Field Crops Research 280 (2022) 108484

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Field Crops Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fcr

Adopting different irrigation and nitrogen management based on

precipitation year types balances winter wheat yields and greenhouse
gas emissions
Zhenzhen Gao a, b, Chong Wang a, b, Jiongchao Zhao a, b, Kaicheng Wang a, b, Mengfei Shang a, b,
Yusu Qin a, b, Xiaozhi Bo a, b, Fu Chen a, b, Qingquan Chu a, b, *
a
College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
b
Key Laboratory of Farming System, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100193, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The implementation of appropriate irrigation and nitrogen (N) measures is essential for obtaining higher grain
Deficit irrigation yields while minimizing environmental risks. To determine whether deficit irrigation combined with reduced N-
Net greenhouse gas fertilizer rate can mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and maintain yield under different precipitation year
Nitrogen reduction
types (wet, normal, and dry years), a six-year (2014–2020) field experiment was conducted in the North China
Precipitation variability
Plain during the winter wheat growing seasons. There were two irrigation schedules (conventional irrigation,
Winter wheat
W2; deficit irrigation, W1) and two levels of N application (conventional fertilization, N2; nitrogen reduction,
N1), which resulted in four treatments: W2N2, W2N1, W1N2, and W1N1. Irrigation, fertilization, and precipi­
tation year types all affected the GHG emissions and yield of winter wheat. Compared with conventional irri­
gation and nitrogen management (W2N2 treatment), appropriate nitrogen reduction (W2N1) and deficit
irrigation (W1N2) decreased CO2 emissions by 17.7–19.8% and 14.8–25.2%, respectively, and reduced N2O by
34.4–36.3% and 21.0–25.8%, respectively. Without compromising crop yield, the W1N2 treatment with deficit
irrigation resulted in 17.1% lower net greenhouse gas (NGHG) and 16.5% lower greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI)
in wet years; and the W2N1 treatment with nitrogen reduction reduced NGHG and GHGI by 20.5% and 18.7%,
respectively, in normal years; and it also led NGHG and GHGI to decrease by 18.5% and 18.1%, respectively, in
the dry year. Therefore, deficit irrigation in wet years and N reduction in normal years and dry year can reduce
GHG emissions and maintain yield. Optimizing N fertilizer and irrigation management according to variation in
precipitation conditions can mitigate GHG emissions, enhance yield, and promote the sustainable development
of agriculture and the environment.

1. Introduction
Global warming caused by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions such as
carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) has posed an unprece­
dented challenge to environmental sustainability (Robertson et al.,
2000). Agriculture is a major source of GHG emissions (Bai et al., 2021),
accounting for 10–12% of global anthropogenic emissions (IPCC, 2014).
Soil CO2 and NO2 emissions from cropland are estimated to make up
approximately 5–20% and ~50% of total anthropogenic CO2 and N2O
emissions, respectively (Tian et al., 2017). The emissions of GHG from
agricultural systems are closely related to agricultural practices; fertil­
ization and irrigation are two important factors affecting GHG emissions
(Chen et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2018). Thus, optimizing management
strategies such as irrigation and fertilization is an effective approach for
mitigating GHG emissions.
Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is widely sown in the North
China Plain (NCP), with average water consumptions is approximately
427 mm (Zhao et al., 2020). In the NCP, annual precipitation fluctuates
greatly, 70–80% of the mean annual rainfall (550 mm) is concentrated
in the summertime (Zhao et al., 2020). The precipitation only meets
approximately 25–40% of water requirements during the winter wheat
growing season (Shi et al., 2013; Fang et al., 2010). Therefore, to
maintain high wheat yield, irrigation is essentially based on ground­
water extracted to offset the deficit of rainfall. Furthermore, irrigation

* Corresponding author at: College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
E-mail address: cauchu@cau.edu.cn (Q. Chu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108484
Received 5 September 2021; Received in revised form 7 February 2022; Accepted 10 February 2022
Available online 15 February 2022
0378-4290/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Gao et al. Field Crops Research 280 (2022) 108484

requirements during the growth period of winter wheat vary consider­ 2.2. Experimental design
ably with interannual precipitation, and this exacerbates the conflict
between the demand and supply of water throughout the NCP (Wang The field experiment was conducted using a completely randomized
et al., 2008). The long-term intensive irrigation agriculture lead to design with three replications in the winter wheat growing seasons. A
declining groundwater levels, which would inevitably restrict sustain­ two-factorial design was applied with two levels of irrigation, conven­
able development of agriculture in NCP (Shen et al., 2004). tional irrigation (single irrigation is 75 mm, W2) and deficit irrigation
Deficit irrigation is an irrigation strategy with an amount of water (single irrigation is 50 mm, W1), and two levels of N fertilizer (urea),
less than the full requirement for saving water and improving crop yields conventional N fertilization (180 kg ha− 1, N2) and N reduction (120 kg
in water-shortage area (Chai et al., 2015). Zhong et al. (2021) studied ha− 1, N1). This formed four treatments: W2N2, W2N1, W1N2, and
the effects of five deficit irrigation treatments (irrigation water W1N1. For each treatment, the same irrigation amount was applied at
decreased by 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%, respectively, compared the pre-planting, jointing, and flowering periods in all years. All plots
with full-water irrigation) on GHG emissions and showed that 30% were treated with the same amount of P2O5 (diammonium phosphate)
reduction in irrigation amount can reduce GHG emissions without and K2O (potassium sulfate), which was 138 and 112 kg ha− 1, respec­
sacrificing winter wheat yield. Meanwhile, precipitation can affect soil tively. All fertilizers were applied exclusively as base fertilizer. The
GHG emissions, as the soil water content is a key driver to increase winter wheat variety Jimai 22 was sown at a rate of 300 kg/ha. Summer
microbial activity for GHG production and consumption (Petrakis et al., maize straw was crushed by a rotary tiller before sowing winter wheat
2017). Interannual fluctuations in precipitation throughout the NCP and all summer maize straw was returned to the field. Sowing date,
result in large variation in irrigation demand during the winter wheat harvest date, and time of fertilization and irrigation are shown in
growing season, and this leads to variation in the responses of GHG Table 1.
emissions.
Nitrogen (N) fertilizer is major limiting input affecting wheat yield
2.3. Precipitation scenario analysis
and GHG emissions (Hou et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2017). In order to
obtain high wheat yield, the farmers usually applied excessive N fertil­
All years were divided into wet years, normal years, and dry years
izer (Cui et al., 2010; Li and Sun, 2016), which leads to the accumulation
according to the amount of rainfall during the growth period of crops.
of NO3--N in the soil profile and brings serious environmental risks, such
The classification of precipitation conditions can aid the identification of
as massive N2O emissions and groundwater contamination (Fang et al.,
optimal irrigation practices for crops in years varying in precipitation.
2006; Gu et al., 2013). Appropriate N fertilizer input can increase soil
Empirical frequency analysis (EFA) is an approach for characterizing
organic carbon storage by promoting plant growth, especially root
rainfall patterns over the years (Zhang et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2020).
growth and the production of root exudates, which offsets part of the
The wet, normal, and dry years in the winter wheat growing seasons
GHG emissions (Shang et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2019). A previous study
from 2014 to 2020 were determined based on the Pearson type III dis­
had reported that optimization of N fertilizer rates can mitigate average
tribution. The boundary of the precipitation guarantee rate for wet,
N2O emissions by 23.5% without resulting in losses in crop yields (Tan
normal, and dry years was 25%, 50%, and 75%, respectively. The EFA
et al., 2017). Therefore, appropriate application of N fertilizer can
method was carried out as follows:
effectively balance GHG emissions and crop yields.
Understanding rational irrigation and fertilizer schedule based on
(1) Annual precipitation of the wheat-growing season was ranked in
precipitation variability is critical for agroecosystem sustainability in
chronological descending order and numbered.
the NCP. Here, a six-year field experiment was conducted to evaluate the
(2) The total length of the sequence was n, the rainfall serial number
effects of N management and irrigation schedule on the yield of winter
in a certain year was m, and the guarantee rate of each serial
wheat and GHG emissions in different precipitation year types. The
number was calculated based on the formula P = m* 100 / (n +
objectives of this study were to (1) characterize annual changes in GHG
1).
emissions under different irrigation and fertilization management
(3) An empirical frequency curve was drawn based on the average
practices; (2) evaluate the effects of irrigation and fertilization man­
rainfall over many years (rainfall is the abscissa, and the guar­
agement practices on winter wheat yield, net greenhouse gas (NGHG),
antee rate is the ordinate).
and GHGI under different precipitation conditions; (3) and identify the
(4) According to the rainfall guarantee rate curve, the precipitation
most appropriate irrigation and fertilization strategies for improving
value corresponding to different guarantee rates can be
yield and mitigating GHG emissions of winter wheat in different pre­
determined.
cipitation year types.

2. Materials and methods 2.4. Greenhouse gas emission measurements

2.1. Experimental location Greenhouse gas fluxes were measured every 10 days using a closed
static chamber. A chamber (20 ×20 ×30 cm) was inserted 50 mm into
This field experiment was conducted in a typical winter wheat­ the soil for each plot. The chamber was made of polymethyl methac­
–summer maize cropping system from October 2014 to June 2020 at rylate with a quadrate base collar, a plastic static chamber (20 × 10 ×
Wuqiao Experimental Station (37◦ 41′ N, 116◦ 37′ E) of China Agricultural
University, Hebei Province, China. The location has a temperate semi- Table 1
humid climate with a mean annual temperature of 13.1 ◦ C (the Agronomic planting details of winter wheat.
maximum temperature is 19.5 ◦ C and the minimum temperature is Year Sowing/ Harvest Irrigation period
8.39 ◦ C) and mean annual precipitation of 572 mm. More than 70% of Fertilization date
Bottom Jointing Flowering
the precipitation is concentrated in the summer maize season (June to time
water water water
September), and low rainfall is the cause of water shortages during the
2014–2015 9-Oct 9-Jun 26-Oct 1-Apr 21-May
winter wheat season. The experimental location has sandy loamy topsoil 2015–2016 14-Oct 4-Jun 10-Oct 7-Apr 20-May
(0–20 cm) and light/medium loam below the topsoil. The topsoil had a 2016–2017 13-Oct 1-Jun 13-Oct 5-Apr 21-May
total N content of 0.96 g/kg, hydrolyzed N content of 64.2 mg/kg, 2017–2018 15-Oct 25-May 13-Oct 10-Apr 12-May
available P content of 14.8 mg/kg, available K content of 124 mg/kg, 2018–2019 9-Oct 28-May 7-Oct 13-Apr 14-May
2019–2020 17-Oct 30-May 15-Oct 1-Apr 9-May
and soil organic carbon of 14.7 g/kg as the baseline soil test results.

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Z. Gao et al. Field Crops Research 280 (2022) 108484

30 cm), and a three-way valve. Gas samples were extracted from and May (Fig. 1). Years with rainfall less than the 25% guarantee rate (>
9:00–11:00 AM with a 50-mL hermetically plastic syringe through a 175 mm) and years with rainfall more than the 75% guarantee rate (<
three-way stopcock at four evenly spaced time points (0, 10, 20, and 30 91.2 mm) were considered wet and dry years, respectively. Therefore,
min after chamber closure). The GHG concentrations were measured 2015 (176 mm) and 2018 (224 mm) were considered wet years; 2019
using a chromatograph meter (Shimadzu GC-2010Plus, Japan), and the (61.1 mm) was considered a dry year; and 2016 (101 mm), 2017
gas flux rates were calculated using the following formula (Zhang et al., (110 mm), and 2020 (148 mm) were considered normal years (Fig. 2).
2013a):
F = M/V × 273/(273 + T) × dc/dt × h × 60
3.2. Soil CO2 and N2O emissions
where F is the gas emission flux (mg m–2 h–1); M (g mol–1) and V are the
3.2.1. Soil CO2 emissions
molar mass and the molar volume of gas under standard conditions
Soil CO2 fluxes showed similar periodic patterns from 2014 to 2020
(22.4 L mol− 1), respectively; T is the soil temperature at sampling (℃);
and peaked after sowing and then gradually decreased (Fig. 3). The
dc/dt is the rate of change in the GHG concentration (μL L− 1 min); h is
fluxes of CO2 were relatively stable and low from December to the
the height of the chamber (m), and 60 is the conversion factor for
following March varied from 0.57 to 211 mg m− 2 h− 1. After supple­
converting minutes to hours. The seasonal cumulative gas emissions flux
mentary irrigation at the jointing and flowering periods, CO2 fluxes
was calculated using the following equation (Singh et al., 1999):
peaked and varied from 460 to 837 mg m− 2 h− 1, from 287 to
∑n
S= 0.5 ∗ (Fi+1 + Fi ) ∗ (ti+1 − ti ) × 24 742 mg m− 2 h− 1, and from 360 to 771 mg− 1 m− 2 h− 1 in wet, normal,
and dry years, respectively.
i=1

where S is the total emission or absorption flux of CO2 and N2O in kg
hm− 2; F is the emission or absorption flux rate of CO2 (mg m− 2 h− 1) and
N2O (μg m− 2 h− 1); i represents the consecutive sampling interval; t is the
sampling time; and 24 is the conversion coefficient for converting hours
to days.
The parameter of NGHG is often used to estimate the potential effects
of GHG on the climate system. The CO2 is considered a reference gas in
the NGHG (kg CO2-eq ha− 1) estimation, N2O emissions were then con­
verted into CO2 equivalents to calculate NGHG. The following equation
was used (Maucieri et al., 2017):
NGHG(CO2 eq.) = CO2 + GWPN2 O × RN2 O
where GWPN2 O is the global warming potential of N2O relative to CO2,
which is 298-fold greater than that of CO2 on a 100-year horizon (IPCC
et al., 2007); and RN2O is the seasonal cumulative emissions.
The greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) was used to evaluate GHG
emissions per unit crop yield and was calculated as follows (Zhang et al.,
2011):
( ) ( )/
GHGI kgCO2 eq.kg− 1 grain = NGHG kgCO2 eq.ha− 1 Y(kg ha− 1 )
2.5. Auxiliary measurements
The cumulative CO2 emissions in different precipitation year types
are shown in Fig. 4A. The average cumulative CO2 emissions were
3.53% and 9.15%（P < 0.05）higher in wet years than in normal and
dry years, respectively (Table S1). Compared with W2N2, the cumula­
tive CO2 emissions were significantly lower in the W1N2 treatment by
16.7%, 14.8%, and 25.2% and W2N1 treatment by 18.9%, 19.8%, and
17.7% in wet, normal, and dry years, respectively.
Significant effects of fertilization, irrigation, and year types on cu­
mulative CO2 emissions were observed, and their contribution rates
were 47.0%, 47.0%, and 3.19%, respectively. Although the interactions
between fertilization and irrigation and irrigation and year types had
significant effects on cumulative CO2 emissions, their contribution rates
were lower (1.37% and 0.75%, respectively) (Table 2).
3.2.2. Soil N2O emissions
Soil N2O fluxes peaked following sowing and fertilization and varied
substantially between years. The fluxes of N2O were stable around
0 (Fig. 5). Small N2O peaks appeared after irrigation at the jointing and
flowering period, and no significant differences were observed between
years.
Cumulative N2O emissions were highest in wet years and were 7.95%
and 20.0% (P < 0.05) higher on average compared with normal and dry

Paralleling to each GHG sampling, soil temperature (0–10 cm) was

continuously monitored by the T-type thermocouples, and soil water
content (0–10 cm) was determined gravimetrically by drying the soil at
105 ◦ C for 24 h. The weather station (ca. 200 m away from the plots)
recorded the air temperature and precipitation every day.

2.6. Data analysis and statistics

IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 (IBM Corp., USA) was used to perform
statistical analysis. The data were checked for normality and homoge­
neity of variances. Three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
compare the effects of irrigation, N treatment, and precipitation year
types on cumulative GHG emissions, GHGI, and grain yield. Duncan’s
test was used to analyze differences in parameter averages between
treatments. The threshold for statistical significance was P < 0.05.

3. Results
3.1. Weather conditions
The mean temperature was 8.05 ◦ C during the winter wheat growing
seasons from 2014 to 2020 and was similar among years. However, the
rainfall varied throughout the year and was mainly concentrated in April
Fig. 1. Precipitation (mm) and air temperature (◦ C) during the experimental
period in Wuqiao. Wet years (2015, 2018); normal years (2016, 2017, 2020);
and dry year (2019). 2015 represents sowing in 2014 and harvesting in 2015;
2016 represents sowing in 2015 and harvesting in 2016; 2017 represents
sowing in 2016 and harvesting in 2017; 2018 represents sowing in 2017 and
harvesting in 2018; 2019 represents sowing in 2018 and harvesting in 2019;
and 2020 represents sowing in 2019 and harvesting in 2020.

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Z. Gao et al.
Fig. 2. The rainfall guarantee rate during the winter wheat growth period in
Wuqiao (1982–2020). 2015 represents sowing in 2014 and harvesting in 2015;
2016 represents sowing in 2015 and harvesting in 2016; 2017 represents
sowing in 2016 and harvesting in 2017; 2018 represents sowing in 2017 and
harvesting in 2018; 2019 represents sowing in 2018 and harvesting in 2019;
and 2020 represents sowing in 2019 and harvesting in 2020.
Fig. 3. Soil CO2 fluxes from 2014 to 2020 of winter wheat in Wuqiao. W2N2, conventional irrigation and fertilization; W2N1, conventional irrigation and nitrogen
reduction; W1N2, deficit irrigation and conventional fertilization; and W1N1, deficit irrigation and nitrogen reduction. Arrows indicate the date of irrigation.
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Field Crops Research 280 (2022) 108484
years, respectively (Fig. 4B, Table S1). Compared with W2N2, NO2
emissions were significantly lower in the W1N2 treatment by 23.6%,
21.0%, and 25.8% and W2N1 treatment by 36.3%, 34.4%, and 35.6% in
wet, normal, and dry years, respectively.
Significant effects of fertilization, irrigation, and precipitation year
types on cumulative NO2 emissions were observed. The contribution
ratio of N fertilizer to cumulative NO2 emissions was 68.6%, which was
higher than that of irrigation and precipitation year types (Table 2).
3.3. Yield, net greenhouse gas, and greenhouse gas intensity
3.3.1. Yield
Fertilization, irrigation, and precipitation year types were the main
factors affecting yield, and their contribution rates were 44.4%, 21.1%,
and 20.9%, respectively. Significant effects of the interactions between
fertilization and irrigation, irrigation and year types, and fertilization
and year types on yield were observed, but their contribution rates were
lower (3.71%, 4.10%, and 5.60%, respectively) (Table 2). The average
yield was 8.96% (P < 0.05) and 18.9% (P < 0.05) higher in wet years
than in normal and dry years, respectively (Table S1). Compared with
W1N1, the yield was significantly higher in the W2N1 treatment by
11.0%, 19.8%, and 23.0% and W1N2 treatment by 21.4%, 12.5%, and
6.07% in wet, normal, and dry years, respectively. The average yield of
W2N1 and W2N2 did not significantly differ in normal and dry years. In
addition, no significant difference in yield was observed between W1N2
and W2N2 in wet years (Fig. 6A).
Z. Gao et al. Field Crops Research 280 (2022) 108484

Fig. 4. Cumulative CO2 and N2O emissions from 2014 to 2020 of winter wheat in Wuqiao. W2N2, conventional irrigation and fertilization; W2N1, conventional
irrigation and nitrogen reduction; W1N2, deficit irrigation and conventional fertilization; and W1N1, deficit irrigation and nitrogen reduction. Different lowercase
letters indicate significant differences at P < 0.05. Vertical bars represent standard errors of the mean.

Table 2
A tree-way ANOVA for the effects of Water (W) application and Nitrogen Fertilizer (N) and Year type (Y) on CO2 and N2O emissions, net greenhouse gas (NGHG),
greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI), yield over the winter wheat growing season in Wuqiao in China. * and ** mean significance at the 0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively.
Factor CO2 emission N2O emission Yield NGHG GHGI
(t ha− 1) (kg ha− 1) (t ha− 1) (t ha− 1) (kg kg− 1)

P Contributor P Contributor P Contributor P Contributor P Contributor

rate (%) rate (%) rate (%) rate (%) rate (%)
W 0.00 ** 46.97 0.00 ** 26.06 0.00 ** 44.4 0.00 ** 45.41 0.00 ** 9.51
N 0.00 ** 47.01 0.00 ** 68.55 0.00 ** 21.07 0.00 ** 48.67 0.00 ** 50.64
Y 0.00 ** 3.19 0.00 ** 4.01 0.00 ** 20.92 0.00 ** 3.26 0.00 ** 10.05
W*N 0.02 * 1.37 0.05 1.13 0.00 ** 3.71 0.01 * 1.36 0.00 ** 17.69
W*Y 0.04 * 0.75 0.93 0.02 0.00 ** 4.10 0.04 * 0.65 0.00 ** 5.71
N*Y 0.09 0.55 0.51 0.18 0.00 ** 5.60 0.08 0.51 0.00 ** 6.33
W*N * Y 0.46 0.16 0.83 0.05 0.50 0.20 0.47 0.14 0.91 0.07

3.3.2. Net greenhouse gas and greenhouse gas intensity
Fertilization and irrigation were the main factors affecting NGHG,
and their contribution rates were 45.4% and 48.7%, respectively. Sig­
nificant effects of the interactions between fertilization and irrigation
and irrigation and year types on NGHG were observed, and their
contribution rates were 1.36% and 0.65%, respectively (Table 2). The
average NGHG was highest in wet years, which was 3.71% and 9.58%
(P < 0.05) higher compared with normal and dry years, respectively
(Fig. 6B, Table S1). In wet and normal years, the NGHG was 3.29% and
6.37% lower under W2N1 than under W1N2, respectively. In the dry
year, the NGHG was 8.21% lower under W1N2 than under W2N1. In wet
years, the GHGI of W1N2 was the lowest and was 16.5% lower compared
with W2N2. In normal and dry years, GHGI was lowest under W2N1,
which was 18.7% and 18.1% lower compared with W2N2, respectively
(Fig. 6C).
4. Discussion
4.1. Soil CO2 emissions in different precipitation year types
Across different precipitation year types, CO2 fluxes showed a similar
pattern of seasonal variation, which is consistent with the findings of a
previous study (Zhang et al., 2013b). The fluxes of CO2 peaked after
sowing, which mainly stemmed from the increase in soil respiration and
microbial activity associated with the application of N fertilizer and
irrigation (Chi et al., 2020). The fluxes of CO2 were usually low from
December to the following March and then gradually increased in
response to temperature variation. There was a significant positive
correlation between soil temperature and CO2 emissions (Figs. S1 and
S3), as soil temperature generally stimulates soil CO2 fluxes (Behnke
et al., 2018). Compared with normal and wet years, the difference in
cumulative CO2 emissions between W2N2 and W1N2 were greater in
dry year (Fig. 4A). This might be explained by the increased sensitivity
of CO2 emissions to soil water content under dry conditions (Wu et al.,
2011). Higher cumulative CO2 emissions were observed under N2 than
under N1 in all years (Fig. 4A). Application of N fertilizer might increase
the biomass of soil microbes and plant fine root, which promotes soil
respiration and leads to an increase in CO2 emissions (Hasselquist et al.,
2012).
In addition to agricultural practices, GHG emissions are affected by
weather conditions (Mehmood et al., 2019). Interannual variance of
precipitation lead to differences in soil water content, which is the main
driver of CO2 emissions (Tonetta et al., 2017). In this study, the average
cumulative CO2 emissions were highest in wet years and lowest in the
dry year. Although rainfall and irrigation under dry conditions can
stimulate the rapid decomposition of organic matter after prolonged
drought and increase CO2 emissions, the process is transitory (Lee et al.,
2004). Water deficits in dry year during wheat growth lead to a decline
in biomass, fertility, and photosynthesis, which might affect the rhizo­
sphere carbon supply, resulting in lower cumulative CO2 emissions
compared with wet years (Harper et al., 2005).
4.2. Soil N2O emissions in different precipitation year types
Soil N2O fluxes peaked after sowing, which was mainly related to
pre-sowing irrigation and fertilization (Riya et al., 2012). Peak value of
N2O varied greatly between years, higher N2O emission peaks were
observed in 2016–2017 and 2017–2018 (Fig. 5C, D), which might be

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Z. Gao et al. Field Crops Research 280 (2022) 108484

Fig. 5. Soil N2O fluxes from 2014 to 2020 of winter wheat in Wuqiao. W2N2, conventional irrigation and fertilization; W2N1, conventional irrigation and nitrogen
reduction; W1N2, deficit irrigation and conventional fertilization; and W1N1, deficit irrigation and nitrogen reduction. Arrows indicate the date of irrigation.

Fig. 6. The yield, net greenhouse gas (NGHG), and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) of winter wheat in different treatments during different precipitation years in
Wuqiao. W2N2, conventional irrigation and fertilization; W2N1, conventional irrigation and nitrogen reduction; W1N2, deficit irrigation and conventional fertil­
ization; W1N1, deficit irrigation and nitrogen reduction. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at P < 0.05. Vertical bars represent standard
errors of the mean.

related to the higher humidity caused by precipitation during the sowing
period (Figs. S2 and S3), the elevated soil moisture stimulated microbial
activity, which induced denitrification and accelerated the conversion of
N to N2O (Silva et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2003). The period of supple­
mentary irrigation also affected N2O emissions. The fluxes of N2O were
higher during the jointing stage than during the flowering period
(Fig. 5), which is consistent with the findings of Wang et al. (2021). This
might be explained by the application of irrigation coupled with rainfall
during the jointing stage, which kept the soil wet for a long time and the
continual depletion of fertilizer during the growth of winter wheat

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Z. Gao et al.
(Trost et al., 2014; Jabro et al., 2008). Higher cumulative N2O emissions
were observed under N2 than under N1 in all precipitation year types.
Appropriate N application can keep N2O emissions stable and the N2O
emissions increase sharply as the amount of N fertilizer applied increases
(Bouwman et al., 2002; Huang et al., 2017).
In this study, cumulative N2O emissions were highest in wet years,
followed by normal years and the dry year, which was attributed to
variation in rainfall in different precipitation year types; this affected
GHG emissions by regulating soil moisture and soil aeration (Davidson
et al., 2008). Soil N2O can be produced by nitrification under aerobic
conditions or denitrification under anaerobic conditions. Low rainfall
associated with dry year reduces bacterial decomposition, soil fertility,
and nitrifying bacteria N availability, which releases lower N2O. How­
ever, heavy rainfall events in wet years lead to higher soil moisture,
which creates anaerobic conditions that stimulate increases in microbial
activity and denitrification (Hu et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019). Compared
with wet years, rainfall pulses in normal years were smaller, which
might lead to lower soil respiration, thereby reducing cumulative N2O
emissions.
4.3. Yield and NGHG in different precipitation year types
Climate conditions have a significant effect on water and N optimi­
zation (Tang et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2017). In the study, the optimal
combination of water and N for maximizing yield while minimizing
GHG emissions of winter wheat under different precipitation year types
was explored.
Previous studies have shown that the optimal amount of irrigation of
winter wheat in wet, normal, and dry years is 99, 161, and 186 mm,
respectively, based on long-term field observed data from 1984 to 2005
in the NCP (Sun et al., 2010). The jointing and flowering periods were
the periods in which winter wheat was most sensitive to water shortages
(Zheng et al., 2016), and a relatively high yield can be obtained when
irrigation is applied during both periods (Zhao et al., 2020). In wet
years, precipitation was mainly concentrated in the jointing and flow­
ering periods. Increasing irrigation amount did not significantly improve
yield when the total irrigation amount was higher than 150 mm (W1)
because rainfall was sufficient for meeting the growth requirements of
winter wheat. Therefore, N fertilizer became the main factor limiting
winter wheat yield. In this study, the W1N2 treatment achieved signif­
icantly lower NGHG and GHGI and resulted in commensurate winter
wheat yield compared with W2N2, therefore, W1N2 was considered the
optimal treatment in wet years.
In normal years, the yield of winter wheat was significantly higher in
W2N1 than in W1N1, indicating that the total irrigation amount of
150 mm did not meet the growth requirements of crops in normal years.
The lower NGHG and higher yield in the W2N1 treatment obtained the
lowest GHGI. In dry years, low rainfall impedes the absorption of nu­
trients and the distribution of photosynthetic products (Wang et al.,
2021), thus, increasing the irrigation amount was effective for
increasing yield (Table 2). However, higher irrigation amount stimu­
lated an increase in CO2 emissions (Jia et al., 2013), resulting in a higher
NGHG in W2 compared with W1 (Fig. 6B). Given that it increased yield
and reduced GHGI, W2N1 was considered the optimal treatment in dry
year.
Previous studies have shown that both yield and NGHG are positively
correlated with rainfall, and yield increases by 21.4 kg ha− 1 when
rainfall increases by 1 mm (Gan et al., 2014; Deng et al., 2011). In our
results, the average yield and NGHG of different precipitation year types
were highest in wet years and lowest in dry year, which was consistent
with the results of Xu et al. (2020). Therefore, optimization of irrigation
and fertilization based on precipitation year types in water-scarce areas
can promote the sustainable development of agriculture while saving
water and fertilizer resources.
7
Field Crops Research 280 (2022) 108484
5. Conclusion
During the six-year period of the experiment, precipitation fluctu­
ated greatly during the winter wheat growing seasons. Interannual
variation in precipitation significantly affected GHG emissions in the
field and wheat productivity, and the average GHG and yield were
higher in wet years than in normal and dry years. Appropriate strategies
of reduced water and nitrogen application have the potential to reduce
GHG emissions without compromising the wheat yield, compared with
conventional irrigation and nitrogen management (W2N2). Without
decreasing grain yield, W1N2 treatment of the deficit irrigation signif­
icantly decreased CO2 emissions and NGHG by 16.7% and 17.1%,
respectively, in wet years; W2N1 treatment with the N reduction
resulted in lower NGHG and GHGI in normal years and the dry year.
Therefore, deficit irrigation coupled with conventional fertilization in
wet years, and conventional irrigation combined with nitrogen reduc­
tion in normal years and dry years, are effective management ap­
proaches for winter wheat in the NCP. These differentiated strategies of
irrigation and nitrogen management based on precipitation year types
improve the utilization efficiency of water and fertilizers, maintain
productivity, and promote the sustainable development of resources and
the environment.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Zhenzhen Gao: Methodology, Trial participation, Formal analysis,
Writing – original draft. Chong Wang: Modification, Writing – review &
editing. Jiongchao Zhao: Modification, Writing – review & editing.
Kaicheng Wang: Trial participation. Mengfei Shang: Data curation.
Yusu Qin: Trial participation. Xiaozhi Bo: Formal analysis, Investiga­
tion. Fu Chen: Project administration, Funding acquisition. Qingquan
Chu: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
Funding acquisition.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foun­
dation of China (grant No. 31871581) and the National Key Research
and Development Program of China (grant No. 2016YFD0300201).
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108484.
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