Training Report

Industrial Training Report

On

Thermal Power plant

For partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of B.TECH, EIE, ( VIIth Sem) At Rajiv Gandhi Thermal Power Plant( hisar) A Unit Of Haryana Power Generation Corporation Ltd. (HPGCL) Submitted by: Shiksha Roll No. 11080857

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Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana (Ambala)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am highly indebted to RGTPP Rajiv Gandhi Thermal Power Station Khedar, one of the having new technology organizations of our nation, for letting me undertake six weeks training course with them. It was really a very nice experience as we came to know how actually Electricity generate. I would like to express my gratitude towards Mr. Surender Parasher (General Manager) who allowed us to join RGTPP as a trainee, & helped us in every possible way so that we could complete our training successfully. I also thank Mr. Virender Singh who was there to Provide training &support us whenever we needed help at every point of our training. Last but not least I would like to thank all the staff members of RGTPP, especially member of C&I Deptt, who made this training a rich experience & a success Name:Shiksha Goyat Roll No. :11080857

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PREFACE
With the ongoing revolution in electronic where innovations are taking at the blink of eye, it is impossible to keep the pace with the emerging trends. Excellence is an attitude that that whole of human race is born with. It is the environment that makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise. A Well planned, properly executed and evaluated industrial training helps a lot in inculcating a professional attitude. It provides a linkage between the student and industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. During this period, the student gets the real experience for working in the actual Industry environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during the course of their studies is put to test here. Apart from this the student gets an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which is immensely helps in them in building their career. I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased my sphere of knowledge to great extent. I got a chance to learn new technology and was also interfaced to many instruments. And all this credit goes to organization Rajiv Gandhi Thermal Power Plant.

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Contents
Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Topic Introduction History Deal with reliance Constructional View of Thermal Power Station Classification Functional description Components of Plant Auxiliary systems Electric generator Advantages & Disadvantages of coal based thermal Power Plant Thermocouple

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INTRODUCTION
In Rajiv Gandhi Thermal Power Plant.The work for 1200 MW Coal fire power plant was awarded during 2007. The total estimated cost of the project is around Rs 4297O crores. The cost of Rs 3.19 crore for MW for this project is lowest among all the power plants. The first of two 600 MW was commissioned Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as b oilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power plants burning coal, oil, or natural gas are often referred to collectively as fossil -fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermal power plants have appeared also. Non -nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil -fueled plants, which do not use cogeneration, are sometimes referred to as conventional power plants. In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produce d by a heat engine that transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most thermal power stations produce steam, and these are sometimes called steam power stations. Not all thermal energy can be transformed into mechanical power, according to the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, there is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration pow er plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant. In countries where district heating is common, there are dedicated heat plants called heat -only boiler stations. An important class of power stations in the Middle East uses by -product heat for

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the desalination of water.

Commercial electric utility power stations are most usually constructed on a very large scale and designed for continuous operation. Electric power plants typically use three-phase or individual-phase electrical generators to produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz (hertz, which is an AC sine wave per second) depending on its location in the world. Other large companies or institutions may have their own usually smaller power plants to supply heating o r electricity to their facilities, especially if heat or steam is created anyway for other purposes. Shipboard steam-driven power plants have been used in various large ships in the past, but these days are used most often in large naval ships. Such shipbo ard power plants are general lower power capacity than full -size electric company plants, but otherwise have many similarities except that typically the main steam turbines mechanically turn the propulsion propellers, either through reduction gears or directly by the same shaft. The steam power plants in such ships also provide steam to separate smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply electricity in the ship. Shipboard steam power plants can be either conventional or nuclear; the shipboard nu clear plants are mostly in the navy. There have been perhaps about a dozen turbo -electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which powers an electric motor for propulsion. Thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which either drives an electrical generator or does some other work, like ship propulsion. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of he at energy into electrical energy.

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HISTORY
Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since the 18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first commercial central electrical generating stations i n New York and London, in 1882, also used reciprocating steam engines. As generator sizes increased, eventually turbines took over theyencres the hose power

Deal with reliance

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Reliance Infrastructure, part of the Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group, Sunday said it has commissioned a 600 MW unit at the Rajiv Gandhi Khedar Thermal Power Plant (RGKTPP) at Hisar in Haryana. The company said this was the countrys largest thermal power generating unit. The Rs.3,800-crore project, with a total capacity of 1,200 MW, is being set up by the state government-run Haryana Power Generation Corp and executed by Reliance Infrastructure. This project will not only benefit the state by adding 28.8 million units of energy per day but will also create 15,000 job opportunities in the field of construction, operations and maintenance, said S.C. Gupta, director-operations for Reliance Infrastructure. The Reliance Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group, a zero net debt company, has a market capitalisation of around $30 billion, net worth in excess of $13.6 billion, operating cash flow of $2.8 billion and net profit of around $1.8 billion.

Where RGTPP transmit energy?

It transmit electricity to two station one is KIRORY & FATEHABAD. These two are grid. For transmission we have to use step down transformer to reduce danger. There is transmission from switch yard to grid.

Constructional View of Thermal Power Station

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electricity
[1]

. Some thermal power plants also deliver

heat energy for industrial purposes, for district heating, or for desalination of

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water as well as delivering electrical power. A large part of human CO 2 emissions comes from fossil fueled thermal power plants; efforts to reduce these outputs are various and widespread.

Typical diagram of a coal-fired thermal power station 1. Cooling tower 2. Cooling water pump 3. transmission line (3-phase) 10. Steam Control valve 11. High pressure steam turbine 12. Deaerator 19. Super heater 20. Forced draught (draft) fan 21. Reheater 22. Combustion air intake 23. Economiser 24. Air preheater 25. Precipitator 26. Induced draught (draft) fan 27. Flue gas stack

4. Step-up transformer (3-phase) 13. Feedwater heater 5. Electrical generator (3-phase) 14. Coal conveyor 6. Low pressure steam turbine 7. Condensate pump 8. Surface condenser 9. Intermediate pressure steam turbine 15. Coal hopper 16. Coal pulverizer 17. Boiler steam drum

18. Bottom ash hopper

CLASSIFICATION
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Thermal power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the type of prime mover Installed. By fuel Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor's heat to operate a steam turbine generator. Fossil fuelled power plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of natural gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine. A coal -fired power station produces electricity by burning coal to generate steam, and has the side-effect of producing a large amount of carbon dioxide, which is released from burning coal and contributes to global warming Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot u nderground rocks. Biomass Fuelled Power Plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, municipal solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass. Solar thermal electric plants use sunlight to boil water, which turns the generator. By prime mover Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a turbine Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases (air and combustion products) to directly operate the turbine. Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam boiler and steam turbine which use the hot exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage Microturbines, Stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are low-cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment plants an d waste gas from oil production

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Efficiency Power is energy per unit time. The power output or capacity of an electric plant can be expressed in units of megawatts electric (MWe). The electric efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered as saleable energy (in MWe) produced at the plant busbars as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48% efficient . This efficiency is limited as all heat engines are governed by the laws of thermodynamics (See: Carnot cycle). The rest of the energy must leave the plant in the form of heat. This waste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for district heating, it is called cogeneration. An important class of thermal power station is associated with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important co products. Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the absolute temperatures of the steam at turbine input and ou tput, efficiency improvements require use of higher temperature, and therefore higher pressure, steam. Historically, other working fluids such as mercury have been experimentally used in a mercury vapor turbine power plant, since these can attain higher temperatures than water at lower working pressures. However, the obvious hazards of toxicity, and poor heat transfer properties, have ruled out mercury as a working fluid. BASIC DEFINITIONS Steam is vaporized water and can be produced at 100C at standard atmosphere. In common speech, steam most often refers to the visible white mist that condenses above boiling water as the hot vapor mixes with the cooler air. Turbine A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid or air flow and converts it into useful work.
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The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum, with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine exare windmills and waterwheels.

Fig turbine:-

Electric generator An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electrons in the windings to flow through the external electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water inside. Fig Generator:-

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A boiler or steam generator is a device used to create steam by applyingheat energy to water. Although the definitions are somewhat flexible, it can be said that older steam generators were commonly termed boilers and worked at low to medium pressure (1300 psi/0.06920.684 bar; 6.8952,068.427 kPa), but at pressures above this it is more usual to speak of a steam generator. A boiler or steam generator is used wherever a source of steam is requ ired. The form and size depends on the application: mobile steam engines such as steam locomotives, portable engines and steam -powered road vehicles typically use a smaller boiler that forms an integral part of the vehicle; Second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal principle of entropy, stating that the entropy of anisolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium; and that the entropy change dSof a system undergoing any infinitesimal reversible pr ocess is given by dq / T, where dq is the heat supplied to the system and T is the absolute temperature of the system. Coal Handling Plant (CHP):Extent of work: - In brief we can say that receipt of coal from coal mines, weighing of coal, crushing it to required size and transferring the quanta of coal to various coal mill bunkers. This is the responsibility and duty of the CHP and its staff. CHP is (C- Coal, H- Handling, P- Plant) a plant which handles the coal from its receipt to transporting it to Boiler and store in Bunkers. It also processes the raw coal to make it suitable for Boiler Opeartion. Receipt of Coal:Normally Thermal Power Station receives th e coal by three modes of transportation. 1. By Railway (80-90% of the requirement is fulfilled by this way) 2. By Road ( if required 5-10% of the requirement is fulfilled by th is
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way) 3. By Arial ropeways .. Arial ropeway is available only to the power sta tions which are near the coal mines Cost of coal transportation by road is much higher than that for rail transport hence most of the coal requirement of the power stations is fulfilled by railway transport. Demurrage calculations on coal Rakes: We receive the coal wagons in the form of rakes (55 -60 wagons in each rake). These coal rakes are to be unloaded in given free time normally 12 14 hrs. from the time of receipt of coal rakes. Free time is calculated from the receipt of written intimation of c oal rakes from the railway and written intimation of empty rake formation from MSEB to railway. Rate of demurrage is Rs.1/ - per ton per hour. If coal rake is not unloaded in given free time the demurrage shall be charged on complete capacity (approx. 3 300 metric ton) of coal rake at the rate of Rs. 1/- per ton per hour

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FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION Diagram of a typical coal-fired thermal power station

The superheated steam from the final superheater is taken to the High Pressure Steam Turbine (HPT). In the HPT the steam pressure is utilized to rotate the turbine and the resultant is rotational energy. From the HPT the out coming steam is taken to the Reheater in the boiler to increase its temperature as the steam becomes wet at the HPT

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outlet. After reheating this steam is taken to the Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and then to the Low Pressure Turbine (LPT). The outlet of the LPT is sent to the condenser for condensing back to water by a cooling water system. This condensed water is collected in the Howells and is again sent to the boiler in a closed cycle. The rotational energy imparted to the turbine by high pressure steam is converted to electrical energy in the Generator.

Components of Coal Fired Thermal Power Station:

Coal Preparation i) Fuel preparation system: In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder, so that coal will undergo complete combustion during combustion process. ii) Dryers: they are used in order to remove the excess moisture from coal mainly wetted during transport. As the presence of moisture will result in fall in efficiency due to incomplete combustion and also result in CO emission. iii) Magnetic separators: coal which is brought may contain iron particles. These iron particles may result in wear and tear. The iron particles may include bolts, nuts wire fish plates etc. so these are unwanted and so are removed with the help magnetic separators. The coal we finally get after these above process are transferred to the storage site. Purpose of fuel storage is two

Fuel storage is insurance from failure of normal operating supplies to arrive. Storage permits some choice of the date of purchase, allowing the purchaser to take advantage of seasonal market conditions. Storage of coal is primarily a matter of protection against the coal strikes, failure of the transportation system & general coal shortages.

There are two types of storage:

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1. Live Storage (boiler room storage): storage from which coal may be withdrawn to supply combustion equipment with little or no remanding is live storage. This storage consists of about 24 to 30 hrs. of coal requirements of the plant and is usually a covered storage in the plant near the boiler furnace. The live storage can be provided with bunkers & coal bins. Bunkers are enough capacity to store the requisite of coal. From bunkers coal is transferred to the boiler grates. 2. Dead storage stored for future use. Mainly it is for longer period of time, and it is also mandatory to keep a backup of fuel for specified amount of days depending on the reputation of the company and its connectivity. There are many forms of storage some of which are 1. Stacking the coal in heaps over available open ground areas. 2. As in (I). But placed under cover or alternatively in bunkers.

3. Allocating special areas & surrounding these with Live Storage(boiler room storage): storage from which coal may be withdrawn to supply combustion equipment with little or no remanding is live storage. This storage consists of about 24 to 30 hrs. of coal requirements of the plant and is usually a covered storage in the plant near the boiler furnace. The live storage can be provided with bunkers & coal bins. Bunkers are enough capacity to store the requisite of coal. From bunkers coal is transferred to the boiler grates. Air path External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall.The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any opening.

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Boiler furnace and steam drum Once water inside the boiler or steam generator, the process of adding the latent heat of vaporization or enthalpy is underway. The boiler transfers energy to the water by the chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel.The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the steam drum it goes down the down comers to the lower inlet water wall headers. From the inlet headers the water rises through the water walls and is eventually turned into steam due to the heat being generated by the burners located on the front and rear water walls (typically). As the water is turned into steam/vapor in the water walls, the steam/vapor once again enters the steam drum. The steam/vapor is passed through a series of steam and water separators and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers remove water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the water walls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation. The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal. The steam drum (as well as the superheater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial startup. The steam drum has internal devices that remove moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the superheater coils. Superheater Coal based power plants can have a superheater and/or reheater section in the steam generating furnace. Nuclear-powered steam plants do not have such sections but produce steam at essentially saturated conditions. In a coal based plant, after the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the steam drum, it is piped from the upper

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drum area into tubes inside an area of the furnace known as the superheater, which has an elaborate set up of tubing where the steam vapor picks up more energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves before the high pressure turbine. Reheater Power plant furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is rerouted to go inside the reheater tubes to pickup more energy to go drive intermediate or lower pressure turbines. This is what is called as thermal power. Deaerator A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be devoid of air and other dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion of the metal.

Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide for the removal of air and other dissolved gases from the boiler feed water. A deaerator typically includes a vertical, domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler feed water storage tank

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Fly ash collection Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos for subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars. Bottom ash collection and disposal At the bottom of the furnace, there is a hopper for collection of bottom ash. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a storage site. Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of condensate to the boiler, losses due to blow down and leakages have to be made up to maintain a desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added to the boiler water system. Impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in the makeup water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water, and that is done by a waterdemineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally consists of cation, anion, and mixed bed exchangers. Any ions in the final water from this process consist essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions, which recombine to form pure water. Very pure DM water becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its very high affinity for oxygen. The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw water input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance. For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously withdrawn for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not

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affected by corrosive water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of stainless steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut float is provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with air. DM water make-up is generally added at the steam space of the surface condenser (i.e., the vacuum side). This arrangement not only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases being removed by an air ejector attached to the condenser. Generator cooling While small generators may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet, larger units generally require special cooling arrangements. Hydrogen gas cooling, in an oilsealed casing, is used because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces wind age losses. This system requires special handling during start-up, with air in the generator enclosure first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that the highly flammable hydrogen does not mix with oxygen in the air. The hydrogen pressure inside the casing is maintained slightly higher than atmospheric pressure to avoid outside air ingress. The hydrogen must be sealed against outward leakage where the shaft emerges from the casing. Mechanical seals around the shaft are installed with a very small annular gap to avoid rubbing between the shaft and the seals. Seal oil is used to prevent the hydrogen gas leakage to atmosphere. The generator also uses water cooling. Since the generator coils are at a potential of about 22 kV and water is conductive, an insulating barrier such as Teflon is used to interconnect the water line and the generator high voltage windings. Demineralized water of low conductivity is used. Generator high voltage system The generator voltage for modern utility-connected generators ranges from 11 kV in smaller units to 22 kV in larger units. The generator high voltage leads are normally large aluminum channels because of their high current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines. They are enclosed in well-grounded aluminum bus ducts and are

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supported on suitable insulators. The generator high voltage leads are connected to stepup transformers for connecting to a high voltage electrical substation (of the order of 115 kV to 520 kV) for further transmission by the local power grid. The necessary protection and metering devices are included for the high voltage leads. Thus, the steam turbine generator and the transformer form one unit. Smaller units may share a common generator step-up transformer with individual circuit breakers to connect the generators to a common bus. Condenser

Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface condenser The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motordriven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum. For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 C where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally

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works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensable air into the closed loop must be prevented. Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning. The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean. Feedwater heater In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant utilizing a drum boiler, the surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it changes states from vapour to liquid. The heat content (joules or Btu) in the steam is referred to as enthalpy. The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a Air ejector condenser and Gland steam exhauster condenser. From there the condensate goes to the deareator where the condenstae system ends and the Feedwater system begins. Preheating the feedwater reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feedwater is introduced back into the steam cycle. Conveyor system

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A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves materials from one location to another. Conveyors are especially useful in applications involving the transportation of heavy or bulky materials. Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient transportation for a wide variety of materials, which make them very popular in the material handling and packaging industries. Many kinds of conveying systems are available, and are used according to the various needs of different industries. There are chain conveyors as well. Chain conveyors consist of enclosed tracks, I-Beam, towline, power & free, and hand pushed trolleys. Care and Maintenance of Conveyor Systems

Poor take-up adjustment Lack of lubrication Product Handling: Bad Belt Tracking or Timing

Cooling tower A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere though the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. The type of heat rejection in a cooling tower is termed evaporative in that it allows a small portion of the water being cooled to evaporate into a moving air stream to provide significant cooling to the rest of that water stream. The heat from the water stream transferred to the air stream raises the airs temperature and its relative humidity to 100%, and this air is discharged to the atmosphere. Evaporative heat rejection devices such as cooling towers are commonly used to provide significantly lower water temperatures than achievable with air cooled or dry heat rejection devices, like the radiator in a car, thereby achieving more costeffective and energy efficient operation of systems in need of cooling. The cooling towers are of two types: 1. Natural Draft Cooling Tower 2. Mechanized Draft Cooling Tower i. Forced Draft cooling tower
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ii. iii. Induced Draft cooling tower Balanced Draft cooling tower

Auxiliary systems
Oil system

An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbines main inlet

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steam stop valve, the governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other mechanisms. At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine main shaft takes over the functions of the auxiliary system. Monitoring and alarm system

Most of the power plant operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors and alarm systems that alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are seriously deviating from their normal range. Battery supplied emergency lighting and communication

A central battery system consisting of lead acid cell units is provided to supply emergency electric power, when needed, to essential items such as the power plants control systems, communication systems, turbine lube oil pumps, and emergency lighting. This is essential for a safe, damage-free shutdown of the units in an emergency situation.

Electric generator

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In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electrons in the windings to flow through the external electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water inside. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other source of mechanical energy. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. In fact many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity, and very frequently make acceptable generators. a Alternator Without a commutator, a dynamo becomes an alternator, which is a synchronous singly-fed generator. When used to feed an electric power grid, an alternator must always operate at a constant speed that is precisely synchronized to the electrical frequency of the power grid. A DC generator can operate at any speed within mechanical limits, but always outputs direct current. The primary advantage of the alternator is that the field windings can be swapped from the exterior non-rotating shell to the interior rotating shaft, and the current producing windings are on the exterior shell. This allows for extremely thick current producing windings that stay in a fixed position with permament nonmoving wiring. The rotating field coil by contrast can operate at high voltage and low current so that only small, simple, and low-cost slip rings are needed. For example, automotive alternators commonly only use a single carbon brush to supply power to the field coil; the other end of the coil is attached to the vehicle ground by way of the rotor bearings. By using a rotary transformer to convey power to the rotating field coil, no rubbing physical contacts are needed at all, and the alternator becomes an almost maintenance-free power generation device
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Tachogenerator Tachogenerators are frequently used to power tachometers to measure the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the equipment they power. Generators generate voltage roughly proportional to shaft speed. With precise construction and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages for certain ranges of shaft speeds Sources of error:The common error sources of a PRT are: Interchangeability: the closeness of agreement between the specific PRT's Resistance vs. Temperature relationship and a predefined Resistance vs. Temperature relationship, commonly defined by IEC 60751. Insulation Resistance: Error caused by the inability to measure the actual resistance of element. Current leaks into or out of the circuit through the sheath, between the element leads, or the elements. Stability: Ability to maintain R vs T over time as a result of thermal exposure. Repeatability: Ability to maintain R vs T under the same conditions after experiencing thermal cycling throughout a specified temperature range. Hysteresis: Change in the characteristics of the materials from which the RTD is built due to exposures to varying temperatures. Stem Conduction: Error that results from the PRT sheath conducting heat into or out of the process. Calibration/Interpolation: Errors that occur due to calibration uncertainty at the cal points, or between cal point due to propagation of uncertainty or curve fit errors. Lead Wire: Errors that occur because a 4 wire or 3 wire measurement is not used, this is greatly increased by higher gauge wire.

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2 wire connection adds lead resistance in series with PRT element. 3 wire connection relies on all 3 leads having equal resistance. Self Heating: Error produced by the heating of the PRT element due to the power applied. Time Response: Errors are produced during temperature transients because the PRT cannot respond to changes fast enough .Thermal EMF: Thermal EMF errors are produced by the EMF adding to or subtracting from the applied sensing voltage, primarily in DC systems

Advantages of coal based thermal Power Plant

They can respond to rapidly changing loads without difficulty A portion of the steam generated can be used as a process steam in different industries

Steam engines and turbines can work under 25 % of overload continuously Fuel used is cheaper Cheaper in production cost in comparison with that of diesel power stations

Disadvantages of coal based thermal Power Plant

Maintenance and operating costs are high Long time required for erection and putting into action A large quantity of water is required Great difficulty experienced in coal handling Presence of troubles due to smoke and heat in the plant Unavailability of good quality coal Maximum of heat energy lost

Thermocouple
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Thermocouple plugged to a multimeter displaying room temperature in C. A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat gradient into electricity. They are inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve. Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature. Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use electronic methods of coldjunction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of measurements. Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.

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Principle of operation:In 1821, the GermanEstonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal in use. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for measurement. That difference increases with temperature, and is between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius (V/C) for standard metal combinations.

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The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two metals of the thermocouple but rather along that portion of the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a temperature gradient. Because both lengths of dissimilar metals experience the same temperature gradient, the end result is a measurement of the temperature at the thermocouple junction. High Static Gauge Pressure Transmitter

The high performance gauge pressure transmitter model EJA440A can be used to measure liquid, gas, or steam pressure. It outputs a 4 to 20 mA DC signal corresponding to the measured gauge pressure.

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The EJA Series is available with BRAIN, HART, FOUNDATION fieldbus or PROFIBUS PA communication protocols. Features Excellent performance and stability The EJA series uses a silicon resonant sensor formed from monocrystal silicon, a perfect material which has no hysteresis in pressure or temperature changes. The sensor minimizes overpressure, temperature change, and static pressure effects, and thus offers unmatched long-term stability. Compact and light-weight design Half the weight of conventional models thanks to miniaturization of the casing with the amplifier ASIC, pressure cell structure, and flange. The ASIC uses the minimum number of parts and improves the reliability of the amplifier. Fieldbus communication capability Fieldbus is a digital two-way communication system. It is a revolutionary technology for configuring instrumentation control systems and a promising successor to the standard 4 to 20 mA analog communication used in most field instruments today. EJA series offers two types of fieldbus models, FOUNDATION fieldbus Low Voltage Mode and PROFIBUS PA devices, which ensure interoperability between Yokogawa and other manufactures. As for software, the EJA series incorporates two AI function blocks that compute differential and static pressures to allow flexible configuration of instrumentation. Specifications of Gauge Pressure Transmitter C Capsule D Capsule

Range -0.1 to 32 MPa

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Accuracy Certificates 0.12% 0.12%

FM, CENELEC ATEX, CSA, IECEx

Output 4 to 20 mA DC or FOUNDATION fieldbus or PROFIBUS PA 2-wire system with digital communication Ambient temperature -40 to 85 deg C (-40 to 185 deg F) (general use type) -30 to 80 deg C (-22 to 176 deg F) (with integral indicator) Process temperature -40 to 120 deg C (-40 to 248 deg F) (general use type) Maximum overpressure 48 MPa (6750 psig) 60 MPa (8500 psig)

Absolute and Gauge Pressure Transmitter

The general purpose absolute and gauge pressure transmitter EJX510A and EJX530A feature single crystal silicon resonant sensor and are suitable to measure liquid, gas, or steam pressure. The multi-sensing technology provides the advanced diagnostic function to detect such abnormalities as an impulse line blockage or heat trace breakage.

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The EJX series is available with BRAIN, HART, and FOUNDATION fieldbus communication protocols. Specifications :Accuracy 0.1% BRAIN and HART:10.5 to 42 V DC

Supply voltage

(10.5 to 30 V DC for Intrinsically safe type) Ambient temperature -40 to 85 deg C (-40 to 185 deg F) (general use type) -30 to 80 deg C (-22 to 176 deg F) (with integral indicator) Process temperature -40 to 120 deg C (-40 to 248 deg F) (general use type)

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