INTERNALIZED MISOGYNY AS CORRELATES TO

EXPERIENCES WITH AMBIVALENT SEXISM

AMONG FEMALE ENGINEERING STUDENT: BASIS
FOR SAGIP GENDER AWARENESS PROGRAM

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL

2023
Volume: 14
Pages: 373-407
Document ID: 2023PEMJ1263
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.8425902
Manuscript Accepted: 2023-10-10
Psych Educ, 2023, 14: 373-407, Document ID:2023 PEMJ1263, doi:10.5281/zenodo.8425902, ISSN 2822-4353
Research Article

Internalized Misogyny as Correlates to Experiences with Ambivalent Sexism

Among Female Engineering Student: Basis for SAGIP
Gender Awareness Program
Sigrid C. Cruz*, Sheena Mae F. Alagos, Eyer Toofiel A. Macarubbo
Mikhaella P. Obispo, Erica Joy S. Puntual
For affiliations and correspondence, see the last page.
Abstract
Women have experienced sexism even once in their lives which can affect them negatively. Considering this,
women may manifest it subconsciously, not being aware that they are already perpetuating this kind of beliefs
and attitudes. Besides, the idea of women hating other women and themselves are understudied in a local
context which also became the drive of the researchers to study and further understand this topic. This paper
aims to explore the relationship between internalized misogyny and experiences with ambivalent sexism among
229 qualified female engineering students enrolled in Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, ranging from ages
19 to 23 years old. This quantitative study used a descriptive correlational design to assess the relationship
between variables. Internalized Misogyny Scale (IMS) and Experiences with Ambivalent Sexism Inventory
(EASI) were also utilized to measure the variables in the study. Participants were chosen using the purposive
sampling technique, however only 229 students were qualified. Results showed that female engineering students
showed moderate levels of internalized misogyny in terms of distrust of women, devaluing women, and valuing
men over women. The participants also revealed that they encounter benevolent sexism more frequent than
hostile sexism. Number of female engineering students who experienced ambivalent sexism often to very
frequently were identified: 175 for protective paternalism, 197 for complementary gender differentiation, and
100 for hostile sexism. In data analysis, the Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient (RHO) was used to
examine the relationship between variables. The results indicated that the domains of internalized misogyny
showed a positively strong correlation with experienced ambivalent sexism, except the domain of valuing men
over women having positively moderate correlation with complementary gender differentiation. Moreover, each
domain of internalized misogyny has a significant relationship with the experiences with ambivalent sexism
among the respondents (p = 0.000 < 0.01).

Keywords: internalized misogyny, ambivalent sexism, hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, protective
paternalism, complementary gender differentiation, female engineering students, awareness program

Introduction
Being part of the minority group that have firsthand
experiences of gender-based discrimination from a
system that favors men has drawn the attention of the
researchers to study the occurrence of internalized
misogyny among women and its relation to their
experienced sexism. Living in a society that works
through mechanisms of patriarchy, women are
conditioned to believe that their entire gender is
inferior to men. Gender discrimination, violence
against girls and women, and unequal participation of
women in male-dominated fields like politics and
engineering are some manifestations of how society
treat their gender as less important and less capable.
These sexist events are connected to how women use
internalization as coping mechanism to protect
themselves from the feeling of inferiority.
Internalized misogyny is the process of women
subconsciously projecting their own sexist beliefs onto
themselves and other women to conform to societal
standards. This happens when a woman degrades or
devalues other women and even themselves, without
them knowing that by doing so, they uphold the status
quo and partake in practices of misogyny. With this,
the researchers recognized the importance of looking
at such incidents in a local context, particularly among
female students in a male-dominated field of
engineering at Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
(PLM), to analyze the prevalence of sexist events they
experience and how these affect their view and
treatment towards themselves and other women.
Sexism is the discrimination or prejudice based on sex
or gender, which is most evident in women
(Masequesmay, 2022). In the ambivalent sexism
theory by Glick and Fiske, sexism has two components
namely hostile sexism which is a more misogynistic
approach against women who do not follow the norm
and traditional gender roles, and benevolent sexism
which pertains to the subjectively positive attitude
towards women who conform to gender stereotypes.
Benevolent sexism can be further categorized into two
forms: protective paternalism and complementary
gender differentiation (Salomon et al., 2020).
Protective paternalism is the need to protect women as
they are seen weaker than men, while complementary

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Research Article
gender differentiation involves flattering beliefs
about women’s superior morality, warmth, and
sweetness. These various forms of sexism are
observed to be experienced by women in male-
dominated fields like engineering. A field is
considered male-dominated when there is a greater
proportion of men compared to women and there
are sig n ifican t cases of discrimination towards
women. Men being assigned to areas that require
technical skills and critical decision- making has
been a norm in our society. Their participation
and contribution are given more importance than
their female counterparts in most fields. Women, on
the other hand, are traditionally assigned to areas that
require people-centered and non- technical skills like
teaching, medicine, and social work. In recent times,
more women are becoming interested in careers that
are traditionally associated with men such as
engineering which challenges the status quo and
prompts women to defy traditional gender roles.
Being in such fields, however, has made women more
prone to experiencing discrimination based on their
gender.
Gender discrimination against women remains evident
in the field of engineering as they continue to struggle
with underrepresentation, stereotype threats, and
various forms of harassment. Data show that there are
fewer women who enter the engineering program and
lesser number of women succeed in it compared to
men. A local study by Marquez et al. (2020) discussed
that gender stereotypes such as the prevalent standards
about the male gender role hinder most young women
to consider building a career in the field of
engineering. The study explained that stereotypes
about industrial engineering such as IE is “easier” and
“softer” than other engineering majors are huge factors
that influence the perception of women and make them
more attracted to the program. Gender stereotypes
about engineering has a huge impact on women as
these limit them to explore certain career options and
hinder them to advance. They tend to unconsciously
internalize misogynistic beliefs and doubt their
capabilities to the extent of hindering themselves to
pursue a career typically assigned to men. Further,
there is a lack of institutionalized support for women
in Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) as some women continue to feel
that they were discriminated against or sexually
harassed but they were too afraid to report them
(WOMEN in STEM – a Baseline Study, 2022).
These various types of gender discrimination are
indications of how sexism affect women’s lives.
Women being marginalized in a certain field suggests
that they may feel undervalued, insignificant, and
unworthy ( Ag u ilar - Delavin, 2022). They
Cruz et al.
subconsciously adopt internalized misogyny by
absorbing feelings of inferiority to conform to societal
standards and protect themselves.
Sexist events, both subtle and blatant forms, can also
happen in a smaller scale despite being often
unreported. These experiences with sexism are
observed among women in the department of
engineering inside the campus of PLM. Regardless of
being the subtler form, benevolent sexism seems to
happen more commonly among the female students
than hostile sexism. Some female engineering students
confirmed that certain gender stereotypes such as
women being “bad at math” still occurs in their field.
There are instances where they ask to copy the works
of their male classmates in math-related subjects
because they trust their outputs more than their own.
This implies that gender stereotypes breed feelings of
doubt and incompetence among women. Additionally,
a few female students have felt that they are being
doubted by their friends and/or family when they
pursue the engineering course. Receiving comments
such as “Why did you choose engineering? isn’t that a
difficult course?” and the like. Contrarily, some female
students who picked engineering as their major have
experienced being glorified and described as
“hardcore” and “extraordinary” which implies that
their participation in such fields are highly regarded
since women entering male-dominated fields is not
considered normal.
Those certain comments that promote gender
stereotypes are form of microaggression that harms
women by making them feel small, incapable, and less
important.
Another form of benevolent sexism is how some
women prefer to belong in male groups. Some female
engineering students have expressed that they would
rather have male friends and described their friendship
with them as less dramatic and complicated than with
women. There are also instances where some female
students believe they are “not like the other girls” as
they consider themselves “one of the boys.” These are
clear exhibits of internalized misogyny that build the
superiority dynamic of the one “type” of girl that is
ideal over the other that is less preferable, as a result,
women fall into the comparison trap to the extent of
demeaning their entire gender. This apparently forms a
competition within their own gender and produces a
counterproductive result in which women
unknowingly partakes in misogynistic practices that
harm their entire gender.
Internalized Misogyny is an expression pioneered by
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Piggott that was defined as the sexism that takes place
in a group of women (Dehlin, 2018). It can be seen
through valuing men over women and distrusting and
devaluing women. These sexist beliefs including the
feeling of shame, confusion, powerlessness, and
inferiority with their own gender originated from the
discriminatory experiences they had with men. Such
events heavily affect their psychological distress which
conditions them to use internalization as a coping
mechanism (Rahmani, 2020). The cases of benevolent
sexism may leave a more serious harm among women
such as victim-blaming and siding with the oppressor
in which the blame is put on the victim of the
circumstance for the way they responded to the
experienced oppression than the actual perpetrator.
This illustrates internalized misogyny in which women
feel hatred, dislike, or mistrust toward other women as
a by- product of misogynistic beliefs and experiences
they have. They tend to project them onto themselves
and other women to cope and protect themselves from
the feeling of inferiority, without knowing that they
are contributing to the very sexist system that harms
their own gender by doing so.
There are hardly any reports of hostile sexism in the
college of engineering in PLM, however, being afraid
to report it to the administration is a huge factor that
must be considered. This fear to act on the experienced
oppression only indicates how sexism is heavily
ingrained in the system that the victims themselves do
not feel safe enough to report them. One of the few
known incidents that happened in 2021 was a male
engineering student in PLM being revealed as a
perpetrator of sexual harassment among female
students. He was exposed to having multiple victims
of harassment, sharing unwanted sexual remarks and
pictures to these female students. The fact that he had
victimized many women before the case was exposed
and addressed implies that there is a huge lack of
support and action from the administration that can
ensure women’s safety and address the issue of
harassment and gender-based discrimination inside the
institution. These experiences of sexism, along with
the lack of institutionalized support, suggests that
women are susceptible to feelings of being inferior and
devalued as their well-being and security are
compromised. This aggressive form of sexism induces
psychological distress and affects their self-esteem.
Women may feel that their gender are not as valued as
men in our society due to such experiences of
oppression.
Internalized misogynistic beliefs can be manifested
among women even in the most common and ordinary
ways. Common remarks such as “I am incapable of
Cruz et al.
doing too technical and complicated things as they are
supposed to be done by men,” which indicates that
they unconsciously accept certain gender stereotypes
to the point of doubting their own capabilities, and “I
am not as good at math and science subjects unlike
men” which may mean they are limiting themselves
due to what the societal standards has influenced them
to think. When it comes to treating other women, some
women may unconsciously think their entire gender is
inferior that they degrade and think negatively of other
women. Remarks such as “She’s being too dramatic,”
and “I prefer having male friends as they are smarter
and easier to be with” are all forms of misogynistic
beliefs that put their entire gender in great disservice
as it imposes the idea that they are less important than
men.
Studies have shown the association of internalized
misogyny with self- objectification and passive
acceptance of traditional gender roles (Plieger et al.,
2021; Ward & Grower, 2020). Women internalize the
misogynistic beliefs that society has conditioned them
and apply them to other women and even themselves
in an attempt to conform to its standards. This
happening refers to objectification theory, which states
that physical appearance signifies a woman’s worth.
Theorists Fredrickson & Roberts proclaims that this
results in women internalizing, keeping track of their
external appearance, and practicing cultural
expectations, exhibiting self-objectification. In a study
by Schwerdel (2021), he indicated six manifestations
of internalized sexism: powerlessness, objectification,
loss of self, invalidation, derogation, and competition
between women. It has shown that exposure to
benevolent sexism (i.e., a subtler form of sexism that
encourages traditional gender roles and gender
stereotypes) served as a reminder of expected gender
roles in society, and can possibly lead to increased
body surveillance, a construct that is associated with
self-objectification. Further, a cited study claimed that
experiencing sexism led to psychological distress
among heterosexual college women.
Women being in competition with another women,
distrusting and devaluing other women, comparing
themselves and telling that they are “not like the other
girls, and other forms of internalized misogyny had
motivated the researchers to establish this study as
they found it counterproductive to have hidden biases
against your own gender when all women are subject
to various forms of sexism due to the patriarchal
system in our society. Since internalized misogyny is
an attitude that can be manifested subconsciously,
women can be oblivious of having it. Thus, the present
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study focused on the internalized misogyny of female
engineering students in the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng
Maynila. The researchers aimed to determine if
internalized misogyny is correlated with the
experiences of ambivalent sexism of these female
students in a local context. This study was necessary to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the issue
and additional information that can be contributed in a
limited amount of literature in the Philippine setting.
The researchers proposed the Self and Gender Identity
Perception (SAGIP) Gender Awareness Program to
help the students understand, handle, and be aware of
their internalized misogynistic tendencies. They
believe that being conscious of one’s own hidden
biases against women through this program may help
create a safer and more supportive environment for
them which would hopefully break the cycle of
internalized misogyny. Further, as people who
advocate for gender equality, the researchers are
dedicated to gradually close the gender gap through
understanding internalized misogyny and its
relationship with experienced sexism. Conducting this
study would be a good step in enlightening women
about the ways in which they unconsciously devalue
and distrust people of their own gender including
themselves. More importantly, this study aims to
empower and help women find confidence in their
own strengths and capabilities that they consider it
counterproductive to distrust and devalue other
women.
Research Questions
This study examined the relationship between
internalized misogyny and experiences with
ambivalent sexism among female engineering
students. Specifically, it sought to answer the
following questions:
1. What is the level of internalized misogyny among
the respondents in terms of:
1.1. distrust of women;
1.2. devaluing of women; and
1.3. valuing men over women?
2. How frequently do respondents experience
ambivalent sexism in terms of:
2.1. hostile sexism; and
2.2. benevolent sexism;
2.2.1. protective paternalism; and
2.2.2. complementary gender differentiation?
3. Is there a significant relationship between
internalized misogyny and experiences with
ambivalent sexism among the respondents?
4. Based on the results, what awareness program can
be proposed?
Cruz et al.
Methodology
Research Design
This study used a descriptive correlational design to
understand the correlation between internalized
misogyny and experiences with ambivalent sexism
among female engineering students. Descriptive
Correlational research design is a quantitative research
method that quantifies and identifies the variables and
examines the relationships between and among two or
more variables (Walters, 2020). Unlike the
experimental method, in correlation, the researchers
had limited control over extraneous variables, did not
attempt to manipulate, control, or interfere with
variables, and simply observed the variables as they
naturally occurred. Thus, no causation was established
between variables (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018).
Using the identified scales, the researchers examined
the relationship between Internalized Misogyny and
experiences with ambivalent sexism. The variables
were only described and analyzed using the scales and
were not manipulated, controlled, or interfered with in
any manner by the researchers. Considering that
ambivalent sexism is composed of benevolent and
hostile sexism that both relate to discrimination against
women (Agadullina et al., 2022), causation was not
established between experiences with ambivalent
sexism and internalized misogyny of women. Thus,
the descriptive correlational method was the most
appropriate technique employed.
Research Locale
This study aimed to gather at least 305 female
engineering student respondents from Pamantasan ng
Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM). There were only 229
respondents who qualified based on the criteria and the
demographic profile of the respondents in terms of
age, college program, and college level was indicated.
The Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila-College of
Engineering and Technology (PLM-CET) had
approximately 4000 engineering student population
(Lagman, 2021, 2022), but no available data for its
gender ratio. Nonetheless, according to the
Commission of Higher Education (CHED, 2022), there
were 36,359 (31.52%) female engineering students out
of 115,355 engineering students in the National
Capital Region for the academic year 2021-2022,
which appeared to indicate that engineering was a
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male-dominated society. In a report by Commoner

(2021), female students were fewer than men in STEM
and avoided engineering as a career path due to gender
stereotypes.
With that, it appeared that Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng
Maynila, one of the universities in the National Capital
Region, was appropriate for the research study.
a result, a total of 229 respondents were gathered for
the study. The specific details regarding the
demographic profiles of the respondents are hereby
presented:
Table 1.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The target population of this research was female

college students currently enrolled in engineering
programs at Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
(PLM). After employing the Slovin's Formula, the
target sample size of the researchers was at least three-
hundred five (305) respondents.

The researchers utilized the purposive sampling

technique to choose respondents who would most
likely be in accord with the study. Purposive sampling
is a non- probability sampling technique where
respondents are selected based on specific criteria that
will prov ide ad eq u ate data for the study
(Nikolopoulou, 2022). Furthermore, the purposive
sampling technique allowed the researcher to select
individuals who were unknown since there was a lack
of knowledge of population size and were unable to
compile a list of population members. (Gravetter &
Forzano, 2018). The following were the criteria
specified by the researchers:
1. Respondents must be Filipino citizens;
2. Respondents must be currently enrolled for the
academic year 2022-2023;
3. Respondents who have experienced sexism (e.g.,
microaggressions, gender-based discrimination,
including biases in gender roles, verbal remarks,
prejudice, and the framing of women as needing
protection or dependence on men, etc.); and
4. Respondents must be aged 19 to 23 years old.
According to the statistics from the Commission of
Higher Education (CHED, 2022), the number of
female engineering students in the Philippines was
32.89% out of 536, 849. Nazario (2022) asserted that
the evident gender discrepancy and discrimination in
the engineering field need to be addressed in the
Philippines. Thus, the researchers identified the
mentioned gender and age group as the primary
criteria of the respondents.
This table summarizes the respondents’ demographic
profiles in terms of age, year level, and academic
programs. The sample size was within the ages 19 to
23 years old with 20-year-olds (29.69%) having the
highest representation followed by 21-year- olds
(27.51%), while 23-year-olds (4.80%) have the least
number of representations. In terms of year level, a
large portion of the sample size were mostly composed
of 2nd year (33.19%), 3rd year (28.82%), and 4th-year
students (32.75%). Lastly, the respondents’ college
programs were fairly represented with electronics
engineering (18.34) having the largest representation
followed by civil engineering (15.72%) and chemical
engineering (15.28%). Meanwhile, the least
represented program was manufacturing engineering
(10.04%).
Instrumentation
To gather the appropriate data needed for the study,
the researchers utilized the following instruments:
Internalized Misogyny Scale (IMS)

The researchers with the assistance of the College of In this study, the researchers utilized the Internalized
Engineering Student Council and the block presidents
from each year level to distribute the survey form to
eligible individuals who met the specified criteria. As

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Misogyny Scale (IMS) to determine the internalized
misogyny of female engineering students towards
themselves and other women. It was originally
developed by Margaret Piggott (2004) to measure
internalized misogyny in heterosexual women and
lesbians. This scale consists of 17 items that can be
divided into three sub-scales: 1) devaluing of women
(items 1-4), 2) distrust of women (items 5-10), and 3)
valuing men over women (items 11-17). Examples for
each sub-scales include: “Women exaggerate problems
they have at work,” “It is generally safer not to trust
women too much,” and “Generally, I prefer to work
with men.” The respondents can rate each item in a 7-
point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
(strongly agree). The researchers used a quartile
distribution to identify the cut-off scores of each
domain from low, moderate, and high. Higher scores
will indicate higher levels of internalized misogyny in
the respondents.
Various studies have evaluated and supported this
scale, such as a validation study of this scale’s Turkish
version by Yaman Sözbir et al. (2020) showing a
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.82. Recent papers
such as a study by McCullough et al. (2019) among
female video game players also exhibited an alpha of
0.92, and 0.93 in the same study by Dehlin & Galliher
(2019).
To check the internal consistency of the research
instrument in this study, a reliability test using
Cronbach’s Alpha was performed using data collected
from a pilot test involving 20 participants. The
responses collected were analyzed using IBM SPSS
Statistics Version 26 which generated the Scale and
Reliability Statistics. The overall reliability for the
Internalized Misogyny Scale is excellent with a
Cronbach’s alpha of 0.974. Further results are shown
in the table:
Table 2.
Experiences with Ambivalent Sexism Inventory
(EASI)
The researchers used the Experiences with Ambivalent
Sexism Inventory (EASI) by Salomon et. al (2020) to
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measure the daily experiences of the respondents with
benevolent and hostile sexism. It consists of 28 items
rated using a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (This has
never happened to me) to 7 [This has happened very
frequently (more than twice per week)]. It has five
subscales evaluating: (1) hostile sexism, a negative
attitude towards women who doesn’t conform to
traditional gender stereotypes; (2) heterosexual
hostility, an attitude that see women as sexually
deceptive and manipulative; (3) protective paternalism,
wherein being protective to women as they are seen as
weaker than men; (4) complementary gender
differentiation, includes positive stereotypes about
women, such as having superior morality, warmth, and
sweetness; and (5) heterosexual intimacy, an attitude
which idealizes women as a romantic figure. However,
the researchers will only utilize questions that measure
experiences with hostile and benevolent sexism. 8
items are included in both hostile (items 2, 4, 5, 6, 9,
12, 15 and 16) and benevolent sexism, resulting in a
total of 16-item questionnaires. Benevolent sexism
includes two forms: 4 items in protective paternalism
(items 3, 10, 11, and 14) and another 4 items in
complementary gender differentiation (items 1, 7, 8,
and 13). In orderto determine the frequency that the
respondents experience in each type of sexism, the
researchers calculated the average values across items.
The Experiences with Ambivalent Sexism Inventory
also showed an excellent overall reliability in this
study with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.935. Further results
are as shown below:
Table 3.
Data Gathering Procedure
To fulfill the objectives of the present study, some
actions and prerequisites were required to be
performed by the researchers. Initially, the researchers
asked permission from the proponents of the selected
instruments to allow them to utilize and distribute their
scale among the participants in the study. Such tools
enabled the researchers to measure the internalized
misogyny and experiences with ambivalent sexism of
female engineering students in the Pamantasan ng
Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM). The researchers used
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surveys as their data collection method; however, as
this was administered in a hybrid setup, the researchers
conducted the survey online via Microsoft Forms, and
physically inside the campus using printed survey
forms.
The respondents were oriented about the overview of
the study, the potential harms or deceptions involved,
the purpose and aims, the process of how the results
will be interpreted, and the ethical guidelines.
Afterward, they were presented with the consent form
wherein their signature over their printed name were
required as an indication that they agree to all the
conditions and to become a participant in the study.
The researchers composed the consent form to allow
future participants the right to know the data that will
be gathered from them and the process in which they
will be involved. The introduction of the topic, its
purpose, and the scales used were all indicated in the
generated electronic and printed form.
The ethical guidelines have included their beneficence,
non-maleficence, privacy, confidentiality, autonomy,
and integrity. The respondents were also informed that
they have the option of answering the survey online
via Microsoft Forms and offline through the printed
survey forms. In the debriefing process, the
participants were informed that there was a school
guidance counselor available should there be a need
for their assistance through the process of data
collection.
Regarding the dissemination of forms, the researchers
reached out to the college dean to permit them to
conduct the current study in the College of
Engineering and Technology (CET) and requested
their help in connecting with the related academic
organizations and class presidents for easier
distribution of survey forms. Upon answering the
forms, the school email account was required for
verification if conducted online while the school ID or
recent registration form was checked when done in a
physical setup. The forms given were provided with
the instructions and introduction of the study, while in
the online forms, the Data Privacy Act of 2012 and
consent form were also indicated. After this, they were
headed toward the sections containing the Experiences
with Ambivalent Sexism Inventory and Internalized
Misogyny Scale. Upon completing the survey,
participants were offered a statement of gratitude for
their generous participation and contribution to the
study.
Data gathering was done in the month of March 2023.
After this process, the researchers employed statistical
Cruz et al.
treatment to obtain an extensive analysis of the
findings, with the help of the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (SPSS) and a statistician. This was
further discussed and explored in the latter section of
the study. With all the data considered, the researchers
have provided the results and their conclusions on the
link between experiences with ambivalent sexism and
internalized misogyny of female engineering students
in the university.
Statistical Analysis
The researchers sought to assess the internalized
misogyny and experiences with ambivalent sexism
among female engineering students and the
relationship between these two variables in the study.
Firstly, Slovin’s formula was applied to get the
appropriate sample size from a large population of
female engineering students nationwide. The
researchers employed descriptive statistics,
particularly frequency distribution and percentile, to
group the participants based on their demographic
profile.
For statement of the problems one and two, the
researchers applied descriptive statistics in which the
mean and standard deviation of the scores were
obtained. Computing the mean determined the average
of the scores of the participants, while the standard
deviation displayed how dispersed the acquired data
are. For SOP 1, quartile distribution was used to
identify the central tendency and variability of the
obtained dataset. The data was arranged into ascending
order and divided into quartiles in which the first
quartile was categorized as low, the second quartile as
average, and the third quartile as high in terms of level
of internalized misogyny. For the SOP 2, local
norming was applied to identify the cut-off scores and
accordingly categorize the data from “never” to “very
frequently” in terms of experiences with ambivalent
sexism based on the group of scores of the
respondents.
Ethical Considerations
At the start of each physical and electronic survey
form, the respondents were provided with an informed
consent that contained all the information about the
study. The informed consent provided a detailed
explanation of the study, including its title, overview,
purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits, as well as the
researchers' contact information. This guaranteed that
participants had a comprehensive understanding of the
research. It was also clearly stated that participation by
the respondents was wholly voluntary and that they
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could withdraw from the survey at any time without domain of internalized misogyny namely distrust of
penalty. women, devaluing women, and valuing men over
women. The scoring for their level of internalized
For the electronic form, the respondents were misogyny in all domains is based on the manual
requested to provide their PLM Microsoft email namely Internalized Misogyny Scale (IMS) by Piggott.
address, while in the physical form, their school ID or Respondents’ levels were determined by computing
recent registration form was checked for verification their individual summation from each domain. The
purposes. This verification process was implemented researchers used a quartile distribution to identify the
to ensure the authenticity and validity of participant cut-off scores of each domain from low, moderate, and
responses. A link to the Data Privacy Act was also high. Higher scores will indicate higher levels of
attached so that the respondents could read it and be internalized misogyny in the respondents. Sample size
informed about their rights. The respondents were then averages and standard deviations are as follows:
requested to sign the form confirming their consent to Distrust of Women (x◻ = 23.25, stdev = 8.68);
participate in the study. Devaluing Women (x◻ = 15.05, stdev = 7.24);
The survey forms also contained demographic Valuing men over women (x◻ = 21.71, stdev =
information about the respondents, such as their age, 13.61)
college level, and college program. The researchers
For moderate levels of distrust of women, more
did not collect the respondents' names to ensure the
respondents displayed a moderate level of internalized
confidentiality and anonymity of their responses.
misogyny specifically 50.22% of the respondents.
Upon completing the survey forms, the respondents Having a moderate level of distrust of women included
were thanked for participating and reassured that their statements such as “It is generally safer not to trust
data would remain strictly confidential. A debriefing women too much” and “When it comes down to it a lot
statement was also presented at the end of the form, of women are deceitful”. In support of these findings,
informing respondents that a school guidance a study conducted by Yates and Skinner (2021) using
counselor would be available to assist them. The the intelligent career framework (ICF) identified
collected data was stored securely, ensuring only the barriers to career development for women in
researchers could access it. Once the study was engineering, in which Women themselves also stated
completed, the researchers securely discarded all the that they would rather work with men as they felt more
collected data. assured of their abilities than women. However, the
study lacks information regarding the age range of the
participants. Yet, the article mentions the job titles,
Results and Discussion years of experience, and areas of engineering expertise
of the respondents. Based on this information, it is
reasonable to assume that the participants were not
What is the level of internalized misogyny among from the Generation Z cohort, but rather, likely
the respondents in terms of: (1) distrust of women; belonged to older age groups.
(2) devaluing of women; and (3)valuing men over
women? Due to the lack of female mentors, gender disparity
within PLM-CET could contribute to a lack of trust in
Table 4. Respondents’ levels from each domain of women. Women enrolled in engineering programs face
internalized misogyny namely distrust of women, an insufficiency of role models, as there are not
devaluing women, and valuing men over women enough female mentors in certain fields. The absence
of representation makes it difficult for female
engineering students to envision themselves
succeeding in the profession, leading to a decrease in
confidence and motivation. Gonsalves (2018) revealed
that women in engineering experienced sexism not
merely in the workplace, but also from teachers who
denigrated women and did not understand their desire
to become engineers. So, the support and guidance
provided by female mentors are crucial for women in
engineering programs. Without female mentors,
female engineering students may struggle to receive
Table 4 summarizes the respondents’ levels from each personalized guidance, mentoring, and advocacy
necessary for their professional and personal

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advancement. Consequently, women may feel isolated
and unsupported, distrust of women, and affecting
their ability to handle challenges effectively.
According to the objectification theory, women often
internalize the misogynistic beliefs present in society
and apply them to themselves and other women in
order to cope with societal standards. This internalized
sexism can manifest as feelings of powerlessness,
objectification, loss of self, invalidation, derogation,
and competition among women. When exposed to
benevolent sexism, which reinforces traditional gender
roles, women tend to monitor themselves more closely
and engage in self-objectification.
In the context of PLM College of Engineering and
Technology, where gender disparity is evident and
implicit derogation and distrust towards women's
abilities may occur, female engineering students may
internalize the belief that men are naturally more
skilled in science and mathematics. In a report by
Commoner (2021), the reason why female students are
lesser than men in STEM and avoid engineering as a
career path is due to gender stereotypes. The report
shows that for centuries’ worth of internalized gender
stereotypes, young women were more likely to say that
males were better at technology and engineering. This
can result in self-doubt, reduced self-esteem, and
obstacles in pursuing personal and professional goals.
Kim & Meistere (2022) analyzed the gender
microaggressions experienced by women leaders in
STEM as they noticed that the underrepresentation of
women in STEM in leadership roles is a persistent
issue. The results reveal that women frequently
encounter microaggressions that diminish their
competence, suggesting that they lack the technical
ability required for their job.
Internalized misogyny not only affects individuals but
also impacts the overall well-being of women, limiting
their opportunities for growth and advancement.
Distrust among women fosters competition, judgment,
and a lack of unity, hindering the development of
supportive networks and collective efforts for gender
equality. This slows down progress and restricts the
available support for women in navigating various
challenges. When women doubt the capabilities,
trustworthiness, or motivations of their own gender, it
perpetuates societal biases and discrimination, leading
to unequal treatment, reinforcement of gender norms,
and limitations on individual and collective
achievements.
For low levels of distrust of women, it has been
observed that 27.51% of the respondents have scored
Cruz et al.
low on this domain. This indicates that women in this
subset exhibit no to low internalized misogyny. Within
the PLM - College of Engineering, students are
granted the chance to actively engage in various
academic organizations and councils, specifically
tailored to their respective departments. By becoming
members of these organizations, students have the
opportunity to significantly enhance their abilities in
event organizations, engineering-related disciplines,
and communication. The benefits of participating in
academic organizations as an engineering student are
diverse, encompassing networking possibilities, skill
development, exposure to leadership roles, and
immersion in industry and research.
One notable advantage derived from involvement in
these organizations is the ability to establish
connections and expand one's professional network.
Through interaction with fellow students, faculty
members, and professionals from the industry, students
can cultivate valuable relationships that may prove
pivotal in their future careers. Additionally, active
participation in events, workshops, and collaborative
projects organized by these organizations allows
students to further refine their technical and non-
technical skills. This enables them to acquire a broad
range of abilities that are highly sought-after in the
engineering sector. It is worth highlighting that
academic organizations serve as a platform for female
engineering students to navigate an environment that is
predominantly male dominated. By actively engaging
in these organizations, female students can gain
invaluable insight into effectively utilizing and
enhancing their skills within such a context. This
exposure plays a crucial role in breaking down gender
barriers and contributing to the progress of female
engineers within the field.
According to a study by Litzler and colleagues (2017),
female engineering students who have strong networks
of supportive peers are more likely to persist and
succeed in their academic pursuits. This finding
suggests that a low level of distrust among female
engineering students could potentially lead to
increased retention rates and academic success.
Furthermore, a study by Rosser and colleagues (2018)
found that women who participated in gender-
segregated peer support groups reported higher levels
of self-confidence and were more likely to persist in
their engineering studies. This suggests that trust and
support among female engineering students could be
fostered through peer support groups and could lead to
positive outcomes.
Hill and Johnson (2018) found that a modest amount
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of internalized misogyny may have its own set of
effects on women. Increased support for laws enacting
gender equality is one possible result of low-level
internalized misogyny. Further, women with low
levels of internalized misogyny—particularly those
who have a low distrust of women—are more likely to
favor laws that advance gender equality, such as
affirmative action and reproductive rights. This finding
raises the possibility that women who are less inclined
to absorb sexist beliefs may be better able to identify
the structural obstacles that restrict women's
possibilities and promote change.
According to Smith, Sansone, and White (2018), more
work satisfaction and success are other potential
results of low-level distrust of women. Women who do
not absorb sexist attitudes about themselves and other
women may find greater career endeavors and
pleasure. This might be due to the fact that these
women are more inclined to pursue their professional
ambitions without being constrained by ingrained
notions that they are less capable or aspirational than
males. Also, having low levels of internalized
misogyny, especially low levels of distrust of women,
may help women develop strong bonds with one
another and a sense of sisterhood. Further, Women
who do not absorb sexist attitudes may be more likely
to develop positive relationships with other women
and feel a feeling of solidarity with them. Women who
have high levels of internalized misogyny, on the other
hand, could perceive other women as rivals or dangers.
For high levels of distrust of women, 22.27% of the
respondents have scored in the high range of
internalized misogyny. This suggests that women in
this category may harbor a significant degree of
distrust toward other women and potentially interpret
them as unreliable, untrustworthy, or manipulative.
Being a part of a male-dominated society, particularly
in the context of PLM, where low retention rates are
seen in engineering colleges, can have a detrimental
impact on women's self-perception and contribute to
the growth of mistrust. When deciding on career paths,
this could have a negative impact on their decision-
making process. Additionally, the perception that men
are fundamentally superior to women in engineering
courses may be contributed by the fact that in prior
years, despite the initial high enrollment numbers, only
a small percentage of students— took the license
exam.
Female engineering students may experience
marginalization or undervaluation in social settings
where men predominate. The students may have
feelings of self-doubt and mistrust due to the gender
Cruz et al.
imbalance in the engineering sector, which affects
their confidence and belief in their own talents. This
may discourage them from pursuing and succeeding in
engineering jobs, so reducing their potential
contributions to discipline.
Educational institutions like PLM can endeavor to
improve the atmosphere for female engineering
students by proactively addressing the causes of
gender imbalance and low retention rates. An inclusive
culture that motivates all aspiring engineers, regardless
of gender, to pursue their passions and succeed in their
chosen careers can be created by appreciating and
recognizing the distinctive perspectives and abilities
that women offer to the field.
According to Cortina and Berdahl (2019), they explore
women's experiences of discrimination in STEM
workplaces, with a focus on internalized misogyny.
The results showed that women in these fields
experience feelings of isolation, undervaluation, and
marginalization. Women who have internalized
negative stereotypes about their gender can develop a
lack of confidence, which may lead to self-doubt and
imposter syndrome. Additionally, high levels of
distrust among women can lead to a competitive and
hostile work environment, making it difficult to
collaborate and work as a team, ultimately impacting
the quality of work produced. Moreover, a lack of
solidarity among women may hinder the ability to
advocate for change and address issues of gender bias
and discrimination in the workplace.
Women's lives are significantly impacted by the lack
of trust that women have in other women, which may
be a sign of internalized misogyny. The following
potential effects of women having less trust in other
women are highlighted by recent research by Ely &
Meyerson (2018); Women who don't trust other
women may be less inclined to join organizations and
networks for women, which can be vital resources for
interaction and assistance. Also, a lack of trust among
women may make it difficult to organize resistance
against sexism and gender-based discrimination,
thereby undermining such efforts. Further, women
who mistrust other women may experience strained
professional relationships that lower their level of
satisfaction and performance. Koster and Achterberg
(2018) also discovered that women who distrust other
women may weaken support for their growth and be
less likely to provide support or mentorship. This may
worsen gender disparities and reduce chances for
women in a variety of professions. Also, according to
Eagly and Crowley (2018), a lack of trust among
women may contribute to a higher acceptance of
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gender stereotypes. As a result of these self-fulfilling
prophecies, women may decide not to pursue
leadership roles because they lack confidence in their
talents. Women may feel that they are less qualified or
deserving of leadership positions than males.
Internalized misogyny in terms of devaluing women
focused on the general devaluation of women in which
they are underestimated in different ways. Items such
as “women exaggerate problems they have at work”
and ”women are too easily offended” are under this
subscale. These statements have negative connotations
on how women respond to a certain situation. There is
an underlying condescension behind the sentences that
meant to belittle the feelings and problems of women.
Misogynistic remarks as such invalidate the experience
of women which significantly affect how they
internalize beliefs including them being irrational and
unworthy of fair treatment.
Results illustrate that an average of 48.91% female
engineering students have scored average in the
dimension of devaluing women. Having moderate
levels of internalized misogyny in terms of devaluing
women indicate that the respondents are starting to
learn how to give importance to women and consider
their problems as real concerns that need to be
addressed. Most respondents tend to already realize the
value of their own gender and think of women as
rational and capable enough to decide how a certain
situation affects them. According to ambivalent sexism
theory (Oswald et al., 2018), women are viewed as
fragile meaning they are weak and break easily. This is
associated to how some people described women as
“too emotional” and downplay their feelings and
problems. This can explain the moderate levels in this
dimension as some of the respondents tend to maintain
some misogynistic and stereotypical view about
women. Despite the progress in addressing gender
discrimination in male-dominated fields like
engineering, some respondents seem to conform to
societal norms by subscribing to common gender
stereotypes such as women being “exaggerated” and
“too sensitive” which disregard the experience of other
women, and even themselves. Similarly, some of the
respondents agree that having female friends are more
complicated as they are more dramatic compared to
men. They seem to be oblivious that such remarks that
devalue women and adhere to gender stereotypes only
harms their entire gender as doing so supports the very
sexist system that propagates misogynistic beliefs.
High levels of devaluing women among 24.02% of the
total population imply that some misogynistic beliefs
and tendencies remain the same for some respondents.
Cruz et al.
They tend to treat their own gender as inferior by
engaging in practices or having beliefs that devalue
women. High levels in this dimension means some of
the female en g in eering resp on d en ts still
subconsciously underestimate their own gender. This
is seen in how they downplay the feelings and
experience of other women by supporting narratives
such as women being exaggerated and dramatic.
Women are largely conditioned to a patriarchal system
that is upheld through mechanisms of sexism and
misogyny in which women are devalued in
comparison to men. The idea that women are inferior
often justifies inequality, hostility, and violence as
permissible toward girls and women. As a result, girls
and women are devalued and discriminated in various
ways (Rahmani, 2020). When such sexist experiences
and beliefs happen to a woman perpetually, it is
possible for them to subconsciously accept them and
use internalization to cope with the feeling of
inferiority.
Objectification theory suggest that women
subconsciously learned to conform to societal
standards and practice cultural expectations due to
being conditioned to how society objectified them
based on their physical appearance. They tend to
internalize the misogynistic beliefs that society has
conditioned them and project them to themselves and
other women. This can explain why some of the
respondents obtain high levels of internalized
misogyny in terms of devaluing women, considering
that they are in male- dominated society of
engineering, this has made them more prone to having
misogynistic experiences and subconsciously
absorbing them. This is also manifested on how some
respondents prefer being with men as they consider
them smarter and easier to be with than with women.
Women being constantly devalued and discriminated
against has been the norm, however, some of them did
not see those experiences as a form of sexism and
provided counter-narratives including (1) women
undermining sexist behaviors in their group,
downplaying its significance, and (2) blaming external
factors and stating that it’s just a social norm. These
are indicative of how sexist experiences are related
with the internalized misogyny among the
respondents.
An average of 27.07% female engineering students
obtained low levels of internalized misogyny in
devaluing women which indicates that they tend to
already recognize the value of their own gender.
Despite what the recent studies show regarding the
experiences of women in the engineering field,
particularly how they are constantly devalued that they
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must prove themselves to be seen as equal to men
(Yates & Skinner, 2021), the findings of the present
study prove that some women realize their value and
contribution to society, especially in a male-dominated
field like engineering. The low- level scores indicate
that some of the respondents more likely value the
feelings and experiences of women by validating them
and believing that women are not just “too dramatic”
or “too sensitive” but rather are rational enough to
decide how to respond to a situation that affects them.
In the current time, various programs have been
conducted in pursuit of closing the gender gap and
breaking the cycle of gender discrimination. The
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG), for instance,
was established in 2015 and the fifth in its 17 goals is
aimed to “achieve gender quality and empower all
women and girls.” It focuses on pursuing sustained
gender equality in all aspects of women’s lives
including ending discrimination against all women,
eliminating violence against women, recognizing and
valuing unpaid care and domestic work, and ensuring
women’s participation and leadership in decision-
making (Gender Equality and the Sustainable
Development Goals - Philippine Commission on
Women, 2020). Similarly, the Pamantasan ng Lungsod
ng Maynila supports gender equality advocacies by
joining the campaign aimed to end violence against
women (de Castro, 2022). This campaign emphasized
the rights of women and the youth for equal
opportunities in schools and workplaces. These
gradual efforts in valuing women’s roles in our society
and the presence of institutionalized support for
women in male-dominated fields are crucial factors in
redeeming women’s perception of their value. Thus, as
society progresses, the gender gap narrows down
which possibly contributes to the low levels of
internalized misogyny in terms of devaluing women
among the respondents. This is seen on how some
respondents disagree with statements that have
misogynistic connotation and meant to underestimate
the experience and feelings of women.
In valuing men over women, the findings reveal that
different levels of internalized misogyny are present
among the respondents. Specifically, 27.51% of the
participants exhibit low levels, 22.71% demonstrate
moderate levels, and another 22.71% display high
levels of internalized misogyny. This subscale includes
statements like, 'When I am in a group consisting of
equal numbers of men and women and a woman
dominates the conversation, I feel uncomfortable,' and
'Generally, I prefer to work with men.' These beliefs
may imply negative views towards women and may
Cruz et al.
see men as superior to women in varying contexts.
It is encouraging to note that 27.51% of the
respondents in the current study have been found to
have low levels of internalized misogyny in the
valuing men over women subscale. This finding
suggests that these female engineering students within
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila are comfortable
with other women taking a leading role in
conversations traditionally dominated by men and do
not have a preference for working with men over other
women. In group projects, they actively participate and
strive to be leaders of the group and foster a sense of
camaraderie by supporting and collaborating with
fellow female engineering students. Their responses
reflect high self - esteem, confidence, and
empowerment, which is evident in their active
engagement, voicing of ideas, and participation in
discussions, showcasing their positive contributions in
the classroom.
These findings are consistent with past studies in this
field. For instance, Hayes, Hixson, and Masters (2020)
found that women in STEM did not underestimate
their ability and rated their work ethics higher than
men. This indicates that women in these fields know
their capabilities and have a positive self-perception.
Another study by Bloodhart et al. (2020) reported that
female STEM students are also more likely to perceive
a higher proportion of women to excel in class than
men and prefer to study and seek help from their
female peers.
The increase in respondents with low levels of valuing
men over women may be attributed to the changing
circumstances within the PLM institution. Specifically,
it can be observed that many female engineering
students are now actively participating in student
council elections and running for different positions.
This signifies a shift towards equal representation and
opportunities for both genders within the student
council of the PLM College of Engineering and
Technology. This change in the institutional context
may have influenced the attitudes and beliefs of female
engineering students, leading to lower levels of
valuing men over women. It suggests that the students
perceive their female peers as equally capable and
deserving of positions of authority and respect.
Hicks (2021) observed that despite gender inequality
in male-dominated industries, women are beginning to
assume leadership roles that enable them to assist and
empower other women. Establishing networks
supporting women's empowerment further contributes
to this positive shift. Women find comfort and support
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in a collegial network of female colleagues which in
turn helps them combat self-doubt and imposter
syndrome. Working with other women in college
while forming bonds with them help female students
survive in the engineering program (Gonsalves, 2018).
Additionally, many women believe that men and
women have equal abilities and that women are
capable of what men can do (Prieto-Rodriguez et al.,
2022). This belief in gender equality and the ability of
women to excel contributes to the decreased
internalized misogyny. These findings highlight the
potential for women to work together and support each
other in overcoming the adverse effects of internalized
misogyny, as demonstrated in a study conducted by
the Philippine Business Coalition for Women
Empowerment (2020).
Meanwhile, 22.71% of the respondents exhibited
moderate internalized misogyny in valuing men over
women. This implies that these female engineering
students may still hold some gender biases that favor
men over women, but not to an extreme extent. They
may show a balanced perception of both genders but
may prefer to work with their male peers and may
view males as superior to women in some domains.
For example, they may prefer to collaborate with male
classmates in math or science subjects, believing that
males are inherently more intelligent in these subjects
than females. However, their bias is not as strong as
those with high levels of internalized misogyny,
suggesting a potential openness to challenging these
biases.
The study by Hennesey (2018) supports the findings of
this research, revealing that women tend to rate men as
more skilled in math. Internalized misogyny
negatively impacts women's performance, increasing
anxiety and distraction when gender competence
stereotypes are activated. This suggests that
internalizing gender biases can harm women's
confidence and abilities in academic settings. While
moderate levels of internalized misogyny may not
manifest as strongly as high levels, they still
perpetuate gender biases and hinder women's
academic progress.
On the other hand, the remaining 22.71% of the
respondents exhibited high levels of internalized
misogyny, indicating a strong bias favoring men and
potentially struggling to view other women as equals.
This high internalized misogyny perpetuates gender
bias and discrimination within the PLM institution.
These female students may display a clear preference
for working with male peers and may be hesitant to
Cruz et al.
have other females as group members in projects.
They might also be reluctant to voice their opinions or
take on leadership roles in projects, influenced by the
belief that men are more capable in the classroom
setting. Consequently, they may seek validation from
male peers before expressing their ideas in class and
overlook the support their female peers offer.
This bias creates a hostile work environment for
women in male-dominated fields, where male and
female colleagues who have internalized biased beliefs
contribute to hostility and rejection of females. Such
an environment can have detrimental effects on the
mental health and well-being of women. The study
conducted by Grindstaff (2022) supports these
findings, shedding light on the challenges faced by
women in male- dominated fields and the harmful
consequences of internalized misogyny.
The objectification theory explains the influence of
internalized misogyny on women's perceptions. The
theory indicated that women may internalize societal
expectations that their worth is tied to their physical
appearance. A female engineering student with high
levels of internalized misogyny, who values men over
women, may prioritize her physical appearance to seek
approval from her male peers, whom she considers
superior. This is consistent with the finding of
Rodriguez (2019), who stated that women dressed up
more in order for them to be taken seriously. By
focusing on their physical appearance, these women
may believe that conforming to societal beauty
standards will enhance their chances of being
respected and acknowledged just like their male
counterparts in engineering.
According to Keyes (2021), young girls are ingrained
with the idea that they must view other women as
competition. Society reinforces the belief that
masculinity is superior to femininity on a daily basis,
leading women to perceive themselves as less
important than men. This can pose a problem, as
Kunemund (2019) suggests because it can be
challenging for individuals to develop a positive sense
of self-worth and self- esteem when constantly
belittled by society. The sense of inferiority that was
constantly reinforced to them may be internalized,
contributing to their damaged self-worth.
Additionally, women may tend to view others of the
same gender to be subordinate to men. Kunemund
(2019) also stated that when an individual views their
gender as inferior, supporting someone of the same
gender in an influential role may be difficult. Hence,
this may explain why there are respondents who have
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high levels of internalized misogyny in terms of
valuing men over women; women may view men as
more powerful than them and may also struggle to
believe that other women are as capable as men due to
the opposing views regarding their gender that have
been continuously taught to them since their
childhood.
To further explore the complex issue of internalized
misogyny and its influence on women's perceptions
and interactions with men and other women, it is
essential to consider the findings of recent studies. For
example, Yates and Skinner (2021) conducted a study
that found that women preferred working with men
because they believed men were more capable than
other women. This preference for male colleagues
highlights how internalized misogyny can manifest in
women's attitudes and choices. Additionally, the study
revealed that women used stereotypes to describe
women as challenging to work with and preferred
male-dominated fields. Despite this preference for
male colleagues, the women in the study were aware
of the gender bias favoring men in the workplace, with
men often receiving higher recognition and status than
women. These findings suggest that women's exposure
to gender bias can influence how they perceive and
interact with other women, potentially internalizing
negative experiences.
How frequently do respondents experience
ambivalent sexism in terms of: (1) hostile sexism;
(2) benevolent sexism; (3) protective paternalism;
and (4) complementary gender differentiation?
Table 5. Frequency of Experiences with Ambivalent
Sexism among the Respondents.
Table 5 summarizes the frequency of the respondents’
experienced ambivalent sexism in terms of hostile
sexism, and benevolent sexism (protective
paternalism, complementary gender differentiation).
The scoring of the respondents’ frequency of
Cruz et al.
experienced ambivalent sexism in all dimensions is
according to the manual of Experiences with
Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (EASI) by Salomon.
The frequency of experienced ambivalent sexism
among the respondents was determined by calculating
the class range, which involved subtracting the lowest
score from the highest score to determine the
difference for each level of frequency.
Results indicate that 20.09% respondents experience
hostile sexism rarely while a slightly lesser number of
respondents experience it frequently (18.78%).
Meanwhile, a small number of respondents or 5.24%
were found to have never experienced hostile sexism.
Moreover, protective paternalism is experienced often
to very frequently (76.42%) by a large portion of the
respondents. Lastly, most respondents often to very
frequently (86.03%) experience complementary
gender differentiation.
The objective of this study is to determine the
frequency at which respondents experience ambivalent
sexism, which encompasses hostile sexism. According
to Glick and Fiske's Ambivalent Sexism Theory
(1996), hostile sexism refers to the presence of
negative attitudes and beliefs towards women, often
accompanied by feelings of anger and the perception
of men being superior to women.
Surprisingly, it has been observed that 5.24% of the
respondents have no experiences with hostile sexism,
and the 20.09% of the respondents have experiences
with hostile sexism on rare occasions or for at least
once or twice a month. While it may seem
advantageous for some of the respondents to have little
to no exposure to hostile sexism, it is crucial to
acknowledge that there are factors that makes it
challenging for women identify or not to recognize
instances of hostile sexism. Kirkman & Oswald (2020)
suggest that although instances of sexism are common,
people often fail to recognize them as such. The
recognition of sexist behavior or attitudes can also be
influenced by situational factors. However, simple
factors such as encouraging women to pay attention to
their experiences of sexism can enhance identification.
Furthermore, identifying sexism is contingent on the
individuals involved in the sexist interactions.
Although the 20.09% of the respondents have rare
experiences with hostile sexism, it is important to note
that a smaller but significant number of respondents
(18.78%) frequently experienced hostile sexism or at
least twice a week. Notice that there is a close number
of respondents who reported rare experiences
compared to those who reported frequent experiences.
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The significant gap in the frequencies of experiencing
hostile sexism is concerning, as it jumps from
occurring once or twice a month to at least once or
twice a week. It was more alarming to discover that
10.48% of the respondents experience hostile sexism
very frequently, encountering it more than twice a
week.
Having frequent experiences with hostile sexism
means that women tends to be exposed with men's
attitudes, actions, and expressions that are meant to
degrade or restrict women, in an attempt to make
women subservient. According to Barreto & Doyle
(2022) women who report encountering more hostile
sexism also report experiencing more benevolent
sexism in their daily lives. Further, the effects of
hostile sexism include the regulation of gender roles in
society and punishment for women who do not
conform to these roles. Hostile sexism not only
impacts women's self-perception and body image but
is also associated with endorsing unrealistic beauty
standards and experiencing body dissatisfaction. This
phenomenon aligns with the objectification theory,
which suggests that women often internalize
misogynistic beliefs prevailing in society and apply
them to themselves and other women as a way to cope
with and conform to societal standards.
Furthermore, women who consistently face hostile
sexism are more likely to report higher levels of
anxiety and anger. It was also observed that there is a
concerning link between ambivalent sexism and
violence against women. These interconnected
findings highlight the detrimental effects of hostile
sexism on women's mental well-being and the urgent
need to address and challenge these harmful attitudes
and behaviors.
According to Barreto & Doyle (2022), men who feel
threatened by their masculinity may resort to
aggression to prove their manhood, and hostile sexism
can also lead to sexual aggression towards women by
objectifying them and denying their emotions. To
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the
impact of hostile sexism on women, it is crucial to
consider the microaggressions they frequently face.
This was clearly evident among the respondents, as
these microaggressions were included in the
questionnaire through statements like "How often have
you been ignored/overlooked because of your
gender?" and "How often have you been treated as if
you are not as competent as men?" Consequently, Kim
& M e i s t er e ( 2 0 2 2 ) an a ly z ed the g en d er
microaggressions experienced by women leaders in
STEM as they noticed that the underrepresentation of
Cruz et al.
women in STEM in leadership roles is a persistent
issue. The results reveal that women frequently
encounter microaggressions that diminish their
competence, suggesting that they lack the technical
ability required for their job. Examples of these
microaggressions include being questioned about their
expertise and having their tasks or projects selectively
reassigned to male colleagues. Women also face
devaluation of their physical presence, such as being
interrupted or ignored in both formal and informal
settings by both men and women, as if they were
invisible. These microaggressions contribute to
feelings of invisibility, as their technical skills and
abilities go unrecognized, and their physical presence
is disregarded, making them feel ignored and unheard.
This only suggests that microaggressions from hostile
sexism were meant to disrespect women and demean
their image to make them seem inferior to men.
Further, it appears that these microaggressions have
detrimental effects on women such as emotional
distress and impaired performance.
In addition, Rodriguez (2019) conducted a case study
on a private, tertiary school in the National Capital
Region (NCR) to examine the school's gender culture,
specifically in relation to issues of microaggressions,
sexual harassment, and equity. It was reported that
students shared experiences of microaggressions with
their professors. One student recounted how their
professor stated that pretty women do not need to
work, while another was repeatedly told that she was
too pretty to be a math major, leading her to doubt her
abilities.
The objectification theory suggests that women
frequently internalize society's misogynistic beliefs
and incorporate them into their own self-perception
and attitudes toward other women. This process serves
as a coping mechanism and an attempt to conform to
societal norms and expectations. According to
Rodriguez (2019) this internalization reinforces the
notion that a woman's worth is tied to her physical
appearance. Consequently, women in leadership
positions may feel compelled to dress up more in order
to earn respect. When women demonstrate
assertiveness or assume leadership roles, they
frequently face unfavorable reactions such as being
labeled as "aggressive" or being subjected to gendered
slurs like "bitch". Women who outperform their male
counterparts in leadership positions often experience
feelings of guilt for their success.
Overall, microaggressions contribute to a culture that
normalizes harassment and gender-based violence.
These subtle forms of discrimination perpetuate a
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hostile environment that undermines women's
empowerment and perpetuates gender inequality.
Hostile sexism may take the form of aggressive
behaviors, including verbal harassment, physical
violence, sexual assault, and other forms of
discrimination. According to a report by the National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
(2018), surveys have revealed that women enrolled in
engineering and medicine are more susceptible to
experiencing sexual harassment than women in non-
STEM or science- related fields. Some factors that
contribute to this heightened risk include a
normalization or tolerance for sexual harassment and
being in a male-dominated environment. The report
also notes that tertiary education settings are often
perceived as permissive environments for sexual
harassment as victims who report such incidents are
often rebuked, or the perpetrator faces no
consequences.
Torre (2021) reports that everyday sexism in the
Philippines, including gender bias and gender-
discriminating behavior, has become a norm in daily
life, with one to two cases of sexism against women
occurring daily. The most common daily sexist
incidents include gender stereotyping comments, jokes
targeting women, and ogling. Women are also
frequently exposed to subtle discrimination like sexist
jokes, verbal abuse, and objectification. Torre (2021)
also cited Lanuza's previous research, where Lanuza
analyzed journal entries of female Filipino college
students enrolled in a gender studies course, which
identified sexual harassment as the most prevalent type
of sexism. To support this, a 2016 SWS survey
showed that 60% of women in Quezon City reported
encountering sexual violence or street harassment at
least once in their lives, and half of the respondents in
a UN Women survey acknowledged not reporting
harassment out of fear of further risk.
Despite not having a specific focus on college
students, the study in 2017 by the Philippine
Commission on Women (PCW) shed some light on
how common violence against women is in the
Philippines. The results suggest that 42.4% of Filipinas
between the age of 18 to 24 have suffered from
physical, sexual, or emotional abuse. It is concerning
to note that the age range specified by the researchers
for the respondents coincide with the age range of the
study conducted by the Philippine Commission on
Women (PCW).
On the other hand, the frequency of experiences with
benevolent sexism of the respondents was also
measured and identified. To define, benevolent sexism
Cruz et al.
is the subjectively positive attitudes towards women
who uphold traditional gender roles. It takes two forms
which are protective paternalism and complementary
gender differentiation. Protective paternalism involves
the notion of men having the need to protect women as
they are viewed as the weaker sex (Salomon et al,
2020). This originated from a paternalistic ideology
which sees women in a stereotypical way. This also
includes the idea that women are more vulnerable and
reliant to their opposite sex.
Results in this study showed that 41 respondents
(17.9%) experienced protective paternalism about once
or twice per month. On top of that, 175 female
engineering students (76.42%) experience it often to
very frequently. This is alarming as it indicates that
these women encounter this form of sexism about once
to more than twice a week. In 2019, Oswald et. al
conducted two studies which showed that protective
paternalism is the most distressing and problematic
form of benevolent sexism for women. It is also found
out to be associated with women’s self-concept,
having low self-esteem and more self-doubt, and
described as detrimental to their well-being.
Additionally, Tait (2021) discovered that women
specifically in masculine majors are more likely to
experience this form of sexism.
To support this, Kuchynka et. al (2017) discussed
about how undergraduate women in university STEM
courses’ identity are associated with sexism and their
retention in the field. Weakly STEM-identified women
that are exposed frequently with protective paternalism
reported to have a lower STEM self-efficacy; which is
the tendency to question their STEM abilities and have
worse outcomes. Constant experiences with this form
of benevolent sexism may affect women to have less
confidence and commitment, therefore making them
more susceptible to withdraw in STEM courses.
Moreover, 197 respondents (86.03%) are said to have
experienced complementary gender differentiation
often to very frequently, while 10.92% of them
experience it rarely to sometimes in their life. This
type of benevolent sexism flatters women about
having superior morality, warmth, and sweetness than
men. This may sound positive though this further
reinforces gender stereotypes in women such as being
innocent, emotional, and caring. Oswald et. al (2019)
also determined in his study that young women
experience complementary gender differentiation more
often than protective paternalism. This can be aligned
with the study as none of the respondents had never
experienced complementary gender differentiation,
while 3 respondents said to had never experienced
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protective paternalism. It is also said to be positively
associated with self-esteem, well-being, and increased
deference to authority (Barreto & Doyle, 2022). It
might be confusing as to why it correlates with self-
esteem, however they thought that it can be possible
because as women conform to gender norms and
stereo ty p es, they can be rewarded by the
discriminatory society which can result in decreasing
their self-doubt.
According to Cardador and Caza (2018), female
engineers leave the profession more often than men
due to the stress of male dominance in the said career.
Aside from overt sexism, they also encounter different
types of subtle sexism. Women engineers feel belittled
in their profession more than their male peers, as tasks
and roles are gendered; “Hard” engineering skills are
considered more masculine and at higher status, and
softer “professional” skills are perceived as lower
status and more feminine. Mentors also motivate
female engineers to perform tasks that are more
inclined to the softer skills, such as managerial roles.
However, these skills are not always acknowledged as
some think they are not as aligned with being a “real
engineer,” unlike having “hard” engineering skills.
Thus, this subtle sexism, if experienced daily, can
make it exhausting for them to stay any longer in the
said career. As a result, these circumstances may
strengthen workplace stereotypes making female
engineers feel devalued and less respected.
Since we live in a patriarchal society, it is surprising
that 13 female engineering students (5.68%) had never
and very rarely experience protective paternalism in
their lifetime, while 7 students had experienced
complementary gender differentiation very rarely
(3.06%). This is delightful as there is still hope, but we
cannot disregard the fact that benevolent sexism
happens more often, nonetheless. In a study by Torre
(2021), the participants expressed different reactions
toward benevolent sexism. Most heterosexual women
showed positive feelings about it and revealed that
they consider it as a man’s way of showing respect and
affection. However, negative feelings were mostly
expressed by sexual minority women as they are aware
that it is an act of sexism. Some benevolent sexist
events include receiving help assuming that a woman
should not struggle, getting a compliment by
complying to gender stereotypes, having a special
treatment, and being prevented in doing something for
your own protection.
The data just shows how benevolent sexism is already
a part of women’s everyday lives. With the fact that
this type of sexism is subtle and can be unnoticed, a lot
Cruz et al.
of women can be unaware with their experiences may
it be inside or outside their homes. Although women
report how frequent they are involved in benevolent
sexist incidents more than hostile incidents, they often
tolerate and justify this kind of behavior just because
hostile sexism is far worse (Oswald et. al, 2018;
Hopkins-Doyle et. al, 2019). A study of Gul & Kupfer
(2018) also claimed that women, despite being aware
of the negative effects and can be undermining, are
attracted to men who have benevolent sexist attitudes.
They stated that those men have the willingness to
invest, which means that they are committed,
protective, and a provider. Thus, a high possibility for
benevolent sexism to remain as a continuous practice
and subordination towards it will likely encourage
gender norms and stereotypes.
Is there a significant relationship between
internalized misogyny and experiences with
ambivalent sexism among the respondents?
Table 6. Relationship between Distrust of Women and
Experienced Ambivalent Sexism.
Table 6 displays the significant relationship between
the respondents’ levels of internalized misogyny in
terms of distrust of women with the domains of
experienced ambivalent sexism. Using Spearman Rho,
the researchers found that distrust of women has a
positively strong correlation with experiences with
hostile sexism (Rs = 0.590), protective paternalism (Rs
= 0.501) and complementary gender differentiation
(Rs = 0.461). Furthermore, it is revealed that hostile
sexism (p = 0.000 < 0.01), protective paternalism (p =
0.000 < 0.01), and complementary gender
differentiation (p = 0.000 < 0.01) have significant
relationships with distrust of women. Therefore, all
three null hypotheses will be rejected.
Even though female engineering students experience
benevolent sexist events more often than hostile sexist
events, it does not matter as results clearly show that
internalized misogyny in terms of distrust of women
has a positively strong correlation with experiences
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with hostile sexism. Hostile sexism refers to the
blatant type of prejudice that are intended to women
who oppose traditional gender roles and feminine
stereotypes. Female engineering students who
experience this type of sexism have felt ignored and
treated unequally because of their gender, viewing
them as incompetent and not as smart as men. These
experiences in their life is found to be strongly
associated with distrust of women. This domain of
internalized misogyny can be manifested by women
through perceiving that other women can be deceitful
and doubting of one another.
Distrust of women with their own gender was
discovered as one of the barriers to career
advancement in engineering fields (Yates & Skinner,
2021). According to the study, men are more likely to
gain a higher status and the chance to be promoted
than women. Recognizing that women are
underappreciated in the engineering career, women
gain the concept that in any circumstances, men will
always be more influential and privileged than them.
Some female engineers were aware that being heard is
important, however they’re not listened to in meetings,
or not included at all. On the other hand, those women
who chose to adopt a “masculine behavior”, by putting
themselves out there, were seen to be too direct and
aggressive by men. These experiences with hostile
sexism in the workplace can affect how women
perceive other women and themselves. It can be
observed that it aligns with the current study as women
also manifested distrust towards women. Participants
in their study revealed that they prefer working with
men more than women as they are more confident in
men’s abilities. They also described men’s
characteristics positively as they feel more at ease with
them in the workplace. On the contrary, they reported
women being “horrible”, “frustrating”, “two-faced”,
“silly”, “girlish”, and “bitchy” as workmates. The
study highlighted how gender stereotypes hinders
women’s career development in engineering. Because
of the cultural beliefs about gender that were instilled
in our society, women tend to internalize these beliefs
which affect their judgment and attitudes towards
other women or worse, themselves. In the same study,
w h i l e f e m a l e e n g i n e e r s a d m i t t e d th e
underrepresentation and unequal treatment in the
career, they did not think that it happens just because
they are women.
They thought that women were not competent enough
in achieving a higher status, while some also thought
that it can be because of the personality, age, or the
type of work. Women think that sexism is normal
because they are already used to it and it’s always been
Cruz et al.
a norm in our society. Justifying those hostile sexist
incidents maintains the discrimination in the
workplace. This is alarming that is why it is important
to recognize what sexism is in the first place.
Results also showed that benevolent sexism such as
protective paternalism and complementary gender
differentiation have positively strong correlations to
internalized misogyny in terms of distrust of women.
Benevolent sexism sums up the subjectively positive
subtle behaviors that are intended for women who
conform to gender stereotypes. Female engineering
students who experience protective paternalism have
been treated more gently and vulnerable, as they are
seen weaker than men. Students who experience
complementary gender differentiation revealed that
they encounter expectations of being more innocent,
warm and sweeter than men. These types of
experiences with benevolent sexism is found to be
strongly associated with distrust of women.
The existence of gender stereotypes can prevent
women in pursuing engineering. Women grew up in a
society where people think that men have the superior
skills when it comes to science and technology. In a
study by Kuchynka et. al (2017), weakly STEM-
identified women who encounter protective
paternalism more often are said to be correlated with
lower GPA, and self-efficacy, and had lower intentions
of staying in STEM courses. These women tend to
doubt their abilities to be in the field. Women who had
poor academic performance received protective
paternalistic treatment from men which made them
think that they are undeserving. This also led to
women lacking self- confidence and disempowering
them to commit in the said course.
A patriarchal society like ours built a system wherein
oppressing women is enabled and perpetuated.
Objectification emerges in an environment that
endorses gender stereotypes and inequalities. As stated
in the objectification theory, women are reduced to
their physical bodies and treated as merely tools.
These recurrent experiences may result to women
internalizing the society’s perspective as their own,
adapting to achieve society’s expectations. Riemer
(2019) conducted a study to identify how experiences
of objectification of women may affect their
willingness to pursue STEM. Participants included
female college students in STEM courses aged 18-29.
Surprisingly, women’s recurrent experiences of
objectification were seen to be correlated with
increased interest in taking STEM careers.
Experiences of objectification were also discovered to
be associated with feminine goals and predict greater
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self-objectification. These types of experiences can
influence how women view themselves and the goals
they want to attain. Possessing culturally ingrained
negative idea about their physical appearances can also
be harmful and undermining for women who want to
succeed in STEM. According to the study of Fernando
et al. (2018), women stand out because of their gender
but are unnoticed when it comes to their level of
technical proficiency in the engineering career.
Women were also said to be sexually objectified in the
workplace that it diminished their efforts in the field.
To avoid getting sexualized, younger female engineers
usually practice the “daughter/sister tactic” when they
socialize with men. Women may internalize society’s
standards which can also be manifested through
objectifying other women and themselves. Therefore,
upholding and normalizing gender stereotypes and
inequalities can hinder women’s career advancement
in engineering in the long run.
Although hostile and benevolent sexism have a
different approach to women, it would not make the
other less harmful than the other. This only proves that
women who experience these types of sexism have a
higher chance of internalizing sexist beliefs and
gender-discriminatory behaviors which can negatively
affect the way they perceive themselves and other
women. Sexism can be manifested in various ways-
may it be blatant and obtrusive to being disguised in
flattering words and protective actions. Barreto &
Doyle (2022) also mentioned how ambivalent sexism
can widely affect in molding women’s lives in various
social contexts. As a matter of fact, if traditional
gender roles and stereotypes continue, these may be
instilled in women’s mindset further strengthening
such beliefs in our society and the next generations. As
women can adapt to it unconsciously, it’s dangerous
not knowing that they are already perpetuating gender
inequalities. That’s why women should be cautious of
what they are experiencing and be mindful of what
they are doing. They should be able to help and learn
to trust each other more and be a safe space for one
another. It can be difficult to change the gender norms
that’s been here for years, but with time and effort, we
will soon get there.
Table 7 summarizes the relationship analysis
performed to determine if the respondents’ levels of
internalized misogyny in terms of devaluing women
have a significant relationship with the domains of
experienced ambivalent sexism. Using Spearman's
Rank Correlation Coefficient (RHO), it is found that
devaluing women has positively strong correlations
with hostile sexism (Rs = 0.586), protective
paternalism (Rs = 0.491), and complementary gender
Cruz et al.
differentiation (Rs = 0.464). Furthermore, it is found
that hostile sexism (p = 0.000 < 0.01), protective
paternalism (p = 0.000 < 0.01), and complementary
gender differentiation (p = 0.000 < 0.01) have
significant relationships with devaluing women.
Therefore, all three null hypotheses are rejected.
Table 7. Relationship between Devaluing Women and
Experienced Ambivalent Sexism.
Internalized misogyny in terms of devaluing women is
found to have a positive strong correlation with hostile
sexism (r = 0.0601) which indicates that gender-based
prejudice experienced by women is linked with their
subconscious internalization of these experiences.
Women, after hearing men demean the value and skills
of their gender repeatedly, eventually internalize these
misogynistic beliefs and apply them to themselves and
other women. In objectification theory, this process
occurs easily for women as they are born in a
patriarchal society that subjects them to be objectified
based on their physical appearance. As a result, they
subconsciously conform to societal standards and
adhere to cultural expectations.
A locally conducted study suggests that the gender
stereotypes such as the prevalent standards about the
male gender role impede the academic performance of
female engineering students and hinder most young
women to consider building a career in the field of
engineering (Marquez et al., 2020). Similarly, the
sexist experiences in both hostile and benevolent form
that happen within the engineering field in PLM affect
how the female engineering students view themselves
and other women. Due to receiving misogynistic
remarks such as women being “bad at math” or
women are “exaggerated”, they are conditioned feel
underestimated, incapable, and weak compared to their
counterparts. The respondents tend to generalize this
feeling of inferiority to themselves and their entire
gender. Various forms of gender-based oppression are
manifestations of how the system devalues the entire
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gender of women, and how women internalize
misogynistic beliefs as a coping mechanism to
conform to societal standards.
A high level of correlation between the dimension of
the devaluing of women and hostile sexism implies
that the misogynistic remarks and experiences are
related to how women internalize being devalued.
Women's marginalization or underrepresentation in
society suggests they may feel undervalued,
insignificant, and unworthy (Aguilar- Delavin, 2022).
It is observed that the engineering course in the PLM
do not attract as many female students compared to
men. Women are found to often lack self-confidence
and do not believe themselves capable of doing
technical matters despite enjoying them at times due to
preconceived notions that they are “bad at math” and
such gender stereotypes impede their academic
performance and limit their career options as seen in
some of the narratives of female engineering students
in PLM. For instance, opting to copy the output of
their male classmate as they deemed them smarter than
females in math subjects. Internalization of
misogynistic experiences and remarks is often used by
women to cope and protect themselves from the
feeling of inferiority. Due to constant devaluation
experienced by their gender, they tend to absorb and
subconsciously think that gender stereotypes are
somewhat true, hence, feeling limited and incapable of
pursuing things that are traditionally associated with
men.
A report suggested that implementers of the technical-
vocational education track should review and identify
strategies to develop more student interest in non-
gender stereotyped fields (Ofreneo and Illo, 2020).
This should not only involve creating interest among
women in male-dominated sectors but also interest
among men in jobs traditionally associated with
women such as housekeeping. In such a manner,
associating gender with particular careers will be
addressed accordingly and students will feel freer to
choose a field beyond what society has imposed on
them based on their gender.
Further, this dimension also has positively moderate
strong correlations with benevolent sexism,
particularly protective paternalism (r = 0.479) and
complementary gender differentiation (r = 0.448). This
result suggests that experiences of women with
benevolent sexism are linked with their internalized
misogyny in terms of devaluing women. Benevolent
sexism is a subtler form of sexism, but it is as
detrimental to women’s perception of their value since
it imposes inferiority by encouraging gender
Cruz et al.
stereotypes and making them submit to traditional
gender roles. Marquez et al. (2020) discussed that
stereotypes such as the prevalent standards about the
male gender role hinder most young women to
consider building a career in the field of engineering.
There is a preconceived notion that industrial
engineering is “easier” and “softer” than other
engineering majors thus women are more attracted to
it. Gender-based stereotypes as such are a form of
gender discrimination in which women struggle to
realize their own potential, limiting themselves with
their career options. Similarly, female engineering
students are considered less competent than men in the
field of engineering in PLM as seen in how some of
them received comments that doubt their capability in
pursuing such field. Misogynistic remarks such as
engineering being “too technical” for women. As a
result, they feel underestimated and discouraged from
advancing in this career. These instances demonstrate
how traditional gender roles are used against women to
discriminate them, and women absorbing misogynistic
beliefs and experiences by feeling limited with their
career options based on such stereotypes is how
internalized misogyny works.
Studies have shown the association of internalized
misogyny with self- objectification and passive
acceptance of traditional gender roles (Plieger et al.,
2021; Ward & Grower, 2020). Women internalize the
misogynistic beliefs that society has conditioned them
and apply them to other women and even themselves
to conform to its standards. This process refers to
objectification theory which explains physical
appearance signifies a woman’s worth. Women tend to
keep track of their external appearance and practice
cultural expectations and exhibit self-objectification.
Rahmani (2020) observed that appearance can equal
attention and this is a form of social currency that is
often translated by many to success. The idea of
appearance equating to value can be internalized as a
condition of worth. Thus, women are conditioned to
conform to traditional gender roles so as to appear
valuable and acceptable to society and cope with the
feeling of inferiority.
Internalized misogyny manifests itself as women
insulting other women, feeling hatred toward other
women, and decreasing other’s women’s values. This
is manifested on how some female engineering
respondents devalue and distrust their own gender by
adhering to gender stereotypes and gender roles.
Society conditioned women’s value as inferior which
is evident in how some respondents have experienced
doubting their potential, being treated as inferior and
weak, and being victims of harassment and unfair
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treatment. Such sexist experiences influence the way
they perceive the value of their entire gender. An
article revealed that young women were more likely to
say that males were better at technology and
engineering due to centuries’ worth of internalized
gender stereotypes (Commoner, 2021). The article
explains the prevalence of discrimination, but women
chose not to report the incidents which strengthen the
claim that there is a lack of institutionalized support
for women in STEM. Silent discrimination in such a
male- dominated field is what hinders women from
realizing their value and reaching their full potential.
Women themselves also stated that they would rather
work with men as they felt more assured of their
abilities than women (Yates & Skinner, 2021).
Considering the experiences in which they are
constantly devalued to the extent of having to prove
themselves as equally competent as men, women
considered this a norm and preferred working in a
male-dominated area than with women. These
instances are clear manifestations of how experiences
with sexism relate to the subconscious internalization
of misogyny in terms of devaluing women. Women
unknowingly underestimate themselves to the point of
projecting it to other women in an attempt to conform
to societal standards and be seen as acceptable, and
this process does a disservice to their entire gender.
Sexism being embedded in the system accounts for all
the misogynistic beliefs and experiences that women
have, thus, taking action must begin with the national
institutions. Lack of institutionalized support in
addressing gender-based discrimination influences
women in internalizing the oppression and devaluing
their entire gender. The educational sector plays a
crucial role in addressing gender stereotypes in the
academe, particularly in male-dominated fields like
engineering. They should be proactive in ensuring that
there is equal participation of women in male-
dominated courses by establishing programs that value
and empower their potential in such fields.
Table 8. Relationship between Valuing Men over
Women and Experienced Ambivalent Sexism.
Cruz et al.
Table 8 summarizes the relationship analysis
performed to determine if the respondents' levels of
internalized misogyny in terms of valuing men over
women have a significant relationship with the
domains of experienced ambivalent sexism. Using
Spearman Rho, it is found that valuing men over
women has positively strong correlations with hostile
sexism (Rs = 0.575) and protective paternalism (Rs =
0.440); and positively moderate correlations with
complementary gender differentiation (Rs = 0.376).
Furthermore, it is found that hostile sexism (p = 0.000
< 0.01), protective paternalism (p = 0.000 < 0.01), and
complementary gender differentiation (p = 0.000 <
0.01) have significant relationships with valuing men
over women. Therefore, all three null hypotheses are
rejected.
The present study's results align with Kunemund's
(2019) research demonstrating how exposure to sexist
messages can significantly develop internalized
misogyny. Her study found that when individuals are
consistently degraded, particularly women, it is
difficult for them to hold beliefs contrary to the
negative perceptions imposed upon them. Similarly,
according to Dehlin (2018), women may internalize
the sexist perception that they are inherently inferior to
men, which can have detrimental effects. This issue is
especially prevalent in male-dominated fields like
engineering, where female students are at a higher risk
of experiencing various forms of sexism (Grindstaff,
2022).
Consequently, female engineering students repeatedly
exposed to the idea that men are better than women
and must compete with and surpass other women to
succeed in their field may internalize these beliefs,
leading to a cycle of internalized misogyny and
perpetuating a culture of sexism. Internalizing these
beliefs may manifest in behaviors such as self-
objectification, which according to the objectification
theory, occurs when women constantly monitor their
appearance to conform to societal standards and to
seek validation from men. Additionally, it may also
manifest in female engineering students' preference to
have male peers as group members in class as they
believe men are more intelligent than women in
engineering, and they would lead them to academic
success. This, in turn, limits opportunities for women
to bond and collaborate.
Women experience hostile sexism in various aspects
of their lives, starting from a young age when they are
taught to perceive other women as competition
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(Constantinescu, 2022). This upbringing can lead to
women perceiving both other women and themselves
as inferior to men. Furthermore, several studies
consistently demonstrate the prevalence of hostile
sexism in various contexts. A study by Neuman (2022)
indicated that female students in male-dominated
fields face sexist hostility, including rejection,
dismissal, and doubts regarding their skills. Moreover,
a report by National Academies (2018) uncovered that
women in engineering academic institutions
experience gender harassment, unwanted sexual
attention, and sexual coercion. A study by Bloodhaart
et al. (2020) further confirmed that despite
outperforming men, women are constantly belittled
and underestimated, discouraging them from pursuing
STEM careers and limiting their opportunities.
Aligning with these findings, it is not surprising that
the current study revealed a positively strong
correlation between internalized misogyny, precisely
the tendency to value men over women, and the
frequency of hostile sexist experiences among female
engineering students (Rs = 0.575). These experiences
shape women's perceptions and reinforce the belief
that men are superior, not only to other women but
also to themselves, ultimately impacting their careers
due to their encounters with sexism.
In Dehlin's (2018) research, it is highlighted that
perceiving women as inferior to men has significant
negative impacts. When internalized, these biases can
shape women's attitudes and behaviors toward
themselves and other women, perpetuating gender
inequality. Women who internalize these beliefs may
develop lower self-esteem and a diminished sense of
self-worth, leading to self-limiting beliefs about their
abilities and potential (Kunemund, 2019). This
internalization of beliefs further damages their
academic self-concept and hinders their progress,
particularly in fields like engineering, as noted by
Omair (2019), who studied the negative stereotypes
about women in the STEM fields and their impact.
This is also evident in the study by Kim and Meistere
(2022), where they found that women who are
subjected to microaggressions exhibit lower technical
abilities in STEM, further illustrating the damaging
consequences of internalized biases.
Rahmani's (2020) study revealed a link between
women's encounters with sexism and internalized
misogyny. The study found that women who
experience sexist events feel shame, confusion,
powerlessness, and inferiority, typically associated
with hostile sexism. These experiences can reinforce
negative beliefs about women, such as the idea that
women are inferior to men, and contribute to the
Cruz et al.
acceptance of hostile sexist attitudes. Experiencing
such biases can have long-lasting influences on
women's self- worth and impede their success in male-
dominated fields due to the internalization of valuing
men over women.
In contrast, female engineering students who
encounter lesser hostile sexism are also less likely to
exhibit higher levels of internalized misogyny, which
can enhance their confidence and empowerment in
their abilities and achievements. These findings
suggest that eradicating hostile attitudes towards
women can create a more inclusive environment for
women to thrive and succeed. To achieve this, raising
awareness about hostile sexism and promoting
women's pursuit of high-level or prestigious positions
can create a supportive and empowering environment
for women in engineering and other traditionally male-
dominated fields (Vila-Conejo et al., 2018).
Meanwhile, women also experience benevolent
sexism, although it appears more subtle, according to
the ambivalent sexism theory. However, it is crucial to
recognize that its impact on women is still negative.
As shown in Oswald et al.'s (2019) study, it was found
that women with low self-esteem and tremendous self-
doubt are related to their frequency of experiences
with protective paternalism, a form of benevolent
sexism that promotes the idea that women require
protection from men. In addition, Tait's (2021) study
also revealed that experiences with protective
paternalism were related to higher self-doubt and can
influence decisions to pursue a career in male-
dominated fields. These findings help explain why
valuing men over women is also strongly correlated
with experienced protective paternalism (Rs = 0.440),
which suggests that female engineering students with
higher levels of gender bias tend to have experienced
higher frequencies of protective paternalism. This may
lead them to view men as superior and consequently
perceive themselves as needing help from them, thus
fostering feelings of fragility. Such perceptions of
fragility and dependence may stem from their
experiences of not being taken seriously or being
treated delicately by male colleagues or superiors
(Hammond et al., 2018).
Interestingly, the current study sample consisted of
young women aged 19 to 23 who are at a crucial
period in their lives when making significant decisions
about their education, career, and relationships. During
this developmental stage, individuals often face
uncertainties and challenges in shaping their identities
and navigating their future paths. Hammond et al.
(2018) found that young women are more likely to
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support benevolent sexism than women in mid-
adulthood. This inclination may be due to the sense of
security or protection that benevolent sexism offers
during this uncertain period, leading to its endorsement
among young women. Benevolent sexism provides a
comforting narrative that suggests women require
protection and support from men. The perception of
being valued and cared for can alleviate anxieties
associated with future uncertainties. Hence, women's
experiences with benevolent sexism may lead them to
value men over women, as they may have been
socialized to believe that men are better equipped to
provide protection and support and that women need
such protection.
On the other hand, the moderate correlation between
valuing men over women and complementary gender
differentiation (Rs = 0.376) can be understood in the
context of promoting the idea of separate
complementary roles for men and women in society
(Rodriguez-Burbano et al., 2021). This form of
benevolent sexism emphasizes traditional gender roles
and perpetuates stereotypes by assigning specific
tasks, characteristics, and expectations to each gender.
Throughout history, these stereotypes have influenced
perceptions of women's abilities in technology and
engineering (Commoner, 2021). This is further
reflected in the study by Kent, Buck, and Robnett
(2020), where both men and women in STEM fields
held stereotypical views regarding gender, such as the
belief that men possess more innate abilities in
technical fields.
When female engineering students frequently
encounter situations that embrace complementary
gender differentiation, it suggests that their skills and
abilities are acknowledged but within a context that
recognizes gender differences. This nuanced
perspective allows for a recognition of gender
disparities while not strongly reinforcing the belief in
male superiority. For instance, women in the
engineering field may be encouraged to take on
managerial roles due to the stereotype associating
softer skills with femininity (Cardador & Caza, 2018).
These gendered expectations and roles contribute to
the moderate correlation between valuing men over
women and complementary gender differentiation
among female engineering students.
It is important to note that while complementary
gender differentiation does not strongly endorse male
superiority, it still perpetuates gender stereotypes and
may lead to valuing men over women. Research by
Hardtke et al. (2022) has shown that gender
stereotypes rooted in societal perceptions of femininity
Cruz et al.
and masculinity can harm female engineering students.
These stereotypes impact how women perceive their
identity within the field and can lead to feelings of
isolation and self-doubt. Internalizing these stereotypes
may contribute to accepting and perpetuating
complementary gender differentiation, reinforcing
gender norms and making it more challenging for
women to enter male-dominated fields like
engineering (Commoner, 2021; Yang, 2022).
The findings of the study underscored the importance
of addressing ambivalent sexism and internalized
misogyny among female engineering students. These
harmful attitudes and beliefs not only perpetuate
gender inequality but also hinder women's progress
and success in the field. Adopting policies and
programs that foster diversity and inclusion in
academic and professional environments can help
establish a safe and supportive surrounding that
promotes gender equality and resists negative gender
stereotypes. By tackling internalized misogyny and
ambivalent sexism, people may work toward a more
fair and just society in which everyone, regardless of
gender, has an equal opportunity to succeed.
Based on the results, what awareness program can
be proposed?
The analysis of internalized misogyny levels among
the respondents indicated that moderate levels of
internalized misogyny were observed among female
engineering students. This suggests that the
respondents harbor a significant degree of distrust
toward other women and potentially interpret them as
unreliable, untrustworthy, or manipulative; perceives
the inferiority of their gender; and may struggle to
perceive other women as equals, perpetuating gender
bias and discrimination.
In addition to examining levels of internalized
misogyny, the study also analyzed how frequently the
respondents experienced ambivalent sexism with
hostile and benevolent sexism as its domains. The
statistical analysis indicated that most respondents
experienced hostile sexism rarely or only once or twice
a month, but a slightly smaller group experienced it
more frequently, such as twice a week. This signifies
that some women experience microaggressions to the
extent of aggressive behaviors like sexual harassment
and gender-based violence at least once to twice a
month while other women experience these at least
twice a week.
The study also found that respondents often to very
frequently experienced benevolent sexism, or about
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once or twice a month to at least twice a week, which
involves protective paternalism and complementary
gender differentiation. This suggests that the
respondents feel that men perceive them as vulnerable
and make it appear that women need to depend on men
for protection. Generally, benevolent sexism further
reinforces gender stereotypes in women in a seemingly
positive way which perpetuates gender inequality.
Both hostile sexism and benevolent sexism were found
to be detrimental to women's lives. It causes great
mental distress as their self-perception became
distorted (e.g., stereotypical self-description and body
dissatisfaction) and women's careers could potentially
be jeopardized (Barreto & Doyle, 2022).
Correlation analysis to all dimensions of internalized
misogyny has a significant correlation with the
respondents' experienced ambivalent sexism. Results
indicate that all dimensions of internalized misogyny
which are (1) devaluing of women, (2), distrust of
women, and (3) valuing men over women showed a
positively strong correlation with hostile sexism and
protective paternalism. Consequently, valuing men
over women showed a positively moderate correlation
with complementary gender differentiation.
The results infer that internalized misogyny exist
among female engineering students. Cherry (2018)
states that internalized misogyny could manifest in a
wom an 's b ehav ior eith er co n scio u sly or
subconsciously, making it difficult to recognize. This
phenomenon perpetuates prejudiced beliefs regarding
the expected roles and behaviors of women, which are
rooted in our patriarchal society and gender norms.
Hence, the researchers proposed to develop a program
that strives to diminish the occurrence of internalized
misogyny by promoting self-awareness among the
respondents about their self-perception. The proposed
program seeks to foster a better perception of their
gender identity as a woman and promote women
empowerment. The proposed program aims to develop
the self-awareness of the participants regarding
internalized misogyny by thoroughly understanding
the concept of internalized misogyny and sexist belief
and to implore its impact on women. This will permit
female engineering students to foster better
relationships with other female engineering students.
In addition, the participants will be encouraged to
actively promote gender equality, confront sexism, and
fully embody empowerment to support other women.
Table 9. Self and Gender Identity Perception Gender
Awareness Program ( see appendix)
Table 9 shows the proposed program aimed to increase
Cruz et al.
participants' knowledge about unconscious sexist
beliefs and raise awareness about the impact of
internalized misogyny on women. A strong positive
correlation was found among the domains of
internalized misogyny namely (1) devaluing of
women, (2) distrust of women, (3) gender bias in favor
of men with hostile sexism, and a positive moderate
relationship was found with valuing men over women
and complementary gender differentiation.
According to Karam (2023), prioritizing education for
girls and women is essential, especially in attempts to
eradicate gender-based discrimination. Education is of
utmost importance since establishing gender equality
is impossible without it. The education of girls and the
advocacy of gender equality in education is essential to
their development thus, there is a demand for
comprehensive action on gender disparities in
education. Education is a key element in overcoming
preconceptions and bringing about social and cultural
changes since it shapes gender representations,
perspectives, and behaviors. (“Combating Gender
Stereotypes in and through Education”, 2023).
The researchers developed a gender awareness
program comprising seminars and roundtable
discussions to enhance participants' understanding of
unconscious sexist beliefs. The program aimed to raise
awareness about the impact of internalized misogyny
on women, with the fundamental objective of reducing
moderate levels of internalized misogyny among the
respondents. Through these seminars, female
engineering students will be encouraged to reflect on
their behavior and perceptions towards themselves and
other women, gaining a comprehensive understanding
of how internalized misogyny influences both
themselves and their peers. Further, roundtable
discussions are also promoted as a part of the
awareness program. Through roundtable discussions,
the participants will be provided with the opportunity
in-depth discussions conversations regarding their
personal experiences and explore strategies for
identifying and addressing ambivalent sexism in their
personal and professional lives. This will enable
female engineering students to develop stronger
relationships with their peers. In addition, participants
will be urged to vigorously advocate gender equality,
challenge sexism, and completely embody women
empowerment. Women empowerment permits the
growth of
their narrative sense of self. Through this, women will
have the capability to reflect and embrace themselves,
which leads to women having more control over their
own lives. This entails women being able to participate
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in all facets of society on par with men, gaining power
and the same opportunity to strive for personal, social,
and economic goals (Osano et. al., 2022).
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, the researchers
were able to conclude the following: (1) Internalized
misogyny is a consequence of absorbing traditional
female roles and gender stereotypes that is also
associated with women’s experiences with ambivalent
sexism. (2) Regardless of how subtle benevolent sexist
events are, most female engineering students in the
university have experienced them more frequently than
hostile sexist events. (3) The majority of the female
engineering students showcased moderate levels of
internalized misogyny in terms of distrust of women,
devaluing women and valuing men over women. (4)
Women who have experiences with ambivalent sexism
have a higher chance of developing internalized
misogyny, as they are already exposed to sexist
environments which can affect their beliefs and
attitude and further projecting them towards other
women and oneself. (5) That the three domains of
internalized misogyny have a positively strong
correlations with experienced ambivalent sexism,
except internalized misogyny in terms of valuing men
over women having positively moderate correlation
with complementary gender differentiation. (6) The
null hypothesis must be rejected as there is a positive
significant relationship between ambivalent sexism
and the domains of internalized misogyny among
female engineering students.
Based on the findings of the study and its implication
for the respondents, the researchers recommend the
following: (1) The researchers highly recommend that
educational institutions, such as Pamantasan ng
Lungsod ng Maynila, consider implementing the
program developed in this study. This program can
prove to be valuable in enhancing the handbook and
evaluating its effectiveness and relevance for
engineering students. Its primary objective is to
address and reduce the impact of ambivalent sexism
experienced by women in the College of Engineering
while also promoting awareness about the
manifestation of internalized misogyny. (2) The
guidance and counseling unit within the Pamantasan
ng Lungsod ng Maynila should collaborate with
colleges to heighten awareness of sexist beliefs and
their impact. (3) It is recommended that student
manuals include information on gender sensitivity
rights to provide legal grounds for reporting
discrimination and misconduct. (4) Since this study
Cruz et al.
solely utilized quantitative methods, future research is
advised to employ qualitative approaches to acquire
more in-depth knowledge and insights into
unconscious sexist beliefs and experiences of
ambivalent sexism. (5) Future researchers are
encouraged to examine various factors that may affect
sexist beliefs and experiences with sexism by selecting
participants based on different criteria such as family
dynamics, social dynamics, field, or colleges. (6) To
gain a better understanding of how young women may
internalize misogyny and whether this tendency
diminishes over time, future researchers are
encouraged to explore issues relating to ambivalent
sexism and internalized misogyny across different age
groups, such as adolescence and middle age. (7) It is
advised to coordinate with our LGUs (local
government units) to implement programs or create
better initiatives focused on fostering an inclusive and
safe community for everyone. (8) It is suggested to
consider reviewing the current curriculum plan of the
Department of Education for primary schools to
identify and address any potential instances of sexist
content in textbooks. This review aims to ensure that
children learn about gender inclusivity from a young
age and promote schools as safe spaces for everyone.
(9) The researchers strongly encourage families to have
open and meaningful conversations with their children
about the importance of gender equality, challenging
stereotypes, and promoting respectful attitudes towards
all genders. Additionally, it is suggested that parents
play a crucial role in supporting their children's self-
esteem and empowerment, regardless of their gender.
(10) The researchers emphasize the importance for
women to actively engage in continuous learning and
unlearning processes. It is highly encouraged for
women to educate themselves about feminist theories,
gender studies, and social justice, while also taking the
initiative to challenge their own biases. Through these
efforts, women can deepen their understanding and
awareness of internalized misogyny, which in turn
fosters personal growth and empowerment.
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Pamantasan Ng Lungsod Ng Maynila – Philippines
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Pamantasan Ng Lungsod Ng Maynila – Philippines
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COPING AMONG WOMEN IN ENGINEERING. Journal of Eyer Toofiel A. Macarubbo
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Research Article

Table 9. Self and Gender Identity Perception Gender Awareness Program

Findings Objectives Strategies Learning Outcomes

Majority of the Participants are expected to: Participants were able to:
respondents have 1. To gain an in-depth Morning 1. Develop self- awareness
moderate to high understanding of Session and understanding of the
levels of internalized misogyny to Seminar / concept of internalized
internalized lower misogynistic Lectures misogyny which would
misogynistic tendencies and unlearn the “I’m not like lower and unlearn
tendencies. unconscious sexist beliefs the other unconscious
of the participants with girls?” misogynistic tendencies.
moderate and high levels 2. Foster relationships with
of internalized misogyny. other female engineering
2. To comprehend the impact students thereby having
of internalized misogyny low internalized
on female engineering misogynistic tendencies
students or fellow women, will result in positive
in general. Therefore, network and
having comprehension camaraderie.
would avoid or lessen
sexist remarks or
behavior.
3. To develop and foster
relationships with other
female engineering
students.
4. To empower female
engineering students or
women, in general, to be
role models and encourage
them to stand against
sexism. Through this
program, female
engineering students will
be encouraged to take an
active role in promoting
gender equalito

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Psych Educ, 2023, 14: 373-407, Document ID:2023 PEMJ1263, doi:10.5281/zenodo.8425902, ISSN 2822-4353
Research Article

Findings Objectives Strategies Learning Outcomes

Positive Participants are expected to: Participants were able to:
strong 1. Gain an in-depth understanding Afternoon 1. Gain a deeper
Correlation of internalized misogyny and Session understanding of
between hostile sexism. Through Workshop, Internalized
dimensions of workshops, female engineering roundtable, and misogyny particularly
Internalized students will be encouraged to interactive in relation to hostile
Misogyny and lower or unlearn their discussion sexism.
Hostile misogynistic tendencies and “I’m not like 2. Improve and give
Sexism reflect on their attitudes and the other girls?” importance regard to
beliefs toward themselves and (Continuation) the perspective of
other women. gender identity,
2. Broaden their perspective about particularly with favor
gender identity, particularly to the experience of
with regard to the experience of being a woman in the
being a woman in the context of context of hostile
hostile sexism. Through round sexism.
table discussions, this will 3. Empower women by
provide female engineering promoting them as role
students with an opportunity to models and
exchange ideas and engage in encouraging them to
meaningful conversations. stand up against
3. Empower women by promoting sexism.
them as role models and
encouraging them to stand up
against sexism. Through this
program, female engineering
students will be encouraged to
take an active role in promoting
gender equality and challenging
sexist attitudes and behaviors.

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Psych Educ, 2023, 14: 373-407, Document ID:2023 PEMJ1263, doi:10.5281/zenodo.8425902, ISSN 2822-4353
Research Article

Findings Objectives Strategies Learning Outcomes

• Participants Participants are expected Participants were able to:
experienced often to: Morning 1. Identify forms of
to very frequently 1. Learn the concept of Session ambivalent sexism and
in terms of ambivalent sexism Seminar / its impact on women.
Protective and its impact on Lectures 2. Expand perspectives on
Paternalism. oneself or women in “I am a womanhood by
• Most respondents general. This will be woman; challenging gender
(86.03%) often to done through a empowered stereotypes and roles.
very frequently seminar that will and capable” 3. Recognize ambivalent
experience provide a sexism and effectively
Complementary comprehensive stand against it.
Gender understanding of this
Differentiation issue.
2. Expand their
perspective on a
personal sense of
gender identity
among women,
specifically factors
concerning a sense of
being a woman.
3. Recognize situations
when facing
ambivalent sexism.
This will enable
female engineering
students to identify
and address instances
of ambivalent sexism
effectively

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Psych Educ, 2023, 14: 373-407, Document ID:2023 PEMJ1263, doi:10.5281/zenodo.8425902, ISSN 2822-4353
Research Article

Findings Objectives Strategies Learning Outcomes

• Positively Participants are expected to: Participants were able to:
Strong 1. Learn the concept of Afternoon 1. Understand the
correlation ambivalent sexism Session concept of ambivalent
between distrust through roundtable and Workshops, sexism and its impact
of women, interactive discussions roundtables, on oneself or women
Devaluing of with fellow participants. and interactive in general. Female
Women to 2. Provide opportunities to discussion engineering students
Benevolent exchange ideas and “I am a woman; were able to uplift
Sexism engage in meaningful empowered and their community.
• Positively conversations with regard capable” 2. Foster and develop
strong to the sense of being a (Continuation) relationships through
correlation woman. their shared
between 3. Develop and foster experiences and
Valuing men relationships with other inspired women about
over women to female engineering their personal sense of
Protective students. being a woman.
Paternalism 4. Empower women so that 3. Recognize and stand
• Positively they can help fellow up against sexism and
Moderate women and stand up be encouraged to take
correlation against ambivalent an active role in
between valuing sexism. Through this promoting gender
men over program, female equality.
women to engineering students will
complementary be encouraged to take an
gender active role in promoting
differentiation gender equality and
challenging sexist
attitudes and behaviors.

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