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DEMYSTIFYING THE SYNTHETIC DRUG MENACE: INDIA'S STRUGGLES AND

STRATEGIES

Research · September 2023

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13433.03685

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DEMYSTIFYING THE SYNTHETIC DRUG MENACE: INDIA’S STRUGGLES AND

STRATEGIES

Blog

Mon, 09/11/2023 - 6:48pm

Demystifying the synthetic drug menace: India’s struggles and strategies

Girisanker S.B.

By the end of the Cold War, the evolution of the referent object of security from a state-centric approach to a broader focus on
human security has led to recognising various non-traditional security threats that extend beyond traditional state boundaries. The
rise of synthetic drugs has added a new dimension to the illicit drug landscape, altering the dynamics of traditional plant-based
opioids and associated trafficking networks necessitating governments to rethink their conventional counter-narcotic strategies.
Synthetic drugs like Amphetamines, Meth (methamphetamine) and MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), K2, and
Fentanyl made in labs (semi-synthetic or synthetic) have become a growing concern due to their affordability, being unaffected by
climatic conditions, profitability, and ease of transportation. Of further concern is the potential transnational crime-terror nexus that
might be fuelling the synthetic drug industry. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) noted that synthetic drug
trafficking from East and South-East Asian and South-West Asia, targeting South Asia, is surging,[1] particularly high volumes of
Methamphetamine continue to be produced in Shan State of Myanmar by ethnic insurgent groups like the United Wa State Army
and Shan State Army.

Ball-and-stick model of the fentanyl molecule, Public Domain (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fentanyl-xtal-3D-balls.png?uselang=en#Licensing)

The repercussions of this synthetic drug crisis are not confined to Asia alone; they are evident in the largest illegal drug market,
the United States. The dramatic increase in overdose deaths related to synthetic opioids, primarily Fentanyl, has reached
alarming levels according to a report by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The involvement of Mexican
organized criminal factions like the Sinaloa and Jalisco New Generation Cartel (Cártel Jalisco Nueva Generación – CJNG) in the
manufacturing and smuggling of Methamphetamine and Fentanyl precursors from countries like China and India into the United
States has raised serious national security apprehensions for the United States.[2] Consequently, the United States has taken a
proactive stance, advocating for global collaboration to combat the synthetic drug trade. The US law enforcement priorities have
undergone a notable shift primarily focused on thwarting the access of international criminal syndicates to precursor chemicals
essential for synthetic drug production through close coordination and information sharing with partner countries. Additionally,
extensive efforts are being dedicated to unravelling non-traditional alliances between terrorists, transnational drug trafficking
organizations (criminal cartels) and transnational gangs that might be driving this illicit industry.

In this regard, Social Network Analysis (SNA) and node similarity-based algorithms have gained popularity worldwide after 9/11 in
the law enforcement community for predicting complex links within criminal organizations.[3] These tools are invaluable for
helping policymakers gain a deeper understanding of these clandestine structures and devise strategies to weaken and disrupt
them. Scholars have used SNA to study a wide range of criminal groups, from terrorist cells involved in the 2002 Bali bombings to
identifying criminal groups engaged in an extensive series of convenience store robberies in Richmond, Virginia and unravelling a
cannabis cultivation network in the Netherlands known as Blackbird by allowing Dutch police to identify intelligence gaps and
potential informants.[4] Nathan P. Jones, Irina Chindea, Daniel Weisz Argomedo, and John P. Sullivan based on the study on
Mexican drug trafficking organisations network, recommend that policymakers and intelligence agencies should integrate machine
learning techniques and SNA into their analysis of complex illicit networks for counter-narcotic operations. A key contribution from
their analysis is the ability to predict alliances, which help policy-makers find the likely missing data on dark networks.[5] Thus,
studies are ongoing to unravel and predict the possibility of future nexus within illicit networks.

Meanwhile, the report released by the insights crime highlight’s a concerning gap between the apparent scale of the synthetic
drug problem in the United States and the ability of law enforcement agencies to successfully dismantle the networks responsible
for its proliferation.[6] This could be due to various factors, including the complexity of these networks, the adaptability of criminal
organizations involved in synthetic drug production and distribution and international challenges in counter-narcotic coordinating
efforts.

In this context, it is worth noting that in 2019, under pressure from the US, China scheduled all forms of fentanyl. However, the
counter-narcotic collaboration between the two countries became strained in 2020 when the US unilaterally imposed sanctions on
Chinese companies, arrested Chinese nationals, and criticized China's counter-narcotics efforts. China, in turn, blamed the US for
escalating its domestic security concerns to an international issue and for shifting the blame by not addressing its domestic illegal
drug consumption issue.[7] In August 2022, China declared the suspension of all counter-narcotic and law enforcement
cooperation with the US,[8] and this situation continues to date. In light of these developments, the United States views India as a
reliable partner in advancing counternarcotics initiatives within the South Asian region.

Given its status as the largest global manufacturer of generic medicines offered at affordable rates, India has evolved into a
transit country as well as a source of precursor chemicals used in the illicit production of synthetic drugs, including Meth and
Fentanyl, exploited by criminal organizations. Furthermore, India's long coastline, porous borders, and proximity to the highest
drug-producing regions of the world- Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle; make it vulnerable to narcotics smuggling. According
to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) intelligence report, although China and Mexico remain primary sources of
trafficked fentanyl and its derivatives into the United States, India has emerged as a supplier of precursor chemicals for
manufacturing synthetic drugs.[9] Consequently, the US has listed India in the Presidential Determination on Major Illicit Drug
Transit or Producing Countries, necessitating counter-narcotic collaboration.[10] India's unintended role in this lucrative narcotic
trade is evident from the large seizures of precursor chemicals. Moreover, the underemployment of pharmacists, lax regulations,
corruption, and remote locations make India a cost-effective and profitable destination for transnational drug trafficking
organizations to exploit the system and establish clandestine labs. The 2018 arrest from Indore and Mumbai with around 10 kg of
Fentanyl and 100kg of N-Phenethyl-4-piperidinone (NPP) demonstrates growing links between Mexican Transnational Criminal
Organisations and India-based fentanyl precursor chemical suppliers.[11]

The crime-terror/insurgency nexus resulting from this lucrative trade can have implications for funding extremism, separatist
movement, and insurgency, particularly in regions such as India's Northeast, Punjab, and Kashmir. This poses, a threat to India’s
national security. In collaboration with regional counterparts, these organisations employ sophisticated smuggling methods using
legitimate shipping channels, couriers, and front companies for smuggling activities. In India’s North-East region, insurgent
groups have been known to derive profits through drug distribution and involvement in drug protection rackets. This is achieved
by engaging in the trafficking of precursor chemicals into Myanmar and subsequently trafficking the finished products back
through the porous Myanmar-India border.[12] This intricate operation often involves collaboration between the insurgent factions
operating in the North-East and criminal syndicates across the border. Further, another significant concern is the collaboration
between states and criminal syndicates to finance covert operations to bleed India with thousand cuts through the drug trade. A
stark illustration of this concern is the documented role of Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) Agency in collaboration with
D-company, Haji Salim, Lashkar-e-Taiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed, Hizbul Mujahideen, and other militant-terrorist gangs in exporting
drugs and arms to regions within India, such as Kashmir and Punjab to flare up separatist movements and target India’s youth.
Further, a 2022 NATO report revealed the involvement of Pakistan’s Army and the Taliban in an “unholy” nexus of the narco-
trade.[13]

India’s Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS) of 1985 establishes the legal regulatory framework for
controlling narcotic and psychoactive substances. The NDPS has been amended four times since its implementation, in 1988,
2001, 2014, and 2021, respectively. It sets provisions for controlled drug precursors identified under the UN Convention Against
Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. Under this Act, India classifies controlled substances as per three
schedules A, B and C. Schedule A must register and obtain a unique registration number from the Zonal Director of the Narcotics
Control Bureau. Any facility that exports or imports-controlled substances in Schedule B or Schedule C must obtain a “No
Objective Certificate (NOC)” from the Narcotics Commissioner. Further, the penalties for selling precursor chemicals used in drug
manufacturing is a maximum sentence of 10 years as mentioned in section 25 A of India’s NDPS Act.

In 2018, the Indian government designated two direct fentanyl precursors, N-Phenethyl-4-piperidinone (NPP) and Anilino-N-
phenethylpiperidine (ANPP), as Schedule B, which restricted their export. In 2020, after domestically manufactured ANPP was
trafficked in Mexico, the Indian government tightened controls over ANPP and NPP by designating them as Schedule A in the
NDPS Order of 2013.[14] This order brought the domestic manufacture, distribution, sale, possession, and use of those
substances under national control.However, since then, traffickers have adapted their approach to using alternative precursor
chemicals for fentanyl manufacture. Thus, the significant challenge with regulating the synthetic drug industry is that a well-trained
pharmacist or chemist with knowledge of pharmaceutical synthesis can potentially manufacture fentanyl or other drugs using
alternative precursor chemicals with similar chemical structures. In this regard it will be difficult to ban all precursor chemicals as
they have legitimate scientific and medical uses. Indeed, the complex and diverse nature of the precursors, pre-precursors, and
essential chemicals used in synthetic drug production poses a significant challenge for law enforcement and regulatory agencies.
Attempting to tackle the synthetic drug production problem with a single, uniform solution is often impractical and insufficient.[15]
Further, when one government aggressively restricts the precursor chemical, traffickers simply buy it elsewhere, a phenomenon
referred to as the ‘Balloon Effect.’

India’s approach to precursor control involves balancing the need to prevent drug production and trafficking while ensuring the
legitimate use of precursor chemicals in trade and industry. The country emphasizes sharing knowledge, best practices, and
technical assistance to help other nations strengthen their laws, standard operating procedures, and working mechanisms in
precursor control.

India has also established bilateral and multilateral agreements with several countries to enhance cooperation in combating drug
trafficking and precursor control. In 2020, the United States made a decisive move to work with India in establishing a bilateral
Counternarcotics Working Group. This working group, marked by annual meetings, aims to enhance collective efforts in disrupting
the trafficking of precursors and illicit synthetic opioids, including fentanyl, amphetamine, tramadol, and tapentadol. Both nations
agreed to cooperate on drug regulatory matters, address workforce shortages and skilling requirements, secure pharmaceutical
supply, strengthen law enforcement, multilateral coordination, intelligence sharing, joint operations, and initiatives to curb drug
trafficking and demand reduction.[16] Such cooperation affords India insights into US interdiction endeavours and technologies
employed across maritime, aerial, land, and postal routes.

The fourth annual US-India Counternarcotics Working Group (CNWG) meeting, convened on July 19, 2023, at the US
Department of State during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s historic State visit, culminated in the establishment of a bilateral Drug
Policy Framework for the 21st Century. Within this framework, an expanded drug policy partnership is founded on three key
pillars: demonstrating global leadership in countering illicit drug production and supply chains, creating a sustainable and
comprehensive public health collaboration to prevent and address addiction, including workforce shortages and skilling needs,
and advancing a secure, resilient, reliable, and exemplary pharmaceutical supply chain model for the world.[17]
In 2023, India launched Operation Samudragupt through coordination between the navy and Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB),
targeting drug trafficking via ships to cleanse the Indian Ocean region of drugs. The move was in response to the surge in use of
maritime routes by criminal syndicates due to easy transportation of high drug volume, and exploiting the challenges faced by
countries in high seas-based checks, including difficulty inspecting the sheer volume of containers, and jurisdictional complexities.
However, due to the effective coordination between Indian agencies and intelligence sharing by international partners, particularly
the United States, substantial seizures of both traditional and synthetic drugs within India’s maritime borders were achieved.[18]
The seizures also revealed the interconnections of cross-border drug traffickers and other criminal organizations with terrorist
entities like Lashkar-e-Taiba, Haji Salim network, and Hizbul Mujahideen.[19]

Moreover, the advent of unregulated platforms like the darknet, coupled with encryption and cryptocurrency transactions, has
facilitated the buying, and selling of narcotics, connecting global criminal networks. In response, India established a dedicated
Task Force on the Darknet and Cryptocurrency to monitor dubious drug-related transactions and initiated the “Darkathon -2022”
endeavor through the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) to understand the patterns of these Dark Net activities and find solutions.
[20]

In response to the challenges posed by financing of terrorism through illegal narcotics trade, India has also directed its attention
towards the fight against money laundering including crackdown on virtual assets that funds terrorism. This approach, formulated
during the “Global Trends in Terrorist Financing and Terrorism” conference held in November 2022 in New Delhi by the Ministry of
Home Affairs, rests on six pillars: (1) reinforcing legislative and technological frameworks, (2) establishing a comprehensive
monitoring system, (3) facilitating actionable intelligence sharing while bolstering investigation and police operations, (4) enabling
provisions for property confiscation, (5) prevent misuse of legal entities and emerging technologies, and (6) fostering international
cooperation and coordination.[21]

As a signatory to pivotal international conventions including the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961), the United Nations
Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971), and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances (1988), India underscores its dedication to combatting the global synthetic drug trade. In August 2022,
India actively participated in the UNODC’s global SMART (Synthetics Monitoring: Analyses, Reporting, and Trends) initiative,
affirming its commitment to monitor, analyze, report, and comprehend synthetic drug trends.[22] With twenty-six bilateral
agreements, fifteen memoranda of understanding, and two security cooperation pacts with various countries, India forges ahead
in its collaborative efforts to combat the illicit trafficking of narcotics and psychotropic substances.[23]Moreover, along with the
supply side counternarcotic strategies, India has balanced demand-side initiatives through Integrated Rehabilitation Centers for
Addicts (IRCAs) for substance-dependent individuals, the National Action Plan for Drug Demand Reduction (NAPDDR), Project
Sunrise and the Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan (Drugs-Free India Campaign).[24]

As India navigates the challenges of the 21st century, it becomes evident that the formidable spectre of drug trafficking has
eclipsed traditional interstate wars as a significant non-traditional security threat. This illicit industry’s intricacies involve a web of
diverse actors, often operating without centralized hierarchies, leading to a dangerous potential for collaboration between criminal
organizations and terrorist groups. Widespread violence and corruption further compound the issue, as they have the capacity to
destabilize nations and push them toward state failure. This corresponds to Richard Norton’s concept of a ‘Feral City’[25][26], and
Susan Strange’s idea of the ‘Retreat of the State,’[27] thus providing safe havens for non-state actors to operate. Additionally, the
presence of government-sponsored covert agendas exacerbates the multifaceted nature of this transnational menace.
Consequently, confronting this global threat necessitates a united front characterized by cooperative endeavours, shared
responsibilities, and an unwavering commitment from the international community.

Endnotes

[1] “India: UNODC national consultation with law enforcement agencies calls for stronger cooperation to counter synthetic drugs.”
New Delhi: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2017, https://www.unodc.org/southasia//frontpage/2022/August/india_-
unodc-national-consultation-with-law-enforcement-agencies-calls-for-stronger-cooperation-to-counter-synthetic-drugs.htm
(https://www.unodc.org/southasia//frontpage/2022/August/india_-unodc-national-consultation-with-law-enforcement-agencies-
calls-for-stronger-cooperation-to-counter-synthetic-drugs.htm).

[2] “2020 Drug Enforcement Administration National Drug Threat.” Drug Enforcement Administration. 2020,
https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2021-02/DIR-00821%202020%20National%20Drug%20Threat%20Assessment_WEB.pdf
(https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2021-02/DIR-
00821%202020%20National%20Drug%20Threat%20Assessment_WEB.pdf).

[3] Arie Perliger and Ami Pedahzur, “Social Network Analysis in the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence.” Political Science
and Politics. Vol 44, no. 1, 2011: pp. 45-50, https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049096510001848
(https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049096510001848).

[4] Nathan P. Jones, Irina A Chindea, Daniel Weisz Argomedo, and John P. Sullivan, “A Social Network Analysis of Mexico’s Dark
Network Alliance Structure.” Journal of Strategic Security. Vol. 15, no. 4. 2022: pp. 76–105, https://doi:10.5038/1944-
0472.15.4.2046 (https://doi:10.5038/1944-0472.15.4.2046).

[5] Oscar Contreras Velasco, Nathan P. Jones, Daniel Weisz Argomedo, John P. Sullivan, and Chris Callaghan, “The Use of
Similarity-based Algorithms to Predict Links in Mexican Criminal Networks.” Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy,
Houston, Texas. 2023, https://doi.org/10.25613/BQ88-X176 (https://doi.org/10.25613/BQ88-X176).

[6] Steven Dudley, “Precursors and Mexico’s Synthetic Drug Trade: Summary and Major Findings.” InSight Crime. May 2023,
https://The-Flow-of-Precursor-Chemicals-for-Synthetic-Drug-Production-in-Mexico-InSight-Crime-March-2023-3.pdf (https://The-
Flow-of-Precursor-Chemicals-for-Synthetic-Drug-Production-in-Mexico-InSight-Crime-March-2023-3.pdf).

[7] Ni Hongzhang and Liu Xin, “China urges US to create conditions for counter-narcotics cooperation.” Global Times. July 2023,
https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202307/1293953.shtml (https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202307/1293953.shtml).

[8] Vanda Felbab-Brown, “China’s role in fentanyl crisis.” Brookings. 31 March 2023, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/chinas-
role-in-the-fentanyl-crisis/ (https://www.brookings.edu/articles/chinas-role-in-the-fentanyl-crisis/).

[9] “Fentanyl flow to the U.S.” Drug Enforcement Administration. 2020, https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2020-
03/DEA_GOV_DIR-008-20%20Fentanyl%20Flow%20in%20the%20United%20States_0.pdf
(https://www.brookings.edu/articles/chinas-role-in-the-fentanyl-crisis/).

[10] “Memorandum on Presidential Determination on Major Drug Transit or Major Illicit Drug Producing Countries for Fiscal Year
2023.” The White House. 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2022/09/15/memorandum-on-
presidential-determination-on-major-drug-transit-or-major-illicit-drug-producing-countries-for-fiscal-year-2023/
(https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2022/09/15/memorandum-on-presidential-determination-on-major-
drug-transit-or-major-illicit-drug-producing-countries-for-fiscal-year-2023/).

[11] Srinath Rao, “Seized opioid was bound for Mexico, key accused a known narcotics offender: Mumbai Police.” Indian Express.
29 December 2018, https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/seized-opioid-was-bound-for-mexico-key-accused-a-known-
narcotics-offender-mumbai-police-5514410/ (https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/seized-opioid-was-bound-for-mexico-
key-accused-a-known-narcotics-offender-mumbai-police-5514410/).

[12] “East and Southeast Asian synthetic drug supply remains at extreme levels and diversifies.” Bangkok: United Nations Office
on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). 2023, https://www.unodc.org/roseap/2023/06/regional-synthetic-drugs-report launch/story
(https://www.unodc.org/roseap/2023/06/regional-synthetic-drugs-report launch/story).

[13] David R. Winston, “The Convergence of the Narcotics Underworld and Extremists in Afghanistan and Pakistan and Its Global
Proliferation.” NATO. 2022, https://deepportal.hq.nato.int/eacademy/publications/narco-insecurity/
(https://deepportal.hq.nato.int/eacademy/publications/narco-insecurity/),

[14] Vanda Felbab-Brown, "China and synthetic drugs control fentanyl, methamphetamines, and precursors." Brookings. March
2022, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/FP_20221107_drug_trafficking_felbab_brown.pdf
(https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/FP_20221107_drug_trafficking_felbab_brown.pdf).

[15] Op. Cit., Dudley at note 6.

[16] “Joint Statement of the U.S.-India Counternarcotics Working Group.” US: US Embassy and Consulate in India. 2020,
https://in.usembassy.gov/joint-statement-of-the-u-s-india-counternarcotics-working-group/ (https://in.usembassy.gov/joint-
statement-of-the-u-s-india-counternarcotics-working-group/).
[17] “Joint Statement from the United States and India.” The White House. 22 June 2023, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-
room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india/ (https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-
room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india/).

[18] “Drug trafficking operation nets record seizures and 1,333 arrests.” INTERPOL. 2022, https://www.interpol.int/en/News-and-
Events/News/2022/Drug-trafficking-operation-nets-record-seizures-and-1-333-arrests (https://www.interpol.int/en/News-and-
Events/News/2022/Drug-trafficking-operation-nets-record-seizures-and-1-333-arrests).

[19] Dipti Yadav and Bidisha Saha, “The Anatomy of Maritime Drug Syndicate Busted by Indian Authorities.” India Today. 22
May 2023. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/anatomy-of-maritime-drug-syndicate-busted-by-indian-authorities-2382628-2023-
05-22 (https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/anatomy-of-maritime-drug-syndicate-busted-by-indian-authorities-2382628-2023-05-22)

[20] Devesh K Pandey.,“NCB organises “Darkathon-2022” to find solutions to counter drug trafficking.” The Hindu. 15 February
2022, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ncb-organises-darkathon-2022-to-find-solutions-to-counter-drug-
trafficking/article65052268.ece (https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ncb-organises-darkathon-2022-to-find-solutions-to-
counter-drug-trafficking/article65052268.ece).

[21] “No Money for Terror.” India: Ministry of Home Affairs. 18 November 2022, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?
PRID=1876940 (https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1876940)

[22] “India: UNODC national consultation with law enforcement agencies calls for stronger cooperation to counter synthetic
drugs.” India: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Regional Office for South Asia. 5 August 2022,
https://www.unodc.org/southasia/en/frontpage/2022/August/india_-unodc-national-consultation-with-law-enforcement-agencies-
calls-for-stronger-cooperation-to-countersyntheticdrugs (https://www.unodc.org/southasia/en/frontpage/2022/August/india_-
unodc-national-consultation-with-law-enforcement-agencies-calls-for-stronger-cooperation-to-countersyntheticdrugs).

[23] “Rajya Sabha unstarred question number.1484.” India: Ministry of Home Affairs. 4 March
2020, https://www.mha.gov.in/MHA1/Par2017/pdfs/par2020-pdfs/rs-04032020/1484.pdf
(https://www.mha.gov.in/MHA1/Par2017/pdfs/par2020-pdfs/rs-04032020/1484.pdf).

[24] “Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has launched the National Action Plan for Drug Demand Reduction
(NAPDDR).” India: Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment. 1 August 2023, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?
PRID=1944693 (https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1944693).

[25] Richard Norton, "Feral Cities," Naval War College Review. Vol. 65, no. 4, 2003, https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-
review/vol56/iss4/8/ (https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol56/iss4/8/).

[26] Robert. J. Bunker and John. P. Sullivan, “Integrating feral cities and third phase cartels/third generation gangs research: the
rise of criminal (narco) city networks and BlackFor.” [Special Issue: Criminal Insurgencies in Mexico and the Americas: The Gangs
and Cartels Wage War.] Small Wars & Insurgencies, Vol. 22, no. 5, 2011: pp. 765-787,
https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2011.620804 (https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2011.620804).

[27] Susan Strange, “The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy
(https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/retreat-of-the-
state/7DD0CC1340A7BC649FD9671BF2ACBE94#:~:text=Book%20description,really%20governs%20the%20world%20economy.).”
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Categories: organized crime (/taxonomy/term/74) - narcotics trafficking (/taxonomy/term/263) - El Centro (/taxonomy/term/21)

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Car Bomb Ambush injures at least Ten Guardia Nacional (GN) Agents in Celaya, Guanajuato (https://www.cofutures.net/post/car-bomb-
ambush-injures-at-least-ten-guardia-nacional-gn-agents-in-celaya-guanajuato) by C/O Futures Cartel Research Note Series

Unintended consequences of state action: how the kingpin strategy transformed the structure of violence in Mexico’s organized crime
(https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12117-023-09498-x) by Trends in Organized Crime

Cártel de Jalisco Nueva Generación (CJNG) Improvised Anti-Vehicle Mine (IAVM) Destroys Mexican Army (SEDENA) Vehicle in Minefield
Near Apatzingán, Michoacán (https://www.cofutures.net/post/cjng-improvised-anti-vehicle-mine-iavm-destroys-mexican-army-vehicle-in-
minefield-near-apatzingán) by C/O Futures Cartel Research Note Series

China's Charm Offensive in Latin America and the Caribbean: A comprehensive Analysis of China's Strategic Communication Strategy Across
the Region [Part I: Propaganda and Politics] (https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/jgi_research/55/) by Jack D. Gordon Institute for Public Policy,
Florida International University

War on the coastline: mitigating civilian harm in the littorals (https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/wp-content/uploads/sites/102/2023/05/War-

on-the-coastline_-mitigating-civilian-harm-in-the-littorals-Humanitarian-Law-Policy-Blog.pdf) by Humanitarian Law & Policy

The Fighting in Sudan is an Armed Conflict: Here’s What Law Applies (https://www.justsecurity.org/86058/the-fighting-in-sudan-is-an-armed-
conflict-heres-what-law-applies/) by Just Security

Are drug cartels 'terrorist organizations'? US, Mexican leaders have strong opinions
(https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/04/16/mexican-drug-cartels-terrorist-organizations-senators-fentanyl-mexico-
border/11666432002/) by USA Today

Leading the Cyber Battle (https://wavellroom.com/2023/04/14/leading-the-cyber-battle/?

utm_content=buffer364d9&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer) by Wavell Room

Policy Brief: Emerging Transnational Organized Crime Threats in Latin America: Converging Criminalized Markets & Illicit Vectors
(https://icaie.com/2023/04/spring-icaie-policy-brief-emerging-transnational-organized-crime-threats-in-latin-america-converging-criminalized-
markets-illicit-vectors/) by ICAIE (International Coalition Against Illicit Economies)

Maximizing the potential of American irregular warfare in strategic competition (https://thehill.com/opinion/national-security/3928259-

maximizing-the-potential-of-american-irregular-warfare-in-strategic-competition/) by The Hill

Opinion: Don’t blur the lines by calling Mexican drug cartels ‘terrorist organizations’ (https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2023-03-17/dont-
designate-mexican-drug-cartels-as-foreign-terrorist-organizations) by Los Angeles Times
Armed Conflicts Spread Contaminated Water and Disease: Here’s How to Better Protect Civilians (https://www.justsecurity.org/85514/armed-
conflicts-spread-contaminated-water-and-disease-heres-how-to-better-protect-civilians/) by Just Security

Deterring the Next Invasion: Applying the Accumulation of Events Theory to Cyberspace (http://opiniojuris.org/2023/03/02/deterring-the-next-
invasion-applying-the-accumulation-of-events-theory-to-cyberspace/) by Opinio Juris

The next big threat to AI might already be lurking on the web (https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-next-big-threat-to-ai-might-already-be-lurking-
on-the-web/) by ZDNET

Migrant Caravans: A Deep Dive Into Mass Migration through Mexico and the Effects of Immigration Policy
(https://www.bakerinstitute.org/research/migrant-caravans-deep-dive-mass-migration-through-mexico-and-effects-immigration-policy) by Rice
University's Baker Institute for Public Policy

Managing Risk for Special Operations Forces in Large-Scale Combat Operations (https://warontherocks.com/2023/02/managing-risk-for-
special-operations-forces-in-large-scale-combat-operations/) by War on the Rocks

The grey zone: Russia's military, mercenary and criminal engagement in Africa (https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/russia-in-africa/) by Global
Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime

Deadly Rio de Janeiro: Armed Violence and the Civilian Burden (https://acleddata.com/2023/02/14/deadly-rio-de-janeiro-armed-violence-and-
the-civilian-burden/#s1) by ACLED

North Korea’s Political Warfare Strategy Has Failed: ROK – U.S. Alliance Needs A Superior Strategy
(https://www.19fortyfive.com/2023/02/north-koreas-political-warfare-strategy-has-failed-rok-u-s-alliance-needs-a-superior-strategy/) by 1945

Russia and Ukraine battle daily in the sky. So where are the pilots? (https://www.npr.org/2023/02/02/1153438336/russia-and-ukraine-battle-
daily-in-the-sky-so-where-are-the-pilots) by NPR Morning Edition

In Evaluating Immunities before a Special Tribunal for Aggression Against Ukraine, the Type of Tribunal Matters
(https://www.justsecurity.org/84959/in-evaluating-immunities-before-a-special-tribunal-for-aggression-against-ukraine-the-type-of-tribunal-
matters/) by Just Security

China’s Ferry Tale Taiwan Invasion Plan Is A Legal Nightmare (https://www.forbes.com/sites/jillgoldenziel/2023/01/31/chinas-ferry-tale-taiwan-

invasion-is-a-legal-nightmare/?sh=ae43a885ceb1) by Forbes

China Maritime Report No. 25: More Chinese Ferry Tales: China's Use of Civilian Shipping in Military Activities, 2021-2022 (https://digital-
commons.usnwc.edu/cmsi-maritime-reports/25/) by CMSI China Maritime Reports.

Hospital Ships: A Vital Asset for SOUTHCOM and South American Navies (https://cimsec.org/hospital-ships-a-vital-asset-for-southcom-and-
south-american-navies/#comment-193434) by Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC)

The Goshen Massacre and the Specter of Cartel Spillover Into the US (https://ioangrillo.substack.com/p/the-goshen-massacre-and-the-
specter) by Narco Politics by Ioan Grillo

Dangerous Alliances: Russia’s Strategic Inroads in Latin America (https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Media/News/Article/3252479/dangerous-alliances-

russias-strategic-inroads-in-latin-america/) by Strategic Perspectives 41, National Defense University

Year Ahead – Emerging Technologies and the Collection of Battlefield Evidence (https://lieber.westpoint.edu/emerging-technologies-collection-
battlefield-evidence/) by Articles of War, Lieber Institute

How Does ‘Matter’ Matter In International Conflict and Security? An Examination of the Importance of Mosques
(http://opiniojuris.org/2023/01/12/how-does-matter-matter-in-international-conflict-and-security-an-examination-of-the-importance-of-
mosques/) by Opinio Juris

El Salvador Deploys Security Forces to Contain Criminal Groups (https://dialogo-americas.com/articles/el-salvador-deploys-security-forces-to-

contain-criminal-groups/#.Y77pEC-B2X0) by Diálogo Américas

Honduras declares war against gangs – and for control of popular narrative (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/04/honduras-gangs-
crackdown-xiomara-castro) by The Guardian

Complexities and conveniences in the international drug trade: the involvement of Mexican criminal actors in the EU drug market
(https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-events/publications/complexities-and-conveniences-in-international-drug-trade-involvement-of-
mexican-criminal-actors-in-eu-drug-market) by Europol-US DEA Analysis Report

Mexico: Declassification of the Three Armed Conflicts Involving Drug Cartels on RULAC - The Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian
Law and Human Rights (https://geneva-academy.ch/news/detail/587-mexico-declassification-of-the-three-armed-conflicts-involving-drug-
cartels-on-rulac) by Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights
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Technology, Data, & The Future of Warfare: A Review Essay by James Torrence (https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol15/iss4/9/) by Journal
of Strategic Security

Rinaldo Nazzaro, Leader of the Neo-Nazi Terrorist Group—The Base: Probable Linkages to the Russian Imperial Movement (RIM)
(https://www.cofutures.net/post/rinaldo-nazzaro-leader-of-the-neo-nazi-terrorist-group-the-base-probable-linkages-to-rim) by C/O Futures
Terrorism Research Note Series

A Social Network Analysis of Mexico’s Dark Network Alliance Structure (https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol15/iss4/5/) by Journal of
Strategic Security

Disentangling The Digital Battlefield: How the Internet Has Changed War (https://warontherocks.com/2022/12/disentangling-the-digital-
battlefield-how-the-internet-has-changed-war/) by War on the Rocks

"Hybrid Warriors" GROUND TRUTH ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF WAR IN UKRAINE (https://www.diplomaticourier.com/posts/ground-truth-about-
the-origin-of-war-in-ukraine) by Diplomatic Courier

DEFENSE SUPPORT TO STABILIZATION (DSS) A GUIDE FOR STABILIZATION PRACTITIONERS

(https://pksoi.armywarcollege.edu/index.php/defense-support-to-stabilization-dssa-guide-for-stabilization-practitioners/) by PKSOI
(Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute)

Byte, With, and Through: How Special Operations and Cyber Command Can Support Each Other (https://warontherocks.com/2022/11/byte-
with-and-through-how-special-operations-and-cyber-command-can-support-each-other/) by War on the Rocks

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