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Applications of virtual manufacturing in materials processing

Article in Journal of Materials Processing Technology · June 2001

DOI: 10.1016/S0924-0136(01)00668-9

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 Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416±423

Applications of virtual manufacturing in materials processing

W.B. Lee*, C.F. Cheung, J.G. Li
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Abstract

Virtual manufacturing (VM) is an emerging technology that mimics real manufacturing operations with models, simulations and arti®cial
intelligence. VM is a knowledge and information-based technique developed in recent years. With the use of the VM technologies, many
aspects of the activities can be integrated and realised into one system. The manufacturing cost and time-to-market can be reduced. The
associated technologies of VM and their key techniques related to materials processing and current research work are highlighted.
Emphases are placed on the social and technological aspects in the development of VM systems. Some practical application examples of
VM in materials processing are presented. # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Virtual manufacturing; Virtual reality; Materials processing

1. Introduction A typical VM system consists of a manufacturing

The industrial world is undergoing profound changes as
the information age unfolds [1]. The competitive advantage
in manufacturing has shifted from the mass production
paradigm to one that is based on fast responsiveness and
¯exibility [2]. One of the major issues in manufacturing is
how to integrate engineering and production activities. This
integration has to be performed interactively by developers,
suppliers and customers through the entire product life
cycle, such as design, production, testing, servicing and
marketing. To achieve the integration, a model that covers
all the engineering functions, the information ¯ow and the
precise characteristics of a manufacturing system is needed.
Manufacturing ®rms are now forced to digitise manufactur-
ing information and accelerate their manufacturing innova-
tion in order to enhance their competitive edge in the global
market.
Virtual manufacturing (VM) is a kind of knowledge and
computer-based system technology that integrates manufac-
turing activities dealing with models and simulations instead
of objects and their operations in the real world. This
provides a digital tool for the optimisation of the production
ef®ciency through simulations prior to the start of actual
production. The concept, signi®cance and related key tech-
niques of VM have been addressed by Lawerence Associate
[3], while the contribution and achievements of VM have
been reviewed by Shukla et al. [4].
resource model, a manufacturing environment model, a
product model and a virtual prototyping model [5]. There
is a lot of active research in both conceptual and constructive
VM systems. Onosato and Iwata [6] developed the concept
of a VM system and Kimura [7] described the product and
process model of a VM system. Based on the concept and the
model, Iwata et al. [8] proposed a general modelling and
simulation architecture for a VM system. Recently, Gause-
meier et al. [9] developed a Cyberbike VM system for real-
time simulation of an enterprise that produces bicycles.
Using the VM system, various manufacturing processes
can be integrated and realised into one system. The man-
ufacturing cost and time-to-market can be reduced and
hence there is improved productivity.
This paper summarises the state-of-art of the research of
VM in recent years. The concept, classi®cation and bene®ts
of VM are presented and discussed in detail. The associated
technologies, their key techniques and current research work
related to materials processing are highlighted. In addition,
the social and technological obstacles in the development of a
VM system and some practical application examples of VM
on materials processing are discussed at the end of the text.
2. The concepts of VM and its development
2.1. De®nitions of VM

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: ‡852-2766-6594; fax: ‡852-23659248. VM is de®ned as a computer system which is capable
E-mail address: mfwblee@inet.polyu.edu.hk (W.B. Lee). of generating information about the structure, states, and

0924-0136/01/$ ± see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 6 6 8 - 9
 W.B. Lee et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416±423
behaviour of a manufacturing system as can be observed in a
real manufacturing environment [10]. In other words, a VM
system produces no output such as materials and physical
products, but it can produce information about them. VM is
an integrated computer-based model which represents the
physical and logical schema and the behaviour of a real
manufacturing system [11].
The manufacturing activities and processes are modelled
before and sometimes in parallel with the real manufacturing
operations in the real world. Always comparison of models
with reality and various model maintenance operations are
necessary. An interaction between the virtual and real worlds
is accomplished by continuous monitoring of the perfor-
mance of the VM system. In such circumstances as realised
by VM, it becomes possible to adopt various methods to
organise engineering activities from product design to pro-
duction management.
2.2. Signi®cance and applications of VM
The attractive applications of VM include: analysis of the
manufacturability of a part and a product; evaluating and
validating the feasibility of the production and process
plans; optimisation of the production process and the per-
formance of the manufacturing system. Since a VM model is
established based on real manufacturing facilities and pro-
cesses, it does not only provide realistic information about
the product and its manufacturing processes, but also allows
for the evaluation and the validation of them. Many itera-
tions can be carried out to arrive at an optimal solution. The
modelling and simulation technologies in VM enhance the
production ¯exibility and reduce the ``®xed costs'' since no
physical conversion of materials to products is involved.
Apart from these, VM can be used to reliably predict the
business risks and this will support the management in
decision making and strategic management of an enterprise.
Some typical applications of VM are as follows:
1. VM can be used in the evaluation of the feasibility of a
product design, validation of a production plan, and
optimisation of the product design and processes. These
reduce the cost in product life cycle.
2. VM can be used to test and validate the accuracy of the
product and process designs. For example, the outlook
of a product design, dynamic characteristics analysis,
checking for the tool path during machining process, NC
program validation, checking for the collision problems
in machining and assembly, etc.
3. With the use of VM on the Internet, it is possible to
conduct training under a distributed virtual environment
for the operators, technicians and management people
on the use of manufacturing facilities. The costs of
training and production can thus be reduced.
4. As a knowledge acquisition vehicle, VM can be used to
acquire continuously the manufacturing know-how,
traditional manufacturing processes, production data,
417
etc. This can help to upgrade the level of intelligence of
a manufacturing system.
The bene®ts derived from VM are as follows:
1. Enhancing the capability of risk measures and control.
VM can be used to predict the costs of product
development and production as well as provide the
information related to the production processes and the
process capability. The information is useful for
improving the accuracy of the decisions made by the
designer and the management. The problems in product
development and manufacturing processes can also be
predicted and resolved prior to the actual production.
2. Shrinking the product development cycle. VM will allow
more computer-based product models to be developed
and prototyped upstream in the product development
process. This will reduce the need for the number of
downstream physical prototypes traditionally made to
validate the product models and new designs. Thus, the
company can reduce its product development time.
3. Enhancing the competitive edge of an enterprise in the
market. VM can reduce the cycle time and costs in
product development. With the virtual environment
provided by VM, the customers can take part in the
product development process. The design engineers can
response more quickly to the customer queries and
hence provide the optimal solution to the customers. The
competitive edge of an enterprise in the market can thus
be enhanced.
3. Classi®cation of a VM system
3.1. Classi®cation based on type of system integration
According to the de®nitions proposed by Onosato and
Iwata [6], every manufacturing system can be decomposed
into two different sub-systems: a real and physical system
(RPS); and a real informational system (RIS). An RPS is
composed of substantial entities such as materials, parts and
machines, that exist in the real world. An RIS involves the
activities of information processing and decision making. A
computer system that simulates the responses of the RPS is
called a ``virtual-physical system'' (VPS), whereas that
simulates a RIS and generates control commands for the
RPS is called a ``virtual-informational system'' (VIS) [8,10].
3.2. Classi®cation based on types of product and
process design
According to the product design and process design
functions, VM can be sub-divided into product design-
centred VM, production-centred VM and control-centred
VM [12]. Product design-centred VM makes use of different
virtual designs to produce the production prototype. The
related information of a new product (e.g. product features,
418 W.B. Lee et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416±423
tooling, etc.) is provided to the designer and the manufac-
turing system designers for supporting the decision making
in the product design process.
Production-centred VM simulates the activities in process
development and alternative process plans. It aims at the
rapid evaluation of a production plan, the operational status
of a manufacturing system and even the objectives of the
design of the physical system.
Control-centred VM makes use of the VM technology on
the dynamic control of the production processes. It aims at
the optimisation of the production cycles based on the
dynamic control of the process parameters.
3.3. Classi®cation based on functional usage
VM is used in the interactive simulation of various
manufacturing processes such as virtual prototyping, virtual
machining, virtual inspection, virtual assembly and virtual
operational system, etc.
1. Virtual prototyping (VP) mainly deals with the pro-
cesses, tooling and equipment in casting, blanking,
extrusion, injection moulding, etc. VP makes use of
modelling and simulation techniques to analyse the
factors affecting the process, product quality and hence
the material properties, processing time and manufac-
turing costs. The virtue of VP lies not only in the
reduction of the fabrication of physical prototypes,
shortening the product development time and cost, but
also in supporting product design and presentation
through qualitative simulation and analysis [13]. These
facilitate the discussion, manipulation and modi®cation
of the product data model directly among personnel with
different technical backgrounds.
2. Virtual machining mainly deals with cutting processes
such as turning, milling, drilling and grinding, etc. The
VM technology is used to study the factors affecting the
quality, machining time and costs based on modelling
and simulation of the material removal process as well
as the relative motion between the tool and the
workpiece. It can be used to evaluate the feasibility of
a part design and the selection of processing equipment,
etc.
3. Virtual inspection makes use of the VM technology to
model and simulate the inspection process, and the
physical and mechanical properties of the inspection
equipment. This aims at studying the inspection
methodologies, collision check [14], inspection plan,
factors affecting the accuracy of the inspection process,
etc.
4. In assembly work [15], VM is mainly used to investigate
the assembly processes, the mechanical and physical
characteristics of the equipment and tooling, the
interrelationship among different parts and the factors
affecting the quality based on modelling and simulation.
It can also be used to predict the quality of an assembly,
product cycle and costs as well as to evaluate the
feasibility of the assembly process plan and the selection
of assembly equipment, etc.
5. Virtual operational control [16] makes use of VM
technology to investigate the material ¯ow and informa-
tion ¯ow as well as the factors affecting the operation of
a manufacturing system. It can be used to evaluate the
design and operational performance of the material ¯ow
and information ¯ow system.
4. The current and prospective research areas
4.1. Key technologies involved in VM
The development of VM demands multi-disciplinary
knowledge and technologies related to the hardware and
software of the computer, information technology, micro-
electronics, manufacturing and mathematical computation.
Some of these technologies are comparatively mature. How-
ever, most of them have to be further developed to form an
integrated VM platform.
4.2. Establishment of virtual physical units
The establishment of a virtual physical unit (e.g. a mate-
rial processing unit, machining unit, inspection unit, assem-
bly unit, robot, and material delivery devices, etc.), which
mimics the operation of a real physical unit, forms the
crucial bases for the development of a VM system. The
performance of a VM system could be seriously affected by
the accuracy, precision and reliability of the information
outputs from an individual virtual physical unit.
The establishment of the virtual physical units includes
the integration and management of 3D solid models, and
models for the simulation of motion and the mechanical
properties of the virtual physical units. 3D geometrical solid
models and simulation are comparatively mature. There is a
number of CAD/CAM software and object-orientated pro-
gramming languages, and image processing software that
are available for performing the tasks.
4.3. Virtual product model and representation
A product model is a generic model used to representing
all types of artefacts that appear in the course of manufac-
turing. It represents target products, their materials and
intermediate products, tools and machines, and any other
manufacturing resources and environmental objects. Those
objects have many aspects or views. Due to the rapid
development and application of CAD/CAM technologies
and object-orientated computer programming languages, the
technologies for product modelling, computer representa-
tion, product data management (PDM) and engineering data
management (EDM) have advanced rapidly. The success
of these technologies allows their applications in virtual
 W.B. Lee et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416±423
product modelling, computer representation and virtual
PDM.
However, the traditional product modelling and represen-
tation methods cannot meet the needs for quantitative
analysis of VM process design. For example, non-manifold
boundary representation (B-Rep), constructive solid geome-
try (CSG) [17], state space, features model, Nerbis synthetic
curved surface are widely adopted in model simulation [18].
Even under the consideration of the manufacturing toler-
ance, they make use of ideal surfaces, regular curved
surfaces and synthetic curved surfaces to represent the
product surfaces. These representation methods do not take
into consideration the surface roughness of the machined
surfaces. Since there are various errors introduced by the
machine, the surfaces of the actual workpiece are not similar
to ¯at surfaces, regular curved surfaces or synthetic surfaces
during design. In order to mimic the machining errors and
surface quality of the workpiece, there is a need for devel-
oping geometrical representation methods which are cap-
able of representing the machining errors and surface
roughness of the workpiece and deliver this information
to the CAE and virtual assembly system.
4.4. Performance evaluation technologies for VM
Product design validation is vital to the veri®cation of the
functional, reliability, and durability requirements of a given
design, whereas process validation is critical to verify what
production processes can best meet the cost and quality
goals of a given design. The evaluation of a kind of VM
system can be divided into two main streams, which are the
evaluation of the performance of the system and the valida-
tion of the related information generated by the VM system
for a particular product development.
The former determines the functional capability of the
VM system. This include the validation of the accuracy of
the models, system architecture and the quality of user
interfaces, etc. The latter evaluates the standard of the
product design, manufacturability and associated investment
risks during the course of product development by the user.
The evaluation methods developed so far mainly include:
product manufacturability validation, manufacturing quality
analysis, analyses for production cycle, production costs,
and business risks, etc.
Nowadays, most of the research has been found to be
limited to a single process. If the whole manufacturing
system is taken into consideration, including integrated
analysis of the product life cycle and costs, the dif®culties
will be large. The current methods might not be mature
enough, since numerous factors are present in the processes.
The manufacturability of a product includes the feasibility
of processing as well as the feasibility of assembling of the
parts and product assemblies. It is not only a dif®cult
problem for VM but also for real manufacturing (RM).
Although extensive research work has been devoted to
investigating this issue, the problems have not yet resolved
419
satisfactorily. Up to the present, most of the proposed
methodologies of manufacturability evaluation include the
logical determination method for manufacturability or non-
manufacturability, the grading method based on the level of
dif®culties of various process, manufacturing cycle and
costing methods, as well as the integrated method based
on the manufacturing costs, manufacturing cycle and dif®-
culties of the processes, etc. Most of these methods focus on
a single process or a speci®c product. However, VM
demands the development of common methods, which are
appropriate for the evaluation of the whole manufacturing
process.
The modelling and simulation techniques for production
quality analysis and business risk analysis also form a
crucial part in the development of evaluation technologies
for VM. Although some successful research studies have
been found in these areas, the development is still far from
perfect to meet future demands.
5. The major obstacles in the development of VM
Although the development of VM originated from the
evolution of information technologies and business envir-
onment, there exist many social and technical problems
which obstruct the development of VM systems.
5.1. Technical obstacles
5.1.1. Operational speed of the system
AVM system is required to handle a large amount of work
on complex mathematical computation, graphical image
processing, data exchange and remote communications.
These include the construction of 3D solid models, 3D
animation, virtual reality (VR), graphical image processing,
manufacturing resources planning, product features proces-
sing, acquisition of manufacturing know-how and proces-
sing, etc. Even with the rapid advancement of the
computational power of the computer system and informa-
tion technology, it is still far from being suf®cient to meet
the further demanding technology for VM. On the other
hand, the external interface and the speed of I/O of the
computer have to be enhanced to meet future needs.
5.1.2. Manufacturing know-how, modelling and
representation
The rapid development of digital network communication
and computer sciences provides indispensable tools for the
development of VM applications. However, VM is devel-
oped based on human know-how and understanding of the
manufacturing processes. The successful development of
VM depends much on present knowledge and capabilities of
applying modern mathematical tools to describe and to
present the knowledge in a systematic manner. Although
some research work has been devoted in researching the
core theories of the manufacturing processes, a large
420 W.B. Lee et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416±423
number of problems has not yet been solved and is still
dependent on human judgement by experience. For exam-
ple, present understanding on the selection of optimal
cutting conditions for metal removal processes, factors
affecting the successful draw of a sheet metal product,
etc., is still far from perfect.
5.1.3. Arti®cial intelligence (AI) for knowledge acquisition
Apart from technological know-how on the manufactur-
ing process and modelling, a VM system is needed to absorb
and acquire a large amount of information for it to operate.
This demands a better learning and knowledge acquisition
capability of the RM facilities so as to facilitate the mon-
itoring of the operational performance of the RM system by
the VM system as well as to make better and more accurate
predictions and decisions. There are many studies on the
application of AI tools such as neural networks [19], fuzzy
theory [20], and generic algorithms [21], etc., in process
control. The applications of AI technologies on VM have to
be sought.
5.1.4. Unify the data standards
A complete VM system is a large system. It does not only
perform the task of data exchange with various software
systems (e.g. CAD/CAM/CAE, databases for resources and
knowledge, etc.), but also needs to exchange information
among different hardware facilities of different manufac-
turers. In order to ensure ef®cient operation of a VM system,
there is a need for establishing a uni®ed data standard or data
conversion software for facilitating the data exchanging
among the VM, CAD/CAM/CAE and RM systems.
Although many related standards have been built by the
ISO organisation, the data standards used in production
facilities and software of different manufacturers might
be different. Since the development and the launch of
standards are usually lag far behind the real production
needs, different countries and manufacturers have developed
less compatible standards for their own use. This introduces
problems for the development of VM to be used over the
Internet.
5.1.5. Database management
A VM system is not only required to integrate different
dispersed and independent databases for information and
knowledge bases within an enterprise but also the databases
from the suppliers, customers and other enterprises. There is
a need to establish a complete database for supporting the
VM operation. Nowadays, the theoretical bases and tech-
nologies for database management have achieved a sub-
stantial success. However, the knowledge bases for the
manufacturing technologies are expanding enormously.
Only a very small portion of these resources has been
converted to computer databases. The successful conversion
of the know-how of the manufacturing technologies to
computer databases demands the investment of a huge
amount of manpower, money and capital. In addition, further
work is still required to upgrade the database technologies to
meet the future growing demand.
5.1.6. Evaluation techniques and standard
The contribution and signi®cance of the VM system are
on its capabilities of providing compatible and equivalent
results to a RM system so as to allow for the improvement of
the product design and manufacturing processes. Under
various environments, especially for new product develop-
ment without the presence of standard evaluation techni-
ques, the development of VM applications presents
problems on verifying the compatibility and accuracy of a
VM system with a RM system as well as the measure of the
effectiveness of a VM system in improving the product
quality and manufacturing process. This demands for the
development of related evaluation methods and tools.
5.2. Social obstacles
In addition to the technical obstacles presented during the
development and application of VM technologies, there
exist some social problems that include the following.
1. The development of a VM system and its applications is
a large establishment. From a long-term point of view,
VM offers an attractive solution for an enterprise to
improve its ef®ciency and productivity. However, VM
might not be a turnkey solution to improve the current
status of an enterprise from a short-term point of view.
The development of a VM system also demands the
investment of a large amount of capital and management
effort. Active support from research organisations,
enterprises and government are vital to the successful
development of a VM system.
2. The development of VM applications includes many
enterprises, business sectors and technological eras.
However, different standards are adopted by different
enterprises and a large difference is usually found
among sectors. Even within the same business sectors,
difference still exists. The way to develop a uni®ed
standard and regulations is a social problem which needs
further work.
3. Although, the concepts of open resource sharing and
risk sharing are highlighted in VM, it is inevitable for an
enterprise to consider keeping their information con-
®dential. Since the scope of VM is bound together with
the emphases on resource sharing, this also forms a
social obstacle in the development of VM.
6. Practical applications of VM in materials processing
6.1. VM for sheet metal processing
Sheet metal processing contains processes such as punch-
ing, shearing/laser cutting, bending and welding of thin
 W.B. Lee et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416±423
metal sheets. In a job shop type of production, in which sheet
metal processing is included, the optimisation of work
sequence is important for cost saving. Endo et al. [22] used
IGRIP to accurately estimate the processing time and opti-
mise the sequence of processing various sheet metal parts for
minimising the total processing time prior to actual produc-
tion.
Nakayasu et al. [23] made use of the VM technique in
the design of die geometry for sheet metal forming. In
their system, the designer is able to de®ne the analysis
procedure for the design process using a parameterised
evaluation function and examine the production results
based on these design strategies in a virtual space by means
of CAD/CAE.
The VM technique is also found useful in the simulation
and the analysis of the mechanical behaviour of the sheet
metal in the forming processes. The VM system developed
in Osaka Institute of Technology [24] is an example which
incorporated ®nite element simulation for the inspection and
heuristic optimisation of the design scheme for automotive
panel forming.
6.2. Virtual machine tools
With regard to a virtual machine tool or virtual machining
cell, Iqbal and Hashmi [25] have developed a machine tool
simulator for training purposes. Supported by the NSF of
USA, the MT-AMRI project is being undertaken by eight
universities to investigate the common and fundamental
issues related to virtual machining and the development
of virtual machine tool models [26]. Fig. 1 shows a virtual
machine model proposed by the MT-AMRI research pro-
gram. At present, the National Institute of Standards Tech-
nology (NIST) of USA is conducting a research program on
virtual machine tools to develop the next generation stan-
dards and measurement tools needed for information-based
machine tool industry. The above research programs, how-
ever, are aimed at general machine tool systems.
Research work has also been found in the applications of
VM techniques to other machining processes such as milling
[25,27] and sawing [14]. Most of these studies aim at
Fig. 1. Virtual machine model proposed in MT-AMRI research.
421
developing an effective collision detection scheme so as
to avoid fatal damage of the machine tools due to accidental
collision during the actual machining processes.
6.3. Virtual machining and inspection system (VMIS)
The conventional approach to the design and the manu-
facture of precision optical products is based on a trial-
and-error method. The optical product is designed using
computer aided optics design software. Then a lens proto-
type is made by either direct machining or injection mould-
ing from a test mould insert machined by single-point
diamond turning (SPDT). Quality tests will then be con-
ducted on the prototype lenses. It should be noted that the
design, prototyping and evaluation processes are iterative
until a satisfactory mock-up is found. This is not only
expensive but is also time consuming.
A VMIS [28] has been developed by the Department of
Manufacturing Engineering of The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University. The project aims at creating a VM environment
by electronically representing the activities of optic design,
prototyping, ultra-precision machining and inspection in the
design and the manufacture of precision optical products.
As shown in Fig. 2, the VMIS is composed of six building
blocks which are the information module (IM), the product
design and optimisation module (PDOM), the virtual
machining module (VMM), the virtual inspection module
(VIM), the analysis and decision making module (ADMM)
as well as the performance evaluation and monitoring
module (PEMM). The IM incorporates the databases for
customers, products, tooling, optics design parameters,
material information, production schedules, and the kine-
matics and dynamics characteristics of the machine and
inspection equipment. In the PDOM, optics design works are
conducted with the aids of a CAD package named ZEMAX.
The software package allows for the simulation and the
optimisation of an optics design under a pre-conditioned
Fig. 2. An architecture of the virtual machining and inspection system
(from [27]).
422 W.B. Lee et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416±423

Fig. 3. A 3D solid model of the conceptual virtual machine. Fig. 5. A 3D solid model of the virtual inspection machine.

computer environment. The VMM makes use of the optics

design parameters together with the machine characteristics
data to simulate the tool path [29] and the surface topo-
graphy of the workpiece [30]. Furthermore, the selection of
optimum cutting process parameters and machine capability
evaluation can also be done in this module.
Figs. 3 and 4 show the conceptual virtual machine tools
and the virtual surface topography simulated by the VMM.
The quality of the workpiece is inspected by a VIM which
simulates the measured surface roughness pro®le and hence
determines the surface roughness and form error of the
workpiece. Figs. 5 and 6 show the virtual Form Talysurf
machine and the simulated results of surface roughness Fig. 6. Simulated result of surface roughness measurement.
measurement. Based on the simulation results together with
the resource availability information from the production
schedule database, the ADMM evaluates the feasibility of a
production plan as well as recommending the resources training on the use of the ultra-precision machining and
allocation. inspection facilities.
The successful development of the VMIS will allow
precision optics manufacturers to evaluate the feasibility
of an optical product design and a manufacturing process 7. Concluding remarks
plan prior to the actual production. This will avoid conduct-
ing expensive trial production and physical prototyping. The In this paper, the development of VM techniques has been
development of the VM package will also provide an inter- presented. The technique of VM can be applied to different
active computer-simulated environment for conducting levels and activities of a manufacturing enterprise from basic
production activities, materials processing, plant and facil-
ities layout to high-order activities of co-ordination and
control strategy. The successful launching of a VM system
requires multidisciplinary know-how that cuts across a wide
spectrum of disciplines in computer and engineering
sciences and is more than the traditional simulation of a
particular process and operation. However, a sound physical
understanding of the process and operation to be simulated is
essential and becomes an integral part of any successful VM
system to be useful.
The future for VM is exciting. The continuous quest for
high quality products, lower manufacturing costs, and faster
time-to-market will force many manufacturing enterprises
to change the manufacturing strategies, processes, and
Fig. 4. A virtual surface topography of a diamond turned surface. practices for product development. VM techniques provide
 W.B. Lee et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416±423
the most versatile tools for manufacturers to cope with the
impending changes.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to
the Area of Strategic Development (ASD) Management
Committee of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University under
the project code: A056 for the support of the research work.
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