.
When one tank is pressurized, the other is vented to the
atmosphere and merely acts as a reservoir to receive
the oil displaced from the hydraulic cylinder by the
movement of the piston. SPEED and STOP controls
can be arranged as with the single-acting arrangement.
10.05 The airflow to the two tanks in a double-act
ing system can be controlled easily with a four-way

10.02 When the single-acting air-oil circuit shown in Fig. 10-1. A simple pneumatic/hydraulic system
Fig. 10-1 is operating, air from the plant supply is
admitted into the top of the air-oil tank through a two-
Hydraulic
position, three-way valve. The air forces the hydraulic cylinder
oil (at the same pressure as the compressed air) from Supply air

the bottom of the tank into the hydraulic cylinder. The

rate of oil flow firom the tank to the cylinder is con
trolled by a metering valve. The metering valve serves Air

two functions—^it damps fluid pulsations and acts as a

positive speed control.

10.03 When the cylinder has completed its stroke,the

three-way valve is shifted, exhausting the air firom the
top of the tank. The hydraulic cylinder piston is then Restricting orifice
returned to its original position either by gravity, by the
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Fig. 10-2. A double-acting air-oil system
Four-way
valve
Air-oil tank Hydraulic cylinder
valve. (A two-position valve is shown.) The fluid to
the piston is generally controlled by one or two flow
control valves. These valves can be furnished with
metering or speed-control devices.
Air-Hydraulic Boosters
10.06 Another comtnon method of combining com
pressed air and hydraulic pressure is with an air-oil
booster or intensifier. The air-oil booster shown in Fig.
10-3 is a device that amplifies the low-pressure air of a
plant pneumatic system to provide high-pressure oil for
operating hydraulic systems. This device is particularly
useful where low hydraulic flow is required and the
elimination of a hydraulic pump is desirable.
10.07 The main components in a booster are its air
piston and hydraulic ram. Air pressure exerted against
the air piston is transmitted through the hydraulic ram
to the oil chamber. The difference in diameter
between the air piston and the hydraulic ram increases
the pressure of the confined oil. The actual pressure
increase is determined by the ratio of the air piston
area to the hydraulic ram area.
10.08 For example, if the plant air is supplied at 100
psi and applied to a piston that has an area of 10 in.2,
the total pressure on the piston is:
lOOlb/in.^X 10in.-= 10001b
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If the area of the hydraulic ram is 2 in.-, the final
output pressure of the booster is:
1000 lb^2in.2 = 500 lb/in.^
Note that the 5 to 1 ratio between the piston and ram
areas is the same as the ratio between the output pres
sure and input pressure. This booster ratio is one of
the key factors to consider in selecting a booster for
an application.
Pressure Boosters
10.09 Boosters are frequently used to power con
ventional high-pressure hydraulic cylinders. When
used in this manner, more work can be done than if an
air cylinder alone were used. Boosters used for appli
Air-oil tank cations where holding, piercing, clamping, or other
linear power is required are powered by either a sin
gle-pressure or a dual-pressure system.
10.10 When used for these applications, boosters per
form well and are economical. They can hold high
pressures for long periods of time without generating
heat. They also work without any additional power con
sumption, and without complex or expensive controls.
Single-Pressure Booster Systems
10.11 The single-pressure booster system shown in
Fig. 10-4 on page 48 is used for applications that
require high pressure throughout the full stroke of the
working cylinder. The system is composed of two
fluid tanks (one for filling or approach fluid and one
for return fluid), one or more actuating cylinders, and
the necessary control valves.
10.12 The system operates in the following manner.
In the neutral position with the booster piston (3)in the
raised position, filling fluid is admitted to the cylinder.
When the four-way air valve (1) is actuated, the plant
air supply is directed through line 2 to the cap end of
the booster air piston (3). The booster piston moves the
hydraulic ram (5), which seals the inlet port and iso
lates the makeup tank (6). As the booster piston and
ram continue to stroke, the ram acts on high-pressure
chamber 7, increasing the pressure of the hydraulic oil.
10.13 The increased oil pressure is transmitted
through the system to the work cylinder (8). As the
1 Uegal nrtlroul permesion

Fig. 10-3. An air-oil booster
ram continues its stroke, the fluid in the high-pressure
chamber activates the work cylinder in a high-pres
sure work stroke (total stroke). Free or low-pressure
oil in the head end of the work cylinder flows through
line 9 to the return tank (10). The return tank and the
head end of the booster piston are both vented to the
atmosphere through line 11.
10.14 On the return stroke, the four-way air valve is
shifted so the plant air supply is directed through lines
11 and 12 to the air side of the return tank (10) and to
the head end or return side of the booster air piston
(3). As the booster piston (3) returns to its original
position, return fluid directed to the work cylinder
causes it to shift also. This forces any oil in the work
cylinder back into chamber 7. Any additional makeup
oil required in the pressure chamber is now provided
by the makeup tank (6) through line 13. The manual
shutoff valve (14) is used to adjust the oil levels
between the makeup tank and return tank as required.
Dual-Pressure Booster System
10.15 The dual-pressure booster system, also shown
in Fig. 10-4, is used in press applications having long-
stroke work cylinders. Here, oil under low pressure is
used for the approach stroke of the work cylinder, but
oil under high pressure is required for the work por
tion of the stroke. Because the booster ram only oper
ates during the work portion of the stroke, some other
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Pneumatic/Hydraulic Systems 147
Compressed
Hydraulic
means is required to advance the cylinder up to the
work point. This is accomplished by adding a second
pressure system.
10.16 To put the system in operation, the four-way
air valve (1) is shifted so the plant supply air is directed
through line 2 to the approach tank (3). Oil from the
approach tank is forced through line 4 and the booster
high-pressure chamber (5) into the work cylinder (6).
This low-pressure oil advances the work cylinder pis
ton through its approach stroke. At the same time, oil in
the head end of the work cylinder is forced through line
7 into the return tank (8). The return tank is vented to
the atmosphere through line 9 and the four-way valve.
10.17 When the work cylinder (6) completes
the low-pressure approach portion of its stroke, the
three-way valve (10) shifts and directs air pressure
through line 11 to the cap end of the booster air piston
(12). The booster piston strokes the hydraulic ram (14),
sealing the filling ports and isolating the approach tank
(3). The hydraulic ram also pressurizes the oil in the
high-pressure chamber (5).
10.18 The pressure on the oil is transmitted through
the system to the work cylinder (6). The oil displaced
by the advancing hydraulic ram (14) executes the final
high-pressure movement of the work stroke. Oil forced
from the head end of the work cylinder continues to
flow through line 7 to the return tank (8).
148 Lesson Ten
Fig. 10-4. Single-pressure and dual-pressure boosters
AAA/
10
14
13
12 11
] 8
Single-pressure system
10.19 The return stroke of a dual-pressure system is
identical to the return stroke of a single-pressure sys
tem. The four-way air valve is shifted so the plant air is
directed to the return tank (8) and the head end of the
booster piston (12). The approach air tank (3) and the
cap end of the booster piston are vented to the atmos
phere, and the system components return to their
original positions.
10.20 The systems just described are only two of the
many booster systems used. There are various other
ways to control the speed and movement of these two
systems. If booster systems are used in the plant, check
the manufacturer's instruction manuals to find out
exacdy how they operate before you troubleshoot them.
Hydraulic-Control Cylinders
10.21 Many forming and cutting machines are pow
ered by pneumatic systems. Machines of this type
include saws, drills, shears, and presses. Pneumatic
power is often sufhcient to move the cutting or forming
tools through the workpiece, but often is not sufficient
to provide a precise feed rate. If the tool hits a hard spot
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AA/V
/WV
11
s 10
12-
14-
Dual-pressure system
w
in the workpiece,the pneumatic actuator slows down.If
the tool passes into a soft spot or passes through the
workpiece,the pneumatic actuator speeds up.
10.22 When a pneumatically powered metal cutoff
saw first starts its cut, for example, the workpiece
opposing the saw's movement causes the saw to slow
down its rate of travel. When the metal is cut all the
way through, the cylinder suddenly has no opposing
force and the piston jumps forward. As it jumps, it
may hit the bottom of the cylinder unless some cush
ioning method is used.
10.23 The solution to such a problem is to control the
stroke rate of the air cylinder. One way of doing this is
to use a hydraulic cylinder connected to the moving
parts of the saw. No pumps or motors are required,just
a simple hydraulic cylinder and an oil dashpot with its
own separate, closed, hydraulic circuit. This combina
tion is often referred to as an air-hydraulic system.
10.24 Although the two fluids (air and oil) are used
in a combined effort, the two fluid circuits are sepa
rated. One of the ways in which this is accomplished

Fig. 10-5. Methods of using hydraulic control cylinders
Spring-loaded pW,
reservoir ^ Qjl
Hydraulic
cylinder
Pivoting
iever
Air cylinder!
Workpiece
Air supply
150 psi
Control valve
with a cutoif saw is shown in Fig. 10-5A. The power
to feed the saw is provided by a conventional air
cylinder controlled by a four-way, spring-returned,
foot-operated valve. The speed of the saw is con
trolled by attaching a hydraulic cylinder to the saw
pivoting lever. Note the two flow-control valves on
the hydraulic cylinder.
10.25 When the saw is actuated, supply air is admit
ted to the cap end of the air cylinder. The flow-control
valve on the head end of the hydraulic cylinder restricts
the hydraulic fluid flow to control the advance of the
air cylinder. When the saw completes its cut, the air
flow in the system is reversed and the cylinders reverse
their strokes. The flow of hydraulic fluid is also con
trolled by a valve on the reverse stroke. These regulat
ing valves can be set independently to provide selective
speed control in both directions. For instance, the cut
ting stroke may have to be slow and steady, even
though the return stroke may be fast.
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Pneumatic/Hydraulic Systems 149
Spring-loaded
reservoir
Checked direction
Poppet valve
with metering- Fast return direction
orifice
Air supply
10.26 When the reduction or limitation of speed is
required in one direction only, the speed-control
valves can be eliminated. One way to do this is to fit
a one-way poppet valve in the hydraulic itself
(shown in Fig. 10-5B as a modification). This pro
vides a controlled travel speed in one direction, with
a fast return in the opposite direction.
10.27 The oil reservoir is provided to compensate
for the difference in volume between the head and
cap ends of the cylinder. When the hydraulic
cylinder is extended, the fluid displaced in the head
end of the cylinder cannot fill the cap end. The dif
ference is made up from the reservoir. When the
cylinder is retracted, the excess fluid flows into
the reservoir. The reservoir may be vented to
atmosphere or pressurized with a small, positive
pressure. The reservoir volume should be slightly
larger than the additional required amount of
hydraulic fluid.
150 Programmed Exercises

10-1. Applying air pressure to a tank o 10-1. PUMP

f oil results in a simple hydraulic
svstem without a(n) Ref: 10.01

10-2. In an air-oil system using a double- 10-2. TWO

acting cylinder, how many air-oil
tanks are required to shift the cylinder? Ref: 10.04

10-3. An air-oil booster uses low-pressure 10-3. HIGH

air to obtain -pressure oil.
Ref: 10.06

10-4. The main components of an air-oil 10-4. PISTON; RAM

booster are the air and
hvdraulic Ref: 10.07

10-5. Boosters are useful to holding 10-5. LONG

hioh oressures for
periods of time. Ref: 10.10

10-6. One method of controlling the move 10-6. HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

ment of a pneumatic cylinder is to
connect afn^ to the Ref: 10.23
moving part of the machine.

10-7. The speed of travel of the hydraulic 10-7. SEPARATE

cylinder in either direction is controlled
by requlatinq valvefsl. Ref: 10.25

10-8. The volume of oil reservoirs installed 10-8. LARGER

on hydraulic cylinders should be
sliahtiv than the actual Ref: 10.27
amount of oil required by the cylinder.

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Fast-Advance Cylinders
10.28 Another modification of the two-cylinder cir
cuit is shown in Fig. 10-5C. This arrangement pro
vides a fast approach stroke before the controlled
stroke starts. For this application, the hydraulic cylin
der has a shorter stroke than the air cylinder, but the
piston rod is extended to make up the difference. The
initial movement of the air cylinder is "free" until the
hydraulic cylinder rod has been traversed. The remain
der of the air cylinder stroke is then controlled by the
hydraulic cylinder as before. When the cylinder is
reversed, the same speed action occurs.
Combined Air-OII Cylinders
10.29 Although separate pneumatic and hydraulic
cylinders are used for many applications, more com
monly the two are combined in one integral unit.
These are generally known as air-oil cylinders. The
advantages of the combined cylinder is that it is sim
pler to install and is more compact than two separate
cylinders. A disadvantage is that it is longer than the
individual cylinders, which may make it unsuitable for
certain installations.
10.30 A tandem arrangement of an air-oil cylinder
mounted on a common piston rod is shown in Fig. 10-6.
Fig. 10-6. A tandem cylinder
Forward
Q
Supply
CYL CYL^
Exhaust
Positive va ve
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Pneumatic/Hydraulic Systems 151
Normally, the rear or nonconnecting cylinder is the air
cylinder. The advantage of this arrangement is that the
piston rod of the hydraulic cylinder passes through both
end covers, displacing fluid equally in either direction.
This reduces the size of the fluid reservoir to a mini
mum.In some cases, it can be dispensed with entirely.
10.31 A tandem cylinder can attain almost any
desired sequence of speed control and linear motion
that independent cylinders can attain. The only require
ment is that the design motion be suitable for use in the
hydraulic check circuit. Because the hydraulic circuit
affects only the speed and operation of the total mecha
nism, it can be either simple or complex, as necessary.
10.32 There is one important point to remember
concerning the controls used with air-oil systems. That
is, unloaders or pressure-relief valves cannot be used
in the air circuit. If they were included, they could be
actuated by any damping produced by the hydraulic
cylinder and could unload the pneumatic system. This
would result in loss of pressure. The only effective
method of obtaining unloading control with an air-oil
cylinder is with limit switches or cam-operated
pilot valves.
10.33 The construction of the tandem air-oil cylin
ders and independent cylinders are similar. The piston
Spring loaded
 Fig. 10-7. Air cylinder cushions
Workpiece
Hydraulic cylinder
rod is the only nonstandard item. An important
requirement in an air-oil cylinder is that air must not
be allowed to bleed or leak into the hydraulic system.
If it does, or if the hydraulic circuit is not properly
bled initially, the checking motions will become jerky.
10.34 The possibility of air leakage is eliminated by
placing a bleeder space or passage between the two
sets of rod seals in the center of the unit. In this way,
any leakage from the air portion or hydraulic portion
will be bled off to the atmosphere. The presence of air
or hydraulic fluid at a bleeder hole indicates seal or
gland leakage.
Pneumatic Cushioning
10.35 A reversal of the usual air-hydraulic combi
nation control is shown in Fig. 10-7. Here the power
and motion required to do the work are provided by a
conventional hydraulic cylinder. The air cylinder
functions purely as a cushioning device or as a back
up mechanism behind the workpiece. As the air cylin
der is pressurized, it extends outward. The amount of
pressure required for the degree of cushioning or
backup pressure can be varied to suit the application.
10.36 During operation, the pneumatic cylinder is
used to back up the workpiece. Any impact load
resulting from outward movement of the hydraulic
cylinder is absorbed or cushioned by the air cylinder.
Continued extension of the hydraulic cylinder forces
the air cylinder to continue to compress, so that even
pressure is applied to both sides of the workpiece.
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Air cylinder Air receiver
Air-Hydraulic System Interlock
10.37 Another way of combining hydraulic and
pneumatic systems is by interlocking their indepen
dent actions. The two independent systems are used
for economy and speed. A circuit like the one shown
in the schematic Fig. 10-8 is frequently used for press
applications. The pneumatic system and hydraulic
system are interlocked by the control valves to pro
vide sequential operation of the cylinders.
10.38 In this instance, it is desirable to use the air
cylinder (3) to clamp the work, and the hydraulic cylin
der (1) to do the work. During operation, the operator
places the workpiece in the fixture and shifts the handle
of the two-position, four-way valve (4). Air pressure is
directed to the cap end of the double-acting air cylinder
(3), clamping the workpiece securely in the fixture.
10.39 With the work clamped, the air pressure in
the air cylinder (3) builds up, opening the port in
sequence valve 5. The air is then directed to pilot
valve 9 of hydraulic valve 2. The pressure in the pilot
valve (9) shifts the valve, and the oil under pressure is
directed to the cap end of press cylinder (hydraulic) 1.
The piston in the cylinder advances at a rate of speed
controlled by the flow-control valve (7). When the
operation is completed, the operator shifts the handle
of valve 4 to its original position. Air pressure is then
directed to pilot valve 8 of valve 2.
10.40 As the operating sequence continues, valve 2
is shifted to its original position. When this occurs, oil

under pressure is directed through the free flow pas
sage of the flow-control valve (7) to the rod end of the
hydraulic cylinder (I) and the piston starts to retract.
At the same time, air pressure builds up in the line
between valve 4 and the pilot valve (8). The port in
the sequence valve (6) is opened, directing air pres
sure to the rod end of the clamp cylinder (3). The pis
ton in cylinder 3 then retracts, completing the cycle.
Actually, both pistons in cylinders 1 and 3 retract at
about the same time as the sequence valve (6) opens
after chamber 8 is filled with air.
10.41 An automatic interlocked air-oil system is
shown schematically in Fig. 10-9 on the following
page. In this system, the actuating valves (3) and (4)
direct control air to the hydraulic valve (2). These two
actuating valves reduce the response time required for
the valve shift, increasing the speed of the operation.
10.42 In the loading position, the three-way, two-
position selector valve (5) remains in a closed posi
tion, and the worktable is in the left position. After
the operator places work on the table, he shifts the
handle of valve 5 to the automatic mode. At this
point, air flows from the two-position, three-way
valve (4) to pilot connection 14 on valve 2. The air
Fig. 10-8. An interlocked pneumatic/hydraulic system
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Pneumatic/Hydraulic Systems 153
pressure shifts valve 2 to the right, directing oil
under pressure from the inlet port of the valve
through outlet port B to the flow-control valve (6).
In the flow-control valve, the oil passes through the
"free flow" section of the valve to port C of the dou
ble-end hydraulic cylinder {1).
10.43 The piston of cylinder 1 shifts to the right at a
speed controlled by the flow-control valve (7) until
the cam on the two-position, three-way valve (3) is
contacted. When valve 3 shifts, air pressure is direct
ed to the pilot connection 15 on valve 2. This shifts
valve 2 to the left, back to its initial position.
10.44 With valve 2 in its original position, oil under
pressure is directed from the inlet port of the valve
through to the outlet port (A). From here the oil is
passed through the "free flow" section of the flow-
control valve (7) to port D of the hydraulic cylinder.
As the cylinder shifts to the left, the speed of move
ment is controlled by the flow-control valve (6). The
cycle then starts again as long as the selector valve (5)
is in the automatic mode. When the valve is shut off,
the cylinder cycles until it shifts to the left position
where it comes to rest. It will remain in this position
until it is again activated.
Air supply
 Fig. 10-9. An automatically operated interlocked system

Worktable

B A
14- n—TT— 15

Air supply
Air supply

Pneumatic Servos almost instantaneously. Feedback tool position sig

nals are returned to the hydraulic control valve
10.45 A more highly specialized application of through the push-pull cable and the floating
true hydropneumatics is found in the air tracer mechanical lever.
devices that actuate tool slides for form turning and
contour copying. In these hydropneumatic circuits, 10.48 The sensitivity of the system can be adjust
the compressed air acts almost as an open-loop ed by varying the A and B length ratio of the float
servo for the working hydraulic circuit. It ing lever. The equipment is protected against over-
overcomes the slowness of the machine caused by action by the yield link. If the diaphragm positioner
fluid friction and valve lag inherent in hydraulic moves too rapidly, the yield link acts as a cushion,
copying devices. preventing damage to the machine's cutting head.

10.46 Figure 10-10 shows how the separate air
and oil circuits are used in the tracing/forming
machine. As the tracing stylus moves, the motion
varies the amount of bleed air on the pneumatic
system. This, in turn, affects the position of the
diaphragm in the positioner, which is balanced
against the force of a spring. The linear movement
of the diaphragm is transferred through a floating
mechanical lever to the stem of a four-way valve in
the hydraulic circuit.
10.47 Constant pressure in the hydraulic system
ensures fluid to the piston whenever the hydraulic
valve is shifted. The result is that the tool will
repeat the stylus movement on the cutting head
This malsnol is protected by U. S Gopynghl low. Copying by any opbcal, eiectrorec. or other r
Troubleshooting Air-Oil Systems
10.49 Whether the air-oil system you are trou
bleshooting is simple or complex, the troubleshoot
ing procedures are the same as those of the indepen
dent systems. There are, however, several items in
the combined systems that require more frequent
attention or maintenance. One of these is fluid leak
age. Because of the small amounts of hydraulic oil
used in booster systems, the tightness of the pack
ings and system is important to prevent leakage.
(However, they should not be overtight.) Take pre
cautions to ensure that air does not mix with the oil.
The speed-control valves also cause trouble.
Because these systems are not provided with filters.
i iHegaJ wrthout permission.
 Pneumatic/Hydraulic Systems 155

small amounts of contaminants can collect in the the beginning and follow a logical sequence
small fluid orifices. of checking the system.

10.50 When troubleshooting any pneumatic system Proper tools. Using the wrong tools to repair
(independent or combined), there are three important something may result in another job—that of
points to keep in mind: replacing the part that was damaged.

• Logical sequence. Troubleshooting a pneu Cleanliness. Cleanliness is another important

matic system requires that you follow a strict part of troubleshooting. If the system compo
logical sequence of checks. Of course, if the nents you are working on are not clean, you
malfunction has occurred before, the will introduce dirt into the system when you
sequence can be shortened. But if the trouble close it up. Keep the machine,the tools, and the
has not occurred recently, you must start at working area as clean as possible at all times.

Fig. 10-10. A simple servosystem

Bleeder valve
operated by
stylus tracer

Hydraulic supply
M—
spring yield link
w Air
supply
15psi
Floating lever
Hydraulic
v^ve Diaphragm positioner
3-5psi

rt \ Push-pull
cable feedback
Tool
carrier
3_ ^

Hydraulic cylinder

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156 Programmed Exercises

10-9. In fast-advance two-cylinder circuits, 10-9. HYDRAULIC

which has a shorter stroke, the
hydraulic cylinder or the air cylinder? Ref: 10.28

10-10. A disadvantage of a combined 10-10. LENGTH

air-oil cylinder is its
Ref: 10.29

10-11. Are fluid reservoirs necessary 10-11. NO

for all combined air-oil cylinders?
Ref: 10.30

10-12. Name two methods of obtaining 10-12. LIMIT SWITCHES,CAM-OPERATED

unloading control with an air-oil PILOT VALVES
cylinder.
Ref: 10.32

10-13. If the checking motions of a 10-13. AIR LEAKING INTO THE HYDRAULIC
tandem air-cylinder become SYSTEM
jerky, what is a probable cause?
Ref: 10.33

10-14. Leakage between the separate 10-14. BLEEDER

sections of a combined air-oil
cylinder is eliminated by using Ref: 10.32
a^n^ passaoe.

10-15. Independent air-oil systems are 10-15. CONTROL VALVES

interlocked throuoh
Ref: 10.37

10-16. The sensitivity of the servosystem 10-16. LENGTH RATIO

shown in Fig. 10-10 can be
adjusted by varying the Ref: 10.48
of the floatina lever.

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 Self-Check Quiz 157

Answer the following questions by marking an''X"

in the box next to the best answer.

10-1. The hydraulic pressure In an air-oil 10-6. When pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders
tank is equal to the are used to both power and control a
machine tool, their fluid systems
□ a. tank surface area
□ b. air pressure □ a. are connected
□ c. cylinder piston diameter □ b. have their own power source
□ d. cylinder piston rod diameter □ c. remain separated
□ d. are interchangeable

10-2. How is the cylinder of a single-acting, air-oil

system returned to its starting position? 10-7. How is the speed controlled in the
hydraulic cylinder of a combined system?
□ a. Retum air pressure
□ b. Control valve □ a. By a single speed-control valve
□ c. Retum oil pressure □ b. By two speed-control valves
□ d. Gravity or extemal load □ c. By an air-operated pilot valve
□ d. All of the above

10-3. The exact amount of pressure increase 10-8. In a combined air-oil system, the oil
in an air-oil booster is determined by the reservoir of the hydraulic cylinder must
be slightly larger than the
□ a. air pressure
□ b. air piston □ a. piston volume
□ c. hydraulic ram □ b. piston rod volume
□ d. ratio of the piston and ram areas □ c. additional fluid required
□ d. cylinder stroke displacement
10-4. Which of the following is an advantage 10-9. What is the disadvantage of combining
of an air-oil booster?
an air cylinder and oil cylinder in one unit?
□ a. Holds high pressure □ a Total length
□ b. Requires no complex controls □ b. Piston diameter
□ c. Has low power requirements □ c. Required bleeder space
□ d. All of the above
n d. Complex controls

10-5. Before attempting to troubleshoot an 10-10. Interlocked pneumatic and hydraulic power
air-oil booster, first check the systems remain independent except at the

□ a. power sources
□ a. manufacturer's Instructions
supply air pressure □ b. regulating valves
□ b.
□ c. control valves
□ c. hydraulic oil supply
□ d. linear actuators
□ d. work load for jams

TNsmatsnalispRiteetadbyU.S.Copyrighlhtw. Copyhgbyanyoptkd.«loctnnk^orottwrnMonsbatogdwUiautp«Rninion.
158 Lesson Ten

SilSfli
SUMMARY

A pneumatic/hydraulic system uses the speed of follow a strict logical sequence of checks. You
pneumatics and the precision of hydrauiics to can shorten the sequence only if the malfunction
achieve optimum fluid power.The troubleshoot has occurred before.
ing procedures are basically the same as those of
the independent systems, with a few exceptions. Always use the proper tools to work on a system.
The packings of the hydraulic components must You can damage a part and create another repair
be tight, but not overtight. Make sure that air does Job for yourself by using the wrong tools for the
not mix with the oil. Watch for small amounts of Job.
contaminants that tend to collect in the small
fluid orifices. Cleanliness is another important part of trou
bleshooting. Keep the machine,the tools, and
it takes time to troubleshoot any pneumatic sys the working area as clean as possible at all
tem, but the job will be easier if you remember to times.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

10-1. b. Air pressure. Ref: 10.02 10-6. c. Remain separated. Ref: 10.24,
Fig. 10-5
10-2. d. Gravity or external load.
Ref: 10.03 10-7. b. By two speed-controi valves.
Ref: 10.25
10-3. d. Ratio of the piston and ram areas.
Ref: 10.07 10-8. c. Additional fluid required.
Ref: 10.27
10-4. d. All of the above. Ref: 10.10
10-9. a. Total length. Ref: 10.29
10-5. a. Manufacturer's instructions.
Ref: 10.20 10-10. c. Control valves. Ref: 10.37

Contributionsfrom the foilowing sources are appreciated:

Rgure 10-3. Miller Ruld Corp., Subs, of Rick-Reedy Corp.

Rgure 10-6. Miller Ruld Corp., Subs, of FIlck-Reedy Corp.

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