Chapter 55

Lie groups of transformations

55.1 Groups of transformations

Définition 55.1.
Let M be an Hausdorff space and G, a topological group. It is a topological group of transfor-
mations of M if to any element g P G, one associates an homeomorphism g : M Ñ M , denoted
by dot (p Ñ g · p) such that @p P M ; @g, h P G,
(1) pghq · p “ g · ph · pq,
(2) the map G ˆ M Ñ M ; pg, pq Ñ g · p is continuous.

If g · “ id only for g “ e, then the action is effective.

The isotropy group of M (with respect to the action of G) is naturally defined by

H “ tg P G tel que g · p “ pu. (55.1)

Ñ
›
The unit sphere is an example. Let’s consider the vector 1 z . It is clear that the action of
SOp3q on this vector covers the whole sphere. But there is a SOp2q subgroup of rotations which
Ñ
›
leaves 1 z unchanged. So the sphere is given by the quotient
SOp3q
S2 “ . (55.2)
SOp2q
Corollaire 55.2.
Let G and X be two locally compact groups. We suppose G to have countable basis. Then any
homomorphism  : G Ñ X is open.

Proof. By terminology, when we say that a group has some topological property (as the local
compactness here), we suppose that the group is a topological group.
For any g P G, we can build an homeomorphism (see remark 50.9) Ïg : X Ñ X, x Ñ Âpgqx, so
that G is a transitive topological group of transformation on X. Let us denote by f the identity
of X. We know that Ïg is continuous, open and satisfies

Ïg pf q “ Âpgqf “ Âpgq.

If we define H “ th P G tel que Âphq “ f u, Âpghq “ Âpgq for any h P H, so that  descent
to a map  : X{H Ñ X. This is precisely the map which theorem 51.11 assure us to be an
homeomorphism.

55.2 Lie groups of transformations

Définition 55.3.
Let G be a Lie group and M , an analytic manifold. We say that G is a Lie group of transfor-
mation of M when

2393
2394 CHAPTER 55. LIE GROUPS OF TRANSFORMATIONS

(1) G is a topological group of transformation of M ,

(2) the map G ˆ M Ñ M , pg, pq Ñ g · p is analytic.

In particular, for any g P G, p Ñ g · p is a diffeomorphism M Ñ M . When G is a Lie

transformation group on M , for any X P g, we define a fundamental vector field X : P XpM q
by 1
d ” ´tX ı
Xp: “ e ·p (55.3)
dt t“0
The existence comes from the fact that pg, pq Ñ g · p and the exponential are analytic and on a
function f P C 8 pM q, the vector field acts as

f pe´tX · pq ´ f ppq
pX : f qppq “ lim .
tÑ8 t
Théorème 55.4.
Consider G, a Lie transformation group on M and X, Y P g. Then
1
rX : , Y : s “ lim pY : ´ dgt Y : q (55.4)
tÑ0 t

where gptq “ gt “ etX .

Proof. We consider f P C 8 pM q and q P M . The function F defined by

F pf, qq “ f pe´tX · qq (55.5)

is analytic with respect to t, so that

ª1ˆ ˙
BF
F pt, qq ´ F p0, qq “ t pst, qqds “ hpt, qqt (55.6)
0 Bt

for a certain function h P C 8 p ˆ M q which satisfies hp0, qq “ pX : f qpqq. Naturally, gt can be seen
as a map gt : M Ñ M by the action. Then dgt is a linear map dgt : Tq M Ñ Tgt · q M (we voluntary
omit the index q which was fixed; formally, we speak about pdgt qq )

d” ı
dgt v “ gt · vpuq .
du u“0

Thus in order to compute pdgt Y : qp , we have to consider Y : at r “ gt´1 · p. Consider a path

vr : r0, 1s Ñ M such that vr1 p0q “ Yr: and vr p0q “ r. So,
d” ı
pdgt · Y : qp f “ f pgt · vr puqq
du u“0
d” ı
“ pf ˝ gt ˝ vr qpuq
du u“0
(55.7)
d” ı
“ F pt, vr puqq
du u“0
d ” ı
“ F p0, vr puqq ` hpt, vr puqqt
du u“0

The two terms are computed separately:

d” ı d” ı
F p0, vr puqq “ f pvr puqq “ Yr: pf q,
du u“0 du u“0

and
d” ı
thpt, vr puqq “ tpY : hqpt,vr p0qq .
du u“0

1. Remark, as usual, that some literature (in particular in [433]) gives it without the minus sign.
55.2. LIE GROUPS OF TRANSFORMATIONS 2395

Finally,
pdgt · Y : qp f “ Yg:´1 · p ppq ` tpY : hqpt,g´1 · pq . (55.8)
t t

Now we can compute:

1` : ˘ 1 (
lim pY ´ dgt Y : qp f “ lim pY : f qp ´ pY : f qpgt´1 · pq
tÑ0 t tÑ0 t
1 (
` lim pY : f qpgt´1 · pq ´ pY : pf ˝ gt qqpgt´1 · pq (55.9)
tÑ0 t
d” : ı ` ˘
“ pY f qpgt´1 · pq ´ lim pY : hqpt, gt´1 · pq .
dt t“0 tÑ0

The latter equality comes from (55.8). The first term is computed as following (Y : pf q is a function):

d” : ı d” : ı ` ˘ ` ˘
Y pf qpgt´1 · pq “ pY pf q ˝ gt´1 qppq “ Y : pf q p pgt´1 q1 p0q “ X : Y : pf q p (55.10)
dt t“0 dt t“0

In the expression pY : hqpt, gt´1 · pq, we have to consider the dependence on t as a parameter: the
vector Y : only acts on the “second slot” of h. From definition (55.6) of h,

1` ˘
hpt, gt´1 · pq “ F pf, gt´1 · pq ´ F p0, gt´1 · pq ,
t

but F p0, qq “ f pqq and F pt, gt´1 · pq “ f ppq, then

1` ˘
f pt, gt´1 · pq “ f ppq ´ f pe´tX · pq
t
Taking the limit for small t, it becomes

d ” ´tX ı
f pe · pq “ pX : f qp
dt t“0

55.2.1 Action of the Lie algebra

55.5.
We will study the infinitesimal action of the two dimensional conformal group on in 68.8 and
what follows.

Définition 55.6 ([499]).

If the Lie group G acts on the manifold M , then its Lie algebra g has an action

X : M Ñ TM
d” ı (55.11)
x fiÑ exp´tX · x P Tx M.
dt t“0

If you want to know how to integrate this to an action of the group, see the differential equation
(50.40).
Thus an element of the Lie algebra g acts on a function f P C 8 pM q as Xpf q P C 8 pM q by

d ” ` ´tX ˘ı ` ˘ ` ˘
Xx pf q “ f e x “ dfx ´ Xpxq “ ´dfx Xpxq (55.12)
dt t“0

where Xx pf q is a notation shortcut for Xpf qpxq. Here Xpxq stands for the map X : M Ñ M
defined by Xpxq “ etX x.
2396 CHAPTER 55. LIE GROUPS OF TRANSFORMATIONS

55.3 Cosets and homogeneous spaces

Proposition 51.12 takes its interest in the setting of homogeneous space. An homogeneous
spaces is a smooth manifolds M which admits a Lie group of transformations. If p0 P M and H
is the stabilizer of p0 , proposition 51.12 says that H is closed and therefore theorem 51.9 makes G
a Lie group of transformations of G{H. Hence the latter becomes a homogeneous space. The map
– of proposition 51.12 gives an isomorphism of homogeneous spaces.
This allow us to see a homogeneous space as the quotient of a group by a closed subgroup.

55.4 Isotropy group

If one has a Lie group G and a closed subgroup H, we know from theorem 50.41 that H is
a topological Lie subgroup of G. We naturally consider this structure and the analytic structure
on G{H given by 51.9. For this structure of the coset space G{H, the group H is the isotropy
group. We denote by · pxq : G{H Ñ G{H (x P G) the diffeomorphism · pxqrys “ rxys. The group
H ˚ of the linear transformations pd· phqqfipeq (h P H) is the linear isotropy group.
Let N be a Lie subgroup of G. Then the subset N X H is closed 2 . Then N X H is closed in
N and we look at N {pN X Hq. We can exhibit a bijection between this and the orbit of fipeq in
G{H with respect to the action of N :

tnfipeq tel que n P N u » N {pN X Hq (55.13)

by the map  given by Âpnfipeqq “ n. Here the x denotes the class of x with respect to N X H.
Note that for n P N , n ‰ e because there are a priori elements in N zH. The map  is well defined
because mres “ rms “ rns if m “ nh for a certain h P H. Then Âprnhsq “ nh. But in order for
nh to belongs to N , one needs h P N X H; then nh “ n. For the same reason, Â is injective. The
surjectivity is clear.

Proposition 55.7.
In this context,
(1) The orbit of e by N in G{H is N {pN X Hq. It is submanifold of G{H.
(2) If N is a topological subgroup of G and if H is compact, then the submanifold N {pN X Hq
is a closed topological submanifold of G{H.

Proof. First item. We denote by n, the class of n with respect to N X H and by rgs, the class of
g with respect to H. The following diagram is commutative:

i
N /G (55.14)
fi1 fi
✏ ✏
I /
N {pN X Hq G{H

where fi1 : N Ñ N {pN XHq and fi : G Ñ G{H are canonical projections; i : N Ñ G is the inclusion;
and I : N {pN X Hq Ñ G{H is defined by n Ñ ripnqs. Indeed, fipipnqq “ ripnqs “ Ipnq “ Ipfi1 pnqq
for any n P N .
If n is the Lie algebra of N and h the one of H, h1 “ h X n is the Lie algebra of N X H. We
consider n1 and g1 such that n1 ‘ h1 “ n and g1 ‘ ph ‘ n1 q “ g. Let us show why is the sum h ‘ n1
direct. First remark that h X n1 because h X n1 Ä h X n “ h1 , but h1 X n1 “ t0u. Immediately, the
sum g “ g1 ‘ ph ‘ n1 q is direct.
Now we apply lemma 51.8 to the decomposition n “ h1 ‘ n1 ; this give us a submanifold
BN Ä N which contains e and on which fi1 is diffeomorphic to an open neighbourhood of fi1 peq in

2. If H 1 denotes the complementary of H in G (which is open in G), the complementary N X H 1 of N X H is

open in N for the induced topology of N from G.
55.4. ISOTROPY GROUP 2397

N {pN X Hq. The same with g “ h ‘ pn1 ` g1 q gives BG Ä G, a submanifold around e on which fi
is diffeomorphic to a neighbourhood of fipeq in G{H. We can see BN as a submanifold of BG .
We denotes V1 “ fi1 pBN q, V` “ fipBG q and˘ IV1 , the restriction of I to V1 . The Jacobian of IV1
at fipeq has a rank equal to dim N {pN XHq . Indeed we can write IV 1 as IV1 “ fi ˝i˝fi ´1 and fi1 is
a diffeomorphism, so that fi ´1 don’t change the dimension. The fact that the Jacobian at identity
is non zero on a neighbourhood makes it regular on this neighbourhood and the analyticity make
it regular everywhere. The characterization for a submanifold given at page 2089 gives the first
item.
Second item. We know that N is a submanifold of G; the commutative diagram (55.14) shows
that I is an homeomorphism because the topologies on G{H and N {pN X Hq are made in order
to fi and fi1 are continuous and open. If N is a topological subgroup of G, an open subset of N is
written under the form N X O where O is open in G. If n P N {pN X Hq, Ipnq “ ripnqs.
Now we show that N {pN XHq is closed. Consider a sequence ppk q in N {pN XHq which converges
to q P G{H. The aim is to show that q P N {pN X Hq. We take a g P G such that fipgq “ q; we
can suppose that the whole sequence ppk q is in the neighbourhood g · V of q. In order to see that
it is a neighbourhood, recall that fi is a diffeomorphism from V to an open neighbourhood of e in
G{H, thus V is an open neighbourhood of fipeq in G{H.
Since fi is diffeomorphic, there exists a sequence gk P gBG such that fipgk q “ pk . It satisfies
lim gk “ g. On the other hand, for each k, Dnk P N such that fi1 pnk q “ pk ; then fipgk q “ pk “
fi1 pnk q, then there exists hk P H such that gk “ nk hk . But H is compact, then hk is a converging
sequence (by eventually passing to a subsequence). Since gk and hk converge, nk also converges.
But N is closed in G, then n˚ “ lim nk P N . Finally fi1 pn˚ q “ q, so that N {pN X Hq is closed.