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English Literature Exam Revision

Othello/To kill a Mockingbird/Heroes

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Contents

Extract Questions............................................................................................................................................. 1
Mood and Atmosphere.........................................................................................................................................1
What does this reveal?.........................................................................................................................................1

Characters: Othello.......................................................................................................................................... 3
Othello..................................................................................................................................................................3
Desdemona...........................................................................................................................................................4
Iago...................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Michael Cassio.....................................................................................................................................................6
Themes: Othello............................................................................................................................................... 7
Jealousy................................................................................................................................................................ 7

Character Profiles: Heroes................................................................................................................................ 8

Larry LaSalle(On Last Year’s Paper).....................................................................................................................8
Francis Cassavant.................................................................................................................................................8
Nicole Renard....................................................................................................................................................... 9
Themes: Heroes............................................................................................................................................. 10
(Illusion of) Heroism............................................................................................................................................10

Characters: To Kill A Mockingbird................................................................................................................... 12

Jean Louise “Scout” Finch (On Last Year’s Paper)..............................................................................................12
Jeremy Atticus “Jem” Finch.................................................................................................................................12
Charles Baker “Dill” Harris..................................................................................................................................13
Atticus Finch....................................................................................................................................................... 15
The Radleys........................................................................................................................................................17
Bob and Mayella Ewell.......................................................................................................................................18
Calpurnia............................................................................................................................................................ 19
Themes: To Kill A Mockingbird....................................................................................................................... 20
Women and Femininity (Stephanie, Maudie, Aunt Alexandra)...........................................................................20

Unseen Poetry............................................................................................................................................... 21

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Extract Questions

Mood and Atmosphere

What does this reveal?

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Characters: Othello

Othello
Othello's commanding posture, his calmness as he meets the swords of Brabantio's posse with a joke ("Keep up
your bright swords, for the dew will rust 'em"; I, ii, 59) conveys a sense of physical prowess so obvious that it is
rarely called into action; when Othello threatens the brawlers in II, iii, 160, 193-5) we have a sense of enormous
power subdued by complete self-control.

Othello sometimes makes a point of presenting himself as an outsider, whether because he recognizes his exotic
appeal or because he is self-conscious of and defensive about his difference from other Venetians. For example, in
spite of his obvious eloquence in Act I, scene iii, he protests, “Rude am I in my speech, / And little blessed with the
soft phrase of peace.”

Othello is not experienced in love, and his feelings for Desdemona have the exaggerated character of adolescent
emotion; despite their maturity in other respects, the couple are naive about love.

When Iago first hints at Desdemona’s unfaithfulness, Othello first seeks out “ocular proof” before making any
judgments or broaching the subject with his wife.

There are a couple of ways we can read Othello's eagerness to believe the worst about his wife. Some literary
critics suggest that Othello believes that all women are inherently promiscuous. This seems to be the case when
he says things like all men are "destined" to be cuckolded by their wives (3.3.42). Other critics argue that Othello
begins to absorb the racist attitudes that surround him in Venice. In other words, Othello begins to believe that 1)
he's not good enough for Desdemona because he's black and 2) as a black man, his relationship with his wife may
"soil" her.

Because Bianca is a courtesan in a city renowned for prostitution and promiscuity, she's a foil to the chaste and
ever-faithful Desdemona. Othello, however, doesn't recognize the difference between these women – he's
persuaded that Desdemona is cheating even though there's no real proof. This speaks to a much larger issue in
the play, which is that all three women are accused at some point or another of being promiscuous.

We may also want to consider another possibility. Othello's destructiveness, his determination to punish
Desdemona for cheating on him, stems from his rage that Desdemona's immoral actions have also damaged him.
What makes Othello so furious, Garber suggests, is that, when it comes to himself, Othello is a perfectionist.

Othello's dangerous perfectionism may stem from his position as an outsider, a black man in white Venetian
society. Othello only could have risen to his position of power through incredible self-discipline. we have to
consider carefully why Othello is so obsessed with his own self-image, and why he is so easily persuaded that
Desdemona would tire of him and move on to another man.

Iago's triumph is to persuade Othello that Desdemona is like (the worst of) other Venetian women, when he has
reason to believe otherwise. In the early part of the play, Shakespeare takes pains to show how calm, dignified
and noble Othello is, how eloquent his speech: under the influence of Iago he becomes terrifying and violent. This
contrast and the degradation into which Othello briefly sinks are truly shocking. The attack on his wife is an
extremely calculated and planned one, as Othello seeks to rationalize his decision, slanting it in the form of an
execution of a strumpet, instead of the murder of an innocent. Before his death, Othello recovers his dignity and
eloquence.

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 Desdemona
Like Othello, Desdemona undergoes a dramatic transformation over the course of the play. At the play's
beginning, Desdemona's an adventurous spirit – when her new husband is called away for military duty in Cyprus,
she begs to go with him and can't stand the thought of remaining at home, where there isn't any action.

We also know Desdemona has said she wishes "the heavens had made her a man like Othello," which could mean
that she wanted to marry a man like Othello, or that wishes she were a man like Othello, instead of a woman.

Othello's colour is not a problem; it is precisely because of his unusual background that Desdemona loves him,
and that their great happiness is destroyed, not by their own love in any sense, but by Iago's malice in exploiting
Othello's love and Desdemona's obedience.

Desdemona is a more plausible, well-rounded figure than much criticism has given her credit for. Arguments that
see Desdemona as stereotypically weak and submissive ignore the conviction and authority of her first speech
(“My noble father, / I do perceive here a divided duty” ) and her terse fury after Othello strikes her (“I have not
deserved this”)

Similarly, critics who argue that Desdemona’s slightly bizarre bawdy jesting with Iago in Act II, scene i, is either
an interpolation not written by Shakespeare or a mere vulgarity ignore the fact that Desdemona is young, sexual,
and recently married. She later displays the same chiding, almost mischievous wit when she attempts to persuade
Othello to forgive Cassio.

At times, Desdemona also seems a bit naïve, especially when it comes to marital relationships – at one point, she
asks an incredulous Emilia if it's possible that a woman would ever cheat on her husband. This gives us a hint as
to why Desdemona doesn't seem to have a clue that Othello suspects her of infidelity – for Desdemona, the idea
is simply unthinkable. Despite her loyalty to her husband, Othello physically and verbally abuses Desdemona,
slapping her and calling her a whore in public.

Although Othello does not directly accuse Desdemona of betraying him until Act V, his treatment of her in public,
would naturally prompt her to ask for an explanation: but having resolved to show duty to her husband, it is a
matter of principle with her that she show it unquestioningly, as he shows it to the state in his military service.

Tragically, Desdemona is apparently aware of her imminent death. She, not Othello, asks Emilia to put her
wedding sheets on the bed, and she asks Emilia to bury her in these sheets should she die first. Like the audience,
Desdemona seems able only to watch as her husband is driven insane with jealousy. Though she maintains to the
end that she is “guiltless,” Desdemona also forgives her husband (V.ii.133). Her forgiveness of Othello may help
the audience to forgive him as well.

Desdemona is at times a submissive character, most notably in her willingness to take credit for her own murder.
In response to Emilia’s question, “O, who hath done this deed?” Desdemona’s final words are, “Nobody, I myself.
Farewell. / Commend me to my kind lord. The play, then, depicts Desdemona contradictorily as a self-effacing,
faithful wife and as a bold, independent personality. This contradiction may be intentional, meant to portray the
way Desdemona herself feels after defending her choice of marriage to her father in Act I, scene iii, and then
almost immediately being put in the position of defending her fidelity to her husband. She begins the play as a
supremely independent person, but midway through she must struggle against all odds to convince Othello that
she is not too independent. The manner in which Desdemona is murdered—smothered by a pillow in a bed
covered in her wedding sheets—is symbolic: she is literally suffocated beneath the demands put on her fidelity.

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Since her first lines, Desdemona has seemed capable of meeting or even rising above those demands. In the end,
Othello stifles the speech that made Desdemona so powerful.

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 Iago
One reason why this play is so shocking is not just that we see a good man destroyed by a wicked one, but that
the weaker, incomplete, Iago brings down the stronger, nobler and fully human Othello. So how does this
happen? A common mistake is to see Iago as a masterly villain, fully in control of his victim, only losing his grip
when the tragedy is irreversible. Rather, he is an opportunist, who rides his luck but is forced by Othello's
unexpected passion to try to compass the deaths of Desdemona and Cassio.

Possibly the most heinous villain in Shakespeare, Iago is fascinating for his most terrible characteristic: his utter
lack of convincing motivation for his actions. In the first scene, he claims to be angry at Othello for having passed
him over for the position of lieutenant (I.i. 7–32). At the end of Act I, scene iii, Iago says he thinks Othello may
have slept with his wife, Emilia: “It is thought abroad that ’twixt my sheets / He has done my office.”

Shakespeare scholar Harold Bloom argues that Iago is an artist of evil. That Iago enjoys ruining people's lives. He
does it with a sense of craftsmanship, appreciating the elegance or cleverness of a particular step in his scheme
as much as its final result: incredible suffering for the people he has chosen. Iago is often funny, especially in his
scenes with the foolish Roderigo, which serve as a showcase of Iago’s manipulative -abilities. He seems almost to
wink at the audience as he revels in his own skill.

Iago is able to hurt Othello so much because he understands him so well. He even grows closer to Othello as his
plot progresses. Iago manipulates him so expertly that at times it seems he is actually inside Othello's head.

On the one hand, we could say that Iago has no real motives – he's just plain evil. Poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge
calls Iago "a being next to the devil, only not quite the devil" and goes on to call Iago's behaviour "motiveless
malignity." If we agree that Iago has no real motives for hurting Othello, we could also argue that Iago's
character is kind of "Vice" figure albeit more complex than most.

No matter how you choose to interpret it, think about the fact that Iago is often our focus in this play. We follow
his storyline more than Othello's and we spend more time with him than Othello. We watch him in a variety of
relationships – his manipulation of Roderigo, his treatment of his wife, his pseudo-friendship with Othello. If it
weren't for the fact that Iago undergoes basically no changes, you could even argue that he's the main character.

At the same time, Iago makes clear that he has no belief in, nor understanding of, "duty" or "service" as abstract
ideals: Othello has by his service of Venice gained status and reputation (and, indirectly, a wife) but his motive
has been duty. He has pledged absolute allegiance to the state, and has never wavered in his service. Iago's
ridiculing of what he obviously lacks goes beyond attacks on duty, to almost every quality men admire: seeing in
others what he lacks, and cannot even understand, he attacks these virtues with ridicule and tries to destroy
them. If he believes his own rhetoric (and this is a very open question) it is to conceal from himself his own
inadequacy. He is dismissive of love (his marriage seems very much a partnership of mutual help; Emilia admits
her readiness to use sexual favours to advance Iago's prospects) which he reduces to "a lust of the blood and a
permission of the will", and he rejects "virtue" as meaningless.

In the commotion, Iago is able to stab his wife, who falls, apparently dying. Iago flees and is pursued by Montano
and Graziano Iago sneers that he bleeds but is not killed. He refuses to say anything more about what he has
done, but Lodovico produces a letter found in Roderigo’s pocket that reveals everything that has happened.

Shakespeare scholar Harold Bloom points out that of all the people in the play, Emilia is the only one that Iago
underestimates – and she's the only one who ultimately can bring Iago down. That's an interesting irony. Iago,

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who is so good at predicting and manipulating other people's behaviour, only fails to understand one person –
the person he should have known best.

Michael Cassio
Cassio is a hinge on which the play turns. On the one hand, it is his promotion that arouses Iago's jealously. On
the other, it is his alleged (but non-existent) love affair with Desdemona that arouses Othello's jealousy. Cassio is
very much of a ladies' man. He is in no position to marry (as a young soldier, seeking promotion) and is gallant
towards his friend's wife (in whom he has no sexual interest) while wasting no time in coming to an arrangement
with the camp-follower, Bianca, which is almost entirely sexual. This comes back to bite Cassio in the end, since
his flirtatious charisma helps convince Othello that Cassio is having sex with Desdemona.

His treatment of women depicts a slovenly attitude with romance, one that thinks of women as more of a
plaything or passing fancy. Perhaps Cassio might even be accused of using women in the same way that Iago
does; he initially hopes to persuade Emilia to plead with Desdemona to intervene on his behalf and then allows
Desdemona to take up his cause. We might also feel that his reluctance to face Othello reveals a rather weak
character.

However, his treatment of Bianca would seem less harsh to the Jacobean audience than to us (they would accept
his using her, as appropriate to her class and character, and would recognize her acceptance of the
arrangement).

Cassio seems to represent the impishness of youth, the suave, debonair, and eye-catching gallantry that attracts
lady folk to military men. Theodore Spencer wrote of Shakespeare's Othello, that these three main traits—
grandeur, self-control, and nobility—are key to understanding Othello's complex character, and even more
helpful in understanding the contrasts between him and his subordinates. Most notably in this comparison is
young Michael Cassio, a beautifully written foil character to the general in the fact that where Othello possesses
these three qualities (and others), Cassio either lacks them entirely or enhances them to the betterment of those
around him.

But Cassio is genuinely gracious in his friendship to Othello and Desdemona, whose virtue he praises; the most
telling description of him comes from his enemy, Iago, who acknowledges the "daily beauty in his life".

His frank admission that he has a weak head for drink immediately after this conversation also suggests his open
honesty and innocence, as does his swift and eloquent remorse once he has lost his position. Cassio,
comparatively, is quick to forgive the injury of Othello’s dismissal and instead pleads his case only as a loyal
servant of his general. His emotional “Dear general, I never gave you cause,” reveals his true heart despite the
boyish immaturity that marks his character.

Cassio on the flip side is a slave of passion. Not always a negative trait to possess, the passion he exhibits is a
passion for life, of enjoying every moment and living in the present, as evinced by his rollicking romance with
Bianca, his cajoling with Iago, Montano, and the men of the watch, and his overall pleasantry with his superiors
and the ladies around him. The fact that he is a soldier in a high court suggests that he is not of a royal or noble
bloodline but a man who had to earn his reputation and favour in the eyes of those he served.

Cassio then acts as an expansion of this similarity to Othello in the final scene; Othello’s sense of justice has been
manipulated and disintegrates into a desperate sacrifice of the one he loves to a perverted justice that has been
twisted by the evil Iago. Cassio, another nonce t victim in this strange perversion of Iago’s hatred, has a chance -
unlike the poor Desdemona - to redeem himself in Othello’s eyes. As Cassio is allowed to reveal the truth, one
sees Othello’s admirable traits being transferred to the young lieutenant who is now granted full supremacy over
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the region in Othello’s place. Cassio, ever the complement to Othello’s characteristics and personality, has the
final victory in the twisted lie of Iago’s making, resulting in a victory of good over evil.

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Themes: Othello

Jealousy
In Othello, jealousy takes many forms, from sexual suspicion to professional competition, but it is, in all cases,
destructive.

The play opens with a discussion of jealousy. Iago is upset because Othello selected Michael Cassio as his
lieutenant. He is jealous of Cassio's position both in the military and with Othello's service. This initial jealousy is
the catalyst for the play's sequential plot of mixed jealousy and destruction.

The lovesick Roderigo has trouble with his hidden feelings for Desdemona and is jealous watching the two in love.
He follows Iago's directions easily, perhaps partially because of his jealousy of Othello's relationship with
Desdemona.

Jealousy is what appears to destroy Othello. It is the emotion suggested to him by Iago in Act 3, Scene 3. Iago
thinks he knows jealousy, having rehearsed it in his relationship with Emilia to the extent that Emilia believes
jealousy is part of the personality of men, but Iago's jealously is a poor, weak thought compared to the storm of
jealousy he stirs up in Othello.

Othello's jealousy is unexpected in its intensity; it helps Iago by clouding his general's reason, but represents also
the great danger to himself which can only be averted by Desdemona's and Cassio's killing. This jealousy is the
flaw in Othello's otherwise exemplary character; it is not implausible that Othello's jealous conduct should so
surprise those around him: before his marriage to Desdemona there has been no occasion for it to emerge:
jealousy cannot exist in a vacuum but is a perversion of trust.

The one Othello loves "too well" isn't Desdemona – it's himself. Jealousy is an intensely self-centred emotion, and
Othello spends much of the play obsessed with how Desdemona has hurt him and trying to get back at her for it.
He's obsessed with his feelings, the way that her cheating reflects on him.

Scholar Marjorie Garber suggests that Othello's self-absorption starts way before Iago gets to him. She points out
that Othello equates his inner, personal life with his outer, professional life. He can't draw any boundaries
between them. Most people may not believe, as Othello does, that a problem in their personal life could destroy
their ability to function in their careers. But in Othello's scene with the Senate, he's eager to assure the senators
that he won't let his marriage get in the way of his career. And when Othello thinks Desdemona has cheated on
him, his first reaction is to declare, "Farewell the pluméd troops and the big wars… Othello's occupation's gone"

Othello symbolizes the human soul placed between the demonic Iago and the angelic Desdemona. Both of these
characters demand his love and his loyalty and his fate is torn between them. Desdemona personifies an angel
who represents the spirit of self-sacrifice and intense love. In her undeserved death, she symbolizes Christian love
and the acceptance of God's will. Iago is a two-sided character. The inherently evil side of his malicious nature
uses trickery to damn Othello's soul with no apparent motive

Bianca, Cassio's common lover, also becomes sick with jealousy. She sees the planted handkerchief in Cassio's
room and believes him to also have taken a lover. Her jealousy exists on a much smaller scale, but illustrates that
the sentiment is universal.

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As the play concludes, all causes of jealousy are proved false. Desdemona was never unfaithful, but Othello
realizes the truth too late. Jealousy is the source of pain and death for these tragic characters; the green-eyed
monster has succeeded in killing them.

Character Profiles: Heroes

Larry LaSalle(On Last Year’s Paper)

‘Intro- Foil to Francis is ‘the man I am going to kill.’
Often punished by the nuns for talking out of turn’ – Different from other adult
‘Tall and slim’ like a superhero or a celebrity ‘Movie star style,’ ‘Fred Astaire.’
Foreshadowing. ‘the rumours only added to his mystery’ – cannot be beaten
Larry lets Francis win as a ‘gift’ foreshadowing the way he manipulates him later
Fooled the reader too – this ambiguity about LaSalle’s character is continued through the book, reflecting the
theme of concealment and revelation
One of the first to enlist in the war – first time he is given negative connotations
When Larry manipulates Francis into leaving them alone together for a last dance, Nicole still seems
unsettled. She asks him not to go, but Larry’s hold over Francis seems to be stronger than Nicole’s.
Ironically, after Francis has created the picture of the beautiful but dangerous monster, when he finally
confronts him, LaSalle is presented as a shell of his former self. He is ‘fragile’ and his eyes are ‘sunk into the
sockets’. He is not immune from the effects of war which have been shown to have such an impact on Francis
and the other war veterans elsewhere in the book.
Really, LaSalle’s legs are “gone”, but symbolically he is unable to run from the truth!
However, the sinister aspects of LaSalle’s character are fully highlighted in this scene, when he talks of the
‘sweet young things’. He continues to manipulate Francis to the very end. Part of this is his ability and
intention to make Francis feel better about himself.
Ultimately selfish, ‘you wanted to die.’ This coupled with his reference to other ‘sweet young things’ which
suggests that Nicole was not his first victim-deluded
Never allowed to become a complete monster

Francis Cassavant
Is Francis a hero? Look at his motives.
Stays anonymous - changed by the war – dramatic way of writing reminiscent of pre-rape Francis
Romantic in his outlook on the world, yet his injuries are presented in a ‘matter-of-fact’ manner
Turns Nicole into a religious figure.
The irony becomes that Francis gradually turns out to be a knight for his country in World War Two.
His happiness dampened by his jealousy of the relationship between Larry and Nicole.
‘His eyes moved to Nicole’s face and I saw a rush of affection’ – naïve
He does do his best to ensure that he has no future, by burning the contact details of his friend from the
hospital in England, and of the doctor who says he will repair his face. He calls this ‘closing doors to the
future’. He seems to be doing this to leave himself no option but to go through with this plan.
Francis accepts responsibility for what happens to Nicole, without question.
Francis has a strong sense of guilt. He has had a Catholic education and in chapter one he prays in church. He
is reluctant to pray for the man he plans to kill, but he does it out of duty. Similarly he decides to join the
army because suicide would not only be a sin, but shameful.
He does not want personal glory for this – he does not even tell Nicole when he visits her.
He describes the gun as being ‘like a tumour on my thigh’, which suggests he is not comfortable
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He spends the whole book waiting for LaSalle’s return to Frenchtown so that he can seek revenge. In the end
LaSalle takes his own life

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Nicole Renard
Cormier presents her as a symbol of innocence and purity who is eventually soiled by the actions of Larry
Defenceless - ‘small and slender’ Modest – ‘uncertain and shy’
Nicole is a bit of a mystery through the book, more conspicuous through her absence than her presence.
This is appropriate because she is more important in what she symbolises to Francis – happiness and
innocence – than in their actual relationship.
Francis creates an impossibly romantic image of Nicole and of their relationship. When she is first
introduced, she appears to him like a saint, while he is ‘like a knight at her feet’. The simile emphasises
his chaste worship of her.
Nicole is beautiful, and becomes a superb dancer through LaSalle’s classes at the Wreck Centre. Her
grace and beauty are destroyed by the rape – like the peace and innocence of the world is shattered by
the war.
She is flattered by Larry – her relationship with Lar has a very sexual undercurrent, but unlike Francis he
judges her on real life merits
Nicole seems to enjoy the close attentions of Larry without understanding their implications
She awakens love and devotion in Francis who gains confidence through their relationship
Friendly and witty before – Sarcastic and cutting after ‘Poor Francis’
Through the fact that women are often encouraged to speak out about being raped or sexually abused,
the decentness of Nicole is further epitomized by not revealing her ghastly and horrifying experience to
her loved ones
She blames Francis for not protecting her from Larry’s assault, which becomes the key moment in his life
She speaks honestly to Francis at the end of the book, indicating that their relationship is at an end and
that it is time for him to move on
When Francis sees her at the end of the book she has become ‘brittle’. She is, however, recovering, and it
is clear that she will survive, although it is taking a great deal of strength to do so. She has grown up –
and is just ‘finding out’ who she really is.
Nicole is much more mature than Francis – although she initially blames him for standing by and not
stopping LaSalle, she realises very quickly her error and tries to find him to tell him so. Unfortunately he
has already left for the army. She does not blame Francis, but this means that their final meeting is not
quite the climactic event he imagined. She does not want to see him again, because it is necessary for
her to put both him and LaSalle behind her. She has not romanticised Francis in the way he has done her.
She is the one who tells Francis that he should try to write through what he has experienced: it is her
wisdom that enables him to find a way to survive the experiences he has been through.

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Themes: Heroes

(Illusion of) Heroism

War heroes are portrayed as victims in the novel and are unable to return to normal life. The people in
Frenchtown see a sanitised version of glory and heroism in the cinema. They are proud of the contribution they
can make to a war which is taking place such a long way away. However, the survivors bring back with them the
reality of their wartime experiences and are unable to function.

The Silver Star is the only medal awarded for ‘heroism’, we are told. Both LaSalle and Francis have been awarded
this medal, for saving the lives of their fellow soldiers. LaSalle does so by taking out a machine gun nest, Francis
by falling on a grenade – the grenade that destroys his face. Is it significant that one wins it by committing an act
of violence, whereas the other wins it by taking the damage himself? It impresses the townsfolk – but Francis
wants to remain anonymous. Francis goes to great lengths to hide his identity on his return to Frenchtown. He
hides his injuries to protect others. He tells the reader he likes to think that the scarf he wears makes him look like
a war hero. This is the only time that he talks about being a hero.

Francis finds Arthur drunk outside the back of the St Jude club one night. Arthur is crying, because he is haunted
by the war but nobody will talk about it. He scoffs at the idea of ‘heroes’ and says they were all just scared boys,
and that there was no glamour involved. He says ‘We weren’t heroes. We were only there.’

This can be interpreted in two ways. One is that it is wrong for people to call them heroes, because they didn’t act
like heroes. It was merely chance that they were there in the war. But when Francis remembers Arthur’s words
right at the end of the book, it gives them a different interpretation. Francis is suggesting that merely by being
there they were heroes – scared or not, they did what they had to do and did not run away.

On his return home Larry LaSalle receives a traditional hero’s welcome with speeches from the mayor and the
whole town turns out to greet him. He is described as a stereotypical hero – like a character who has stepped
down from the cinema screen, resplendent in his lieutenant’s uniform with ribbons and medals on his chest. The
young Francis admires Larry for his traditional war exploits, just as he has admired all the young men when they
returned home in their uniform. Ironic that the night he is hailed as a hero he revealed to be the villain.

Why do Francis and Nicole not tell everyone the truth about LaSalle? Why does Francis tell no-one (apart from
LaSalle) that he fell on the grenade because he wanted to die? When Arthur is drunk and crying about his
wartime experiences, his two veteran friends pick him and take him home, not wanting Arthur to talk about the
war. There seems to be a conspiracy not to reveal the heroes for what they are. Is Cormier suggesting that we
need heroes, even if they are fake? This is also suggested by the very positive effects of Francis beating LaSalle at
table tennis. LaSalle knows that if the other children believe Francis has beaten him it will give them more self-
confidence. Although LaSalle fakes the result, Francis is a hero. Cormier is suggesting that even fake heroes can
have a positive value in society.

Nicole tells Francis that he should write about it, in order to find out what a hero really is. This suggests the
answer to the question is in the book. But what is it? In the train station Francis thinks of the soldiers in his
platoon who were scared, but stayed and fought anyway. They died and were never awarded medals, and he
calls them the real heroes. This is a straightforward way of looking back at those who died in the war.

Francis and Larry, who were both awarded the Silver Star, are the most obvious representations of heroism but
other characters are heroes in their own ways. Robert Cormier uses Arthur Rivier as the representative of

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ordinary heroes in Chapter 8. Perhaps it is the ordinary heroes that Cormier wants the reader to remember most.
We must not forget that the young Germans Francis shot were also heroes to someone too.

Characters: To Kill A Mockingbird

Jean Louise “Scout” Finch (On Last Year’s Paper)

As a child, Scout doesn't understand the full implication of the things happening around her, making her an
objective observer and a reporter in the truest sense. In many ways To Kill a Mockingbird is Scout's memoir
— the adult Jean Louise can better understand the impact of various events than the child.
In terms of her social identity, she is unusual for being a tomboy in the prim and proper Southern world of
Maycomb. (Woman and Femininity Theme)
There is a gentle, mocking humour in the author’s account of the Finch family history and the disparity
between Simon Finch’s professed religion and his practice of it,
She does not always grasp social niceties (she tells her teacher that one of her fellow students is too poor to
pay her back for lunch), and human behaviour often baffles her (one of her teachers criticizes Hitler’s
prejudice against Jews while indulging in her own prejudice against blacks), but Atticus’s protection of Scout
from hypocrisy and social pressure has left her open, forthright, and well meaning.
By engaging, Mr Cunningham in conversation Scout reminds him of his personal responsibility.
Scout pities rather than condemns Mayella

Jeremy Atticus “Jem” Finch

Jem ages from 10 to 13 over the course of To Kill a Mockingbird, a period of great change in any child's life.
Jem is no exception to this rule. Interestingly, the changes he undergoes are seen from the point-of-view of a
younger sister, which gives a unique perspective on his growth.
His own sister finds Jem a genuinely likeable boy, if sometimes capable of "maddening superiority." He very
much wants to be like his father, and plans to follow him into law. He idolizes Atticus and would rather risk
personal injury than disappoint his father.
Jem represents the idea of bravery in the novel, and the way that his definition changes over the course of
the story is important. The shift that occurs probably has as much to do with age as experience, although the
experiences provide a better framework for the reader. When the story begins, Jem's idea of bravery is
simply touching the side of the Radley house and then only because "In all his life, Jem had never declined a
dare." But as the story progresses, Jem learns about bravery from Atticus facing a mad dog, and from Mrs.
Dubose's fight with addiction, among others.
As he grows older, he begins to do what is right even though his decision may not be popular. For instance,
when Dill sneaks into Scout's bedroom after running away, Jem can only say, "'You oughta let your mother
know where you are'" and makes the difficult decision to involve Atticus. Afterward, he's temporarily exiled
by his friends, but he maintains the rightness of his decision without apology.
Like many adolescents, Jem is idealistic. Even after Atticus' long explanation about the intricacies of the Tom
Robinson case, Jem is unable to accept the jury's conviction. In fact, he is ready to overhaul the justice system
and abolish juries altogether. His disillusionment upon seeing that justice does not always prevail leaves him
vulnerable and confused at a critical, formative point in his life. Nevertheless, he upholds the commitment to
justice that Atticus instilled in him and maintains it with deep conviction throughout the novel.
Even before the end of the novel, Jem shows signs of having learned a positive lesson from the trial; for
instance, at the beginning of Chapter 25, he refuses to allow Scout to squash a roly-poly bug because it has
done nothing to harm her. Jem grows from a boy who drags his sister along as a co-conspirator to a young
gentleman who protects his Scout and tries to help her understand the implications of the events around her.
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 Charles Baker “Dill” Harris
Because he hails from Mississippi, Dill Harris is an outsider, but having relatives in Maycomb, as well as being a
child, grants him immediate acceptance in the town. Dill is an interesting character because his personality is a
compilation of many of the story's other characters. As such, Dill functions as a sort of moral thermometer for the
reader in understanding Maycomb. Readers, especially those who don't live in the South, are as much strangers
to Maycomb as Dill is, and so he paves the way for the reader's objective observance of the story Scout has to
tell.

Dill, " whose head teemed with eccentric plans, strange longings, and quaint fancies" (1.39). The Finch kids may
have active imaginations, but they're firmly entrenched in the reality of Maycomb. Thanks to Dill's outsider
status, he can see the Maycomb community from a different perspective.

Dill is an observer much like Scout; however, he has no vested interest or innate understanding of the various
folks he encounters. Dill doesn't know his biological father, just as Scout doesn't know her mother. In his attempts
to lure Boo Radley outside, Dill's not much different than Bob Ewell with Tom Robinson, although admittedly,
Dill's intentions are nowhere near as heinous. He tells enormous lies and concocts unlikely stories just as Mayella
does during Tom's trial. He often pretends to be something he isn't, just like Dolphus Raymond does when he
comes into town. He risks his safety to run away to Maycomb just as Jem risks his when he goes to collect his
pants from the Radleys.

Dill's fantastic stories bring the question of lying to the forefront of To Kill a Mockingbird. Dill's lies incense Scout,
but she learns that "one must lie under certain circumstances and at all times when one can't do anything about
them," a statement that foreshadows Mayella's predicament. Dill shows his usual inventiveness in trying to
explain to Atticus why Jem is only wearing his underpants, but his plan backfires because he hasn’t realised how
puritanical Maycomb’s middle-class are about gambling.

Ironically, Dill, who so easily lies, sobs when the Ewells succeed in the lies they tell about Tom Robinson. Dill's
sensitivity to Maycomb's intolerance gives Scout (and us) a different model of how to respond to what's
happening. The contrast between Dill's angry tears and Scout's justification of Mr. Gilmer's attitude with the
surprisingly callous "he's just a Negro" (19.164) suggests that Scout's already been hit with Maycomb's ugly
racism stick. Not even being Atticus's daughter has been enough to shield her entirely from her community's
prejudices.

At the beginning, Dill tells Jem and Scout that he does not have a father. Later, Dill arrives in Maycomb and tells
Jem and Scout that he had seen his father, “Dill’s father was taller than ours, he had a black beard (pointed), and
was president of the L & N Railroad” (Lee 36). This shows that Dill perhaps thought that his father was better
than Atticus, by bragging about him. This, in turn, shows that Dill has pride in his father. Later in the book, Dill
decides to run away, to Maycomb. There he tells Jem and Scout that his parents hated him. When Scout inquires
further, Dill explains “‘They just wasn’t interested in me… they do get on a lot better without me, I can’t help
them any’” (143). Dill goes on to explain how his parents never wanted to spend time with him. Dill’s perception
of his father has changed from being proud of him, to feeling neglected. The fact that the first thing Dill says is I
can read, we could assume that his parents are uneducated.

While Scout and Jem struggle after the trial to make sense of the Maycomb community that they thought they
knew so well, and to figure out their own place in it, Dill takes a more detached approach. The write has said she
based Dill on a childhood friend. Maybe Dill won't grow up to laugh at the world, but we think he'll grow up with
something to say about it.

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 Atticus Finch
Atticus represents morality and reason in To Kill a Mockingbird. As a character, Atticus is even-handed
throughout the story. He is one of the very few characters who never has to rethink his position on an issue.

His parenting style is quite unique in that he treats his children as adults, honestly answering any question they
have. He uses all these instances as an opportunity to pass his values on to Scout and Jem. Scout says that "'Do
you really think so?' . . . was Atticus' dangerous question" because he delighted in helping people see a situation
in a new light. Atticus uses this approach not only with his children, but with all of Maycomb. And yet, for all of
his mature treatment of Jem and Scout, he patiently recognizes that they are children and that they will make
childish mistakes and assumptions. Ironically, Atticus' one insecurity seems to be in the child-rearing department,
and he often defends his ideas about raising children to those more experienced and more traditional.

His stern but fair attitude toward Jem and Scout reaches into the courtroom as well. He politely proves that Bob
Ewell is a liar; he respectfully questions Mayella about her role in Tom's crisis. One of the things that his longtime
friend Miss Maudie admires about him is that "'Atticus Finch is the same in his house as he is on the public
streets.'" The only time he seriously lectures his children is on the evils of taking advantage of those less fortunate
or less educated, a philosophy he carries into the animal world by his refusal to hunt. And although most of the
town readily pins the label "trash" on other people, Atticus reserves that distinction for those people who unfairly
exploit others.

He worked to get his brother through college. Atticus believes in justice and the justice system. He doesn't like
criminal law, yet he accepts the appointment to Tom Robinson's case. He knows before he begins that he's going
to lose this case, but that doesn't stop him from giving Tom the strongest defence he possibly can. And,
importantly, Atticus doesn't put so much effort into Tom's case because he's an African American, but because he
is innocent. Atticus feels that the justice system should be colour blind, and he defends Tom as an innocent man,
not a man of colour.

Atticus is the adult character least infected by prejudice in the novel. He has no problem with his children
attending Calpurnia's church, or with a black woman essentially raising his children. He admonishes Scout not to
use racial slurs, and is careful to always use the terms acceptable for his time and culture. He goes to Helen's
home to tell her of Tom's death, which means a white man spending time in the black community. Other men in
town would've sent a messenger and left it at that. His lack of prejudice doesn't apply only to other races,
however. He is unaffected by Mrs. Dubose's caustic tongue, Miss Stephanie Crawford's catty gossip, and even
Walter Cunningham's thinly veiled threat on his life. He doesn't retaliate when Bob Ewell spits in his face because
he understands that he has wounded Ewell's pride — the only real possession this man has. Atticus accepts these
people because he is an expert at "climb[ing] into [other people's] skin and walk[ing] around in it.

As one of the most prominent citizens in Maycomb during the Great Depression, Atticus is relatively well off in a
time of widespread poverty. Because of his penetrating intelligence, calm wisdom, and exemplary behaviour,
Atticus is respected by everyone, including the very poor. He functions as the moral backbone of Maycomb, a
person to whom others turn in times of doubt and trouble. But the conscience that makes him so admirable
ultimately causes his falling out with the people of Maycomb. Unable to abide the town’s comfortable ingrained
racial prejudice, he agrees to defend Tom Robinson, a black man. Atticus’s action makes him the object of scorn
in Maycomb, but he is simply too impressive a figure to be scorned for long. After the trial, he seems destined to
be held in the same high regard.

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 The Radleys
The Radleys stick out in Maycomb almost as much as they blend in. Scout comments that after Mr Radley died,
his son, Nathan Radley, stepped in to take the reins without hesitation. This smooth transfer of the family estate,
and all it encompasses, including Boo and a dark reputation, seems very typical in a town where according to
Scout nothing much happens. So early in the novel, where Boo has not yet revealed himself to be a hero, this
could represent the way evil often camouflages itself under a pretence of normalcy. This is developed later in the
novel when a group of well-respected men threaten to kill Tom and Atticus. However, Boo’s otherwise ordinary
family could represent how there is good in everyone even if most, ordinary people do not see it.

The Radleys are excellent examples of pride and social injustice in Maycomb and America at the time the novel is
set. If we are to believe Scout and Miss Stephanie, Boo nearly killed his father and yet he escapes punishment
from the law to be reprimanded by his father’s hand. Had this been a black man and a poor girl would the result
be the same. Probably not, and again this speaks to the theme of inequality/

However, following a similar train of thought Mr Radley also has some positive traits: he does not abandon Boo,
displaying the unbreakable family bonds that were commonplace right after the civil war. Some critics may argue
that it is pure, unadultered pride that stops Boo from going straight to the sanatorium, but again pride is a main
theme in the novel. The main reason Tom is convicted is so Ewell can save face . So the Radleys serve as an
example of pride and how much it means in Maycomb.

Many disagree with the idea of heaven on the basis that in such an perfect world, life would become banal. In
Maycomb, a little haven in Southern America. Country not continent, children must make their own mischief. And
they do in the form of Boo Radley who they build up, with some help from equally bored adults, to be the living
embodiment of insanity and malice.. They see Boo with as much prejudice as the town later shows Tom Robinson.
Without validation, a jury or evidence, they proclaim Boo guilty and this is as strong a sign of prejudice that the
town later shows Tom Robinson. Ironically, Tom’s injustice helps them realise their own prejudice and the finally
understand that Boo stays inside because he wants to. In a very real way Boo helps his ‘children’ grow up.

Aside from their own prejudice, Boo also unwittingly exposes the children to their first act of cruelty; when Mr
Radley cements up the old tree, it seems to be an act of spite. This is one of the few times Scout and Jem’s
peaceful, early childhood is disturbed and reminds us how spiteful Maycomb can be.

"Well how'd you feel if you'd been shut up for a hundred years with nothin' but cats to eat?" The last line
suggests that Dill at least feels some sympathy for Boo, and can imagine what he feels—and what he needs. Boo
raises an important question: can you still be human without being part of a community?

As the novel nears its end, and Boo kills Ewell we see one of Atticus’ main flaws. Even after Boo murders Ewell,
saving their lives and showing that there are more important things than your own fears, Atticus still says that
Jem should take the blame. Note: Jem is passed out at this point. Is it fair, as Atticus says that Jem should forfeit
his freedom as repayment to Boo for saving his life. Furthermore why should Boo be able to subvert the legal
system

Boo Radley symbolizes the mocking bird in "To Kill a Mocking Bird" because he never does anything harm, but is
mistreated. A mocking bird also never does any harm, but is mistreated. Boo gave to the children when they did
not need it and helped them when they needed it most. A mocking bird constantly gives the world music to listen
to without doing any harm. Jem and Scout were taught a very important lesson, not to harm things that do no
harm

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 Bob and Mayella Ewell
It is with Scout’s perspective that the reader first views the Ewells and she paints a bleak picture. Scout says
‘every town the size of Maycomb had families like the Ewells…who lived as guests of the county.’ Scout’s town is
faintly sarcastic; she uses a euphemism by saying ‘guests of the county’ rather than ‘welfare recipients or
dependant on the county’ which is the literal meaning. Scout generalizes the Ewells saying that ‘every town the
size of Maycomb had families like the Ewells.’ Scout’s tone suggests that this should put the Ewells in a negative
light, but also establishes the Ewells as part of a group.

With her mother dead, Mayella becomes a surrogate wife for her father and mother for her younger siblings. The
fact that Mayella wants a better life for herself is evidenced by the red geraniums she grows so lovingly — they're
the only sign of beauty in a dismal, filthy shack and yard. She can't attend school because she has to take care of
her younger siblings, especially when her father leaves on days-long drinking binges. The idea of having an affair
with a black man is exciting in a dangerous sort of way, but more importantly, making advances toward Tom
gives Mayella power. This completely powerless woman has total control over Tom in this situation. If he were to
agree to a liaison with her, then he would remain at her beck and call for the rest of his life.

The Ewell’s house is described as ‘the playhouse of an insane child’ which suggests that there is little control or
order to the life of the Ewells. It is implied by association that Bob Ewell is the ‘insane child’ and that despite
being the patriarch, he is no father.

In an attempt to gain some power in a shabby, pitiful existence, Mayella costs a man his life. Ironically, when
Atticus finally shows Mayella the respect she so craves, she accuses him of making fun of her and ultimately
refuses to answer his questions.

Ewell’s salient motive appears to gain some respectability in the town, by protecting Maycomb’s ladies from a
dangerous black man he believes he will gain the social approval that he has lacked his entire life. The novel is set
in the 1930s, in a period when Blacks were freely oppressed and rarely received fair trials; Ewell is clearly not as
primitive to dismiss the fact that nobody would believe the word of a black man over a white woman’s. When
Mayella accuses a black man, she becomes a representative of innocent white women everywhere. For men to
believe Tom Robinson they would have to ruin their ideals of helpless white women. They would be accused of
cowardice and disloyalty for refusing to protect their own.

Instigating the prosecution is also a way of avoiding the social disgrace that would follow if Tom were ever to
reveal Mayella’s advances. Mr Dolphus Raymond, who is from an old rich family, but has relations with a black
woman, has to pretend to be a drunkard in order to be accepted by Maycomb and even then his children
ostracized. The Ewells don’t even have the advantage from having a good background and would be disgraced if
Maycomb ever found about Maycomb’s aberrant relationship.

Throughout his testimony Ewell is openly antagonistic to his lawyer. He addresses his lawyer as ‘Cap’n’ which
suggests his ignorance of the basic formalities expected in court, or that he doesn’t consider anyone his social
superior. His language is crude and he shows his lack of moral standards. Although Tom is found guilty, it is
obvious that many people have guessed at the real circumstances.

In this situation, Bob Ewell can do little but try to recover his own pride. He makes good on his threats to harm
the people who embarrassed him in court. He rejoices in Tom's death. Bob Ewell is the kind of person who
actually seems to enjoy being despicable. Biblical justice in that he has to lose his life in order to make up for the
fact he created the circumstances in which Tom Robinson loses his life

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 Calpurnia
Cal also reinforces one of the main themes of the novel - to crawl inside someone else's skin before you judge
them. This is evident early in the novel when Scout has Walter Cunningham Jr. over for lunch. He pours syrup all
over his lunch. Scout is shocked and makes Walter feel foolish. Cal calls her into the kitchen and tells her that she
has no right to shame a guest. Here Scout begins to see that her view of the world is not the only one, for Walter
never has syrup to put on any of his meals, so when he is offered the chance, he takes it.

In some ways she even takes the place of Scout and Jem's dead mother. But you soon learn that Calpurnia is not
accepted by everyone. Some of the Finches' white friends look down on Calpurnia as a servant and are shocked to
hear Atticus speak freely in her presence. At the same time, some members of Calpurnia's black church are very
critical of her being on such friendly terms with her white employer. Calpurnia lives a divided life. You learn, for
example, that she learned to read and write from old law books. In the Finch’s' house she speaks the very correct
English of an educated person; at church, however, she converses in her friends' dialect so they will not feel she is
trying to act superior to them

When we first meet Calpurnia in the first chapter of the book, Scout only mentions her unpleasant characteristics.
Scout obviously resents the authority Calpurnia has over her and she points out her features in negative
language: ‘She was all angles and bones…her hand was as wide as a bed slat and twice as hard.’ At this stage in
the book, Scout does not like Calpurnia but when reading these lines we are aware that Scout is simply
recounting the feelings of a small girl and our more adult eyes probably side with Calpurnia in feeling that the
little girl needs a firm hand to keep her in order. This hand Calpurnia provides. This ironic approach allows the
readers to make up their own minds about the kind of woman Calpurnia is despite Scout’s criticism.

Calpurnia, much like Atticus, stands up against racism. She takes Jem and Scout to the African American church
where they feel, for the first time, what racism must be like as the congregation is unhappy about Calpurnia's
decision to bring white folks to church. What makes this incident even more important is that it illustrates that
racism and prejudice cross colour lines; that is, paradoxically, the Blacks are prejudiced against the Whites, and
this takes place in a religious setting, where one should love his neighbour, no matter the colour of skin. Calpurnia
also acts as a surrogate mother to the children in the motherless household. This illuminates, perhaps, the
reasons why Scout acts the way she does and seems to have problems with other female characters in the book.

Cal’s enthusiastic scrubbing of the children and fussing over their Sunday clothes show how she considers them to
be represented of her as if she is truly their mother and also how much she respects the Negro company she is
about to take them into.

Although it is not the season for Rabies, Atticus doesn’t question Calpurnia’s judgement.

Lee treats Calpurnia as admirable because she has made the best of her opportunities and has not allowed
herself to become bitter. Calpurnia has a sense of self-worth that is not affected by the opinions of people around
her. This is a way in which she resembles Atticus.

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Themes: To Kill A Mockingbird

Women and Femininity (Stephanie, Maudie, Aunt Alexandra)

Throughout the novel, Scout ages from six to eight years old. At this point in her life, she has always been a
"tomboy." She has rejected traditional feminine roles and ideas. She is called the gender ambiguous nickname
"Scout," rather than her very feminine given name, Jean Louise. She loathes everything ladylike, as demonstrated
by her strained relationship with her proper Aunt Alexandra. But for a young girl to do these things (even today,
but especially in the American South during the era of the Great Depression), she is considered deviant. Because
Scout is very young and has only been raised by a single father, she is often "forgiven" by relatives and
community members for her boyishness and rejection of the feminine. However, people around her believe that it
is time for her to start learning how to be more of a lady. Oddly enough, the women in her life impose more rigid
requirements on her than the men do. Scout's tomboyishness drives Aunt Alexandra to distraction; Miss Caroline
sees Scout's outspokenness and honesty as impertinence.

Aunt Alexandra is a snob with an inflated sense of her family’s importance- despite her deadbeat husband. She
wants Atticus to sack Calpurnia as she thinks she is too close to the children. Until now, being a girl has been
what happens when Scout fails to live up to Jem's standards of what a person should be. Watching Calpurnia,
Scout realizes that being a girl actually involves having positive traits instead of lacking them.

The incident with Burris Ewell illustrates the Southern male’s attitude towards women as all the males in the class
rush forward to assist Miss Caroline. Along with this chivalry, however, is a reckless courage and inclination to
violence which is shown by little Chuck’s willingness to fight Burris

There is a comic irony in Scout’s recollection that Miss Stephanie Crawford who nobody trusts goes around the
neighbourhood doing good. Miss Maudie has a sharp tongue despite being a ‘sin by definition.’ But she is another
tolerant person who tries to respect the privacy of others and to understand things from their point of view.

Decide to forgive Helen Robinson- Far more realistic view of Tom Robinson

I was not so sure, but Jem told me I was being a girl, that girls always imagined things, that's why other people
hated them so, and if I started behaving like one I could just go off and find some to play with. (4.119)

Coming down firmly on the "nurture" side of the gender debate, Scout believes from an early age that girl things
are bad (and probably have cooties) and boy things are good, and that she can avoid the badness of girls by not
acting one. Being a girl for Scout is less a matter of what she's born with and more a matter of what she does.

The ladies were cool in fragile pastel prints: most of them were heavily powdered but unrouged; the only lipstick
in the room was Tangee Natural. Cutex Natural sparkled on their fingernails, but some of the younger ladies wore
Rose. They smelled heavenly. I sat quietly, having conquered my hands by tightly gripping the arms of the chair,
and waited for someone to speak to me. (24.13-14)

For being so fearful of ladies, Scout sure knows a lot about them, down to the brands of makeup they wear. (Or
maybe that's the only kind available in Maycomb? We're guessing there's no nearby Sephora.) The level of detail
in her description suggests that maybe Scout's just as fascinated as she is scared.

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Unseen Poetry

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