Cybernetics Methods in Education

Author(s): Leo N. Landa

Source: Educational Technology , October, 1977, Vol. 17, No. 10, Special Issue:
Cybernetics and Education (October, 1977), pp. 7-13
Published by: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44421236

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 Cybernetics and Cybernetics
Education: Methods in
Introduction to Education
Special Issue
Leo N. Landa

Felix F. Kopstein
Special Issue Editor Not so long ago only educationists were concerned
with the problem of education. Specialists in other
fields were not interested in the subject and indeed
The intent of this special issue is to make readersdid not regard didactics as science. Today educa-
of Educational Technology aware of cyberneticstion interests mathematicians, cyberneticians,
and of its pertinence for educational technology.sociologists, biologists, physicians, engineers and
Some view cybernetics as the alternative to psy- economists; Jhe problems of education concern
chology for the role of mother-science for educa-statesmen as well as the heads of departments,
tional technology, while others see them jointly inenterprises or firms. Formerly, didactics had no
that role. Regardless of the position taken, how- strictly formulated laws; opinions and general
ever, the profound importance of cybernetics forstatements, sometimes completely unproved, pre-
any advanced educational technology needs to be dominated. Now, didactics begins to use precise
more widely comprehended and appreciated than methods and is becoming a precise science- not as
is the case at present. precise as physics, but sufficiently precise to be
viewed now or at least in some time to come as
What is cybernetics? Naive or confused notions
science.
abound. When the word "cybernetics" was coined
We can indicate two basic causes responsible for
originally, it was defined as the science of "control
and communication in the animal and the a revolution in the development of didactics. These
machine." This definition is still technically cor- are the advent of cybernetics and the appearance
of new, vital demands for education. Cybernetics
rect, but it fails to suggest how much this science's
has made it possible to view the process of
horizons have expanded. It is a little as if Newton's
definition of physics were applied to modern education from a new vantage point: that of
physics. Today it is reasonable to regard cyber-control.* In any process of control there are two
systems: a controlled system and a controlling one.
netics as the science of science (i.e., systematic
Any controlling system has a definite goal: tQ
problem-solving) and, therefore, also as the science
of technology (i.e., applied science). produce a certain amount of output, to perform a
As Ashby has pointed out, the principles of movement, to maintain definite parameters
certain
in a unit, etc. The process of control is realized by
cybernetics are true independently of any physical
sending
reality. Like mathematics they require interpreta- signals (information) into the controlled
tion for each context of their application. How-system; therefore, the controlling system needs a
program of control. Both systems are influenced
ever, these interpretations cannot be undisciplined.
In mathematics we have learned not to add applesby the outside world. To correct in due time a
to oranges, nor to multiply them by pears; in deviation from a standard (an assigned goal) which
cybernetics, nonsense is still being multiplied by
ignorance.
*To forestall the virtual certainty of a serious misinterpreta-
Beware of empty abstractions full of glittering
tion here, it must be made clear that the scientific use of
phrases! It has been said that cybernetics attracts the word "control" is a neutral one, I.e., the effect of one
principally the extremes of human talent. For the variable (or system) on another one. There is absolutely no
most highly talented, it offers the possibilities of implication of coercive control, mind-control, etc. Quite
powerful, sweeping, but valid formulations. For the the contrary is true, as evidenced by the discussion below
other extreme, it permits the mouthing of arcane on self-control. (Editor.)
"garbage" that cannot be related in any rigorous
way to established underlying principles or to
observable physical reality. Forewarned is fore-
Leo N. Landa, formerly with the Institute of Psychology,
armed! Readers of works in this field will have to
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR, Moscow,
exercise their own critical judgment in each in- now resides in the United States.
stance in which cybernetics is invoked. □

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOG Y/October, 1977 7

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has appeared as a result of this influence, the important problems in educational control is the
operator must have constant information on the shaping in students (and children in general) of the
state of the controlled system, i.e., feedback is abilities required for self-control. In turn, this
necessary for control. presupposes the proper allocation of control func-
In the process of education the controlling tions between controlling and controlled systems
system is the teacher and the controlled system is as a contingency of the degree of development of
his student(s). The teacher's problem is to influ- self-control abilities in the controlled system (i.e.,
ence his pupils through certain information and to the student or learner).
bring forth a pattern of behavior which would lead Of course, the distribution of control functions
to the formation in them of the qualities corre- among different systems is not a special feature of
sponding to the goal assigned. This influence is educational control. This may take and does take
exercised under some plan or program. Both place in various control processes. The specific
teacher and pupils are also being influenced by feature of educational control processes is the
external circumstances (the outside world). For development of self-control abilities in students
success, the teacher needs a constant flow of during the process of control and, as a result,
information on the results of his influence, i.e., dynamic changes in the distribution of control
feedback. functions between controlling and controlled
The peculiarity of the process of control in systems.
education is that the controlled object is simultane- This dynamism of the changing distribution of
ously a subject with its own activity and possessing control and self-control functions between control-
the ability for independent development of goals. ling and controlled systems has very important
Man is not only a controlled but also a self-con- practical implications and sets a rather difficult
trolled system, with the highest ability for self- task before the controlling system (the teacher) in
organization. However, his ability for self-control the process of education. In each individual case,
has also to be formed: its development should also the controlling system must identify the degree to
be controlled. which the self-control abilities have been developed
This might be stated in other words: the end in a controlled system so as to determine which
goal of instructional control is to produce in the control functions should be reserved for external
student the ability for self-control, which includes,control and which have passed on to self-control;
as its component, the ability for independent goal in other words, which of the student's activities
setting. But in people this ability is not available should be performed under outside control and
from birth, and special control is needed to which under self-control.
develop it. Both underestimation and overestimation of the
Often the notion of control is identified with degree to which self-control functions have devel-
that of dictatorial influence on children. Of course,oped in the student may lead to the wrong
control may be carried out in a dictatorial fashion, allocation of these functions between teacher and
but the notion per se does not necessarily imply student, and thus may lead to shortcomings in
such a dictatorial influence. Control is any influ- educational control. In the case of overestimation,
ence of one system on some other system which the student may be assigned control functions
leads to the attainment of some end state (goal), which he is unable to perform; while in the case of
and this influence may be dictatorial or non- underestimation, the teacher will exert an unjusti-
dictatorial, depending on the nature of the systemfied degree of external control when the student
to be controlled and the goals which the control- could control himself independently.
ling system has set for itself. The specificity of control, depending on the
In the field of education, non-dictatorial forms specific features of controlled systems, poses one
of control are of special importance. This means more general question.
that as soon as some minimal abilities for self- As is known, cybernetics develops general laws
control have been developed in a child, the and principles of control which are characteristic
corresponding controlling functions of the control- of and applicable to systems of different nature:
ling system should be passed on to the controlled living and non-living, biological and artificial, etc.
system, and the student should start to carry out It is clear, however, that systems of a different
the corresponding activities under self-control. nature have not only common features but specific
Each increase in the development of self-control attributes as well. This means that the general laws
abilities must be followed by a corresponding and principles of control must be interpreted, in
weakening of the external control and a handing each particular case, depending on the specific
over of the corresponding functions of control features
to of the system to be controlled. It means,
the student himself. Hence, one of the most in particular, that the general laws and principles of

8 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/October, 1977

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cybernetics cannot be applied to specific systems education by this new, cybernetic, one, but in the
directly and in pure form. They must be applied implementation of cybernetic ideas and approaches
through the laws, principles, etc., of the scientific in education and by rebuilding it on this basis.
field (physics, biology, etc.) relevant to the specific Education must absorb the cybernetic approach by
systems. They manifest themselves in the applica- regarding educational processes as control proc-
tion of laws and principles from the corresponding esses, but it should not limit itself to taking into
disciplines. If this is true, then the existence of, account only the general laws of control processes.
say, cybernetic economics side by side with The task that remains is to establish the specific
"usual" economics or of cybernetic education side form in which the general laws of control must be
by side with "traditional" education is hardly applied in specific educational situations and to
justified. This does not mean that it is not justified develop the methods for achieving control over the
historically. Thus, before the appearance of cyber-specific instructional processes.
netics "traditional" education did not take into Cybernetics is known to develop methods for
account (or insufficiently) the general principles optimizing
of the processes of control; it formulates
effective control. The appearance of a new requirements ap- for optimum control and shows the
proach to learning and to the instructional proc- characteristics it should possess to be effective.
esses which did consider the general laws and
principles of effective control and did try to apply
them to instruction was of great historical impor-
tance. And in this sense and respect it is quite
justified. The existence of cybernetic education
would be also quite justified, given the objective to
study those aspects of educational processes which
are general and common to all control processes. In
this case cybernetic education would appear as a
branch of general theoretical education which Requirement No. I: the goal of control should
analyzes some aspects of instructional processes be formulated in precise terms. Requirement No.
and examines them from a specific point of view, 2: the program should be assigned in precise terms.
namely from that of the general features existing in Requirement No. 3: information on the behavior
educational and other types of control. But some- of a controlled system should come in as often as
times cybernetic education pretends to be an possible and indeed continuously if possible; it
independent discipline which has a right to an should contain all information on the parameters
independent existence parallel with "traditional" of the controlled system which should be taken
education or even as a substitute for it. Such claims into account during the process of control and
seem to be unjustified, because the general laws of should be influenced. Finally, requirement
which
control do not exist in independent and pure form No. 4 is concerned with the adjustability of the
but must always be applied in some specific form. controlling system to the peculiarities and behavior
It is possible to abstract the general from the of the controlled one.
particular in scientific research and to study the If the present-day process of education is viewed
former as a separate and independent object by from this point of view, it will be seen that it
viewing it as a construct. But it is not possible to satisfies none of the above requirements.
implement the general without implementing the Let us turn to the books on education and see
particular, since in reality the general exists only in how they formulate the goals of education. Quite
a particular form. An educational design approach often we find formulations like: "the educator
which would take into account only general laws should teach so that his pupils participate actively
of control but neglect specific forms in which they in their lessons"; "the educator should work
appear would be inevitably defective to some toward his pupils' conscious assimilation of knowl-
degree. Thus, it is in principle possible for generaledge"; "the teacher should foster intellectual re-
educational procedures to substitute for cyber-sourcefulness"; etc. The correctness of such recom-
netics but it is not advisable. Ignoring specific mendations is never doubted. But what exactly
forms of general laws of control applicable to does active participation mean? What does "con-
specific cases will inevitably lead to defects in the scious assimilation" mean? What is "intellectual
controlling processes. The proper approach, in our resourcefulness"? To recommend to the teacher:
opinion, consists, not in founding a new educa- "The pupils should participate sufficiently
tional approach which would exist separately and actively" is the same as recommending to the
parallel with "traditional" education and, of furnace operator: "The temperature inside the
course, not in the substitution for "traditional" furnace should be sufficiently high."

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/October, 1977 9

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 The failure to meet requirement No. 1- precise different psychological factors. The basic aim is
indication of the goals of control- leads as a rule to not to correct the mistake detected, but to find its
the failure to meet requirement No. 2- precise cause and eliminate it. Only then shall we be able
indication of the control program (though the to prevent such mistakes in the future.
inverse proposition is untrue: the goal may be In this respect the teacher resembles the
indicated precisely, without indicating precisely physician. A headache as such does not imply its
the program). If it is not known what exactly a cause. However, to deal with it effectively (and not
"sufficiently high temperature" (or, respectively, just prescribe aspirin every time) the physician
"sufficiently high activity") means, it is impossible should know the cause responsible for the head-
to indicate precisely at which time the temperature ache, i.e., he should diagnose the disease. If the
(and, respectively, activity) should be raised and at headache is caused by the grippe, one medicine is
what time it should be decreased. In other words, needed; if by hypertension, another; and if by
no precise control program can be assigned in this fatigue, still another. However, while in medicine
case.
the need of diagnosing the disease before proceed-
"Teach so that . . ." But how, specifically? What
ing to its treatment is taken for granted, in
should be done for the purpose? Whateducation measures this is by no means the case. Teachers
should be taken and in what order? No precise often do not even ask what psychological mech-
program is indicated. "Work toward the pupils' anisms ensure the correct assimilation of material
conscious assimilation of knowledge." What does and the successful solution of problems, and what
"work toward" imply? What should be done, failures in these mechanisms prevent learners from
specifically? assimilating material and solving problems. For this
As a result of the absence of definite programs reason additional studies with backward pupils
for the attainment of goals set, every teacher has to meet with no success for many months or even
create what is essentially his own program, and years. Treatment is undertaken without diagnosis,
thousands of teachers are teaching the same subject and often it is not aimed against those "diseases"
matter by thousands of different methods (a from which the pupil really suffers.
method of teaching here means a definite sequence Finally, requirement No. 4 for effective con-
of instructional actions; if a method of teaching trol-adaptation of the controlling system to the
consists of only ten instructional actions, a mere peculiarities of the controlled system and the
permutation of the sequence of actions yields processes at work in the latter- is not fulfilled
about 3,000,000 methods of teaching). either. In the language of education, this require-
But just as it is impossible to have thousands of ment is expressed as the individualization of
optimal methods for manufacturing the same instruction, and this is not realized in teaching, as a
product, there cannot be thousands of equally rule.
good methods for teaching the same subject, Why do the requirements for effective control
theme, concept or habit. fail to be fulfilled in teaching? Perhaps, because
Requirement No. 3- the presence of operationalthey are not known? No, on the contrary, these
feedback- is in an even worse position. The requirements have long been known in education
teacher's source of feedback information is com- and cybernetics merely helped to emphasize them
posed of quizzes and various control and testand to formulate them in more precise terms. The
assignments. At a college, where tests and exams point is that the above requirements, and especially
are held only once in a semester, the teacher does
the last two, cannot be fulfilled. A cybernetic
not know, often for months on end, how hisanalysis makes it possible to understand why.
students are assimilating the knowledge imparted Until recently educationists were engaged
to them; and, therefore, he cannot correct the mainly in the analysis of what the teacher must do,
course of assimilation. In primary or secondary but hardly anyone pondered on what he can do.
schools the situation is somewhat better in this The approach to learning as a process of control
respect, but it is also far from satisfactory. The
and the treatment of the teacher as a controlling
teacher may call on a pupil no more oftensystem than (having, like any other system, limited
twice a month, while the information the teacher capabilities for receiving and processing informa-
gets from quizzing the pupil without calling tion)onmade it possible to pose the problem of
him, as well as from tests, papers and independent
instructional activity in a genuinely scientific way
work, is quite incomplete. and to attend to the analysis of what the teacher
Indeed, having detected a mistake in a pupil'scan do and not only what he must do.
notebook, the teacher often cannot say why the We can suppose that the teacher has realized the
mistake has been made or how it originated.importance
One of requirement No. 3- operational
mistake may be caused by dozens of widely feedback- and wants to obtain information con-

10 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOG Y/October, 1977

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tinuously or at least with sufficient frequency (let this method. For more than 20 years specialists in
us say, every five minutes from each pupil). Is this programmed learning have been studying the prob-
possible? No. If his class consists of 30 pupils, a lem of partial automation of the process of
teacher would have to quiz some six pupils every learning.
minute to be able to obtain information from each Many teaching programs and programmed text-
pupil within such a short interval. No person can
books, as well as many types of teaching machines,
have been developed in many countries. There is
receive and process such an amount of information
within such a short time. evidence that programmed teaching is much more
Let us now assume that a certain device has been effective in most cases than its conventional
invented. This device makes it possible to perceive
counterpart.
Nevertheless, in nearly all countries there are
the cognitive processes "inside the heads of pupils"
and to register on an illuminated diagram the opponents of programmed teaching; there are
teachers
information from each pupil's cognitive activity at and scientists who ask: Is this not just a
each moment. Let us also assume that the teacher fad?
has a super-human ability for receiving and process-If it is correct that a higher level of effectiveness
of teaching depends directly on a more intense
ing all this information. Will this help to improve
the process of learning? pupil-teacher exchange of information, while at the
same time the teacher cannot receive and process
all the necessary information, then the application
• ••• •» •••• ••
in teaching of machines which would take on part
of the reception and treatment of information is

TJ B3
not just a fad, but an objective need deriving from
the basic laws of effective control, and conse-
©0 U quently the laws of effective learning.
It is true that the present-day machines have
many and sometimes serious defects and cannot
1' /1 perform some teaching functions exactly as we
No. If the cognitive want
processes of teaching
them to (in this sense, differentwith the aid pup
take different routes at each
of machines given
still has many moment
defects). However, the
assimilate material inquality
a different way,
of the machines is a matter at
of time. Thea diff
rate, with different thoroughness, act differen
fact is that they are necessary and, therefore, their
the process of assimilation, etc.) and the teac
improvement will continue.
aware of it, then, in Another controversial issue is also
accordance withmore or less
require
No. 4 of good control, he should approach clear in principle: the relation between the teach-
different pupils differently, evincing differenting machine and the human teacher in the process
responses to their different actions. However, he of teaching. Though no one contends that the
cannot tell pupil A one thing, pupil B another and machine should replace the teacher, the problem of
pupil C something else again. In other words, given their interrelation is not so simple. First of all, it is
the present-day organization of mass education, it obviously wrong to mix up the problem of what
is impossible in principle to adjust teaching to each
the teaching machine can do and the problem of
pupil's individuality. what it must do or what it is expedient for the
Cybernetic analysis exposes an intrinsic con- machine to do in the process of teaching. Evi-
tradiction in the traditional organization of teach-dently, before long the performance of teaching
ing: to raise its effectiveness, it is necessary to step machines will enable them to take up all the
up the teacher-pupil exchange of information; but
functions of teaching in many topical areas and to
even an insignificant increase of the flow of completely replace the teacher. However, it is
information makes its processing impossible. necessary to investigate which functions of teach-
It should be noted that this contradiction takes
ing are performed better by man and which by
place not only in learning, but also in many other
machine, so that the former would be left to man
while the latter are taken over by the machine.
areas of control (e.g., in administration, in produc-
tion, etc.). A method of resolving this contradic-
True, the solution of this problem will never be
tion has been found in these fields. Computational
final: the functions which are performed better by
and other information machines take over some of man today will be performed better by the
the functions of receiving and processing informa-
machine tomorrow. However, the process of teach-
tion and automate the process of control com- ing is not only the transmission of new information
pletely or partially. This is the solution for and the control of its assimilation. Education also
teaching as well. Education has indeed taken up implies the influence of man on man. This is why

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/October, 1977 11

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even if there are machines advanced enough to take
ability to think is, of what components it consists
and how these should be fostered; the deliberate
over all the functions involved in the transmission
of knowledge and the control of its assimilation,and
it purposeful control of the process of develop-
will be inexpedient to oust man from the process ment of thought-habits depends on the teacher's
of teaching. Automation in teaching always willknowledge
be of mechanisms and structure.
only partial.
The development of psychology and instruc-
tional science, especially in the last 15 to 20 years,
indicates that analysis and description are possible
in education to the same extent that they are
possible with respect to biological and social
processes, for example. Definite and in some cases
significant results have been obtained along these
lines. For example, it has been found that the goals
of teaching can be described quite accurately. Let One of the methods of accurate analysis and
the goal of teaching a foreign language be, at a description of thought-processes is their algo-
certain stage, the development of a pupil's specific rithmic description. By the algorithm in mathe-
speech habits, say, his mastery of numerals from 1 matics, mathematical logic and cybernetics is
to 10. To describe this habit more accurately, it meant a precise and unique prescription of the
has to be divided into components. These are the operations to be performed on certain objects to
pupil's ability to understand numerals in the solve problems of a certain class. In many cases an
process of reception of speech and the ability to algorithm solves readily problems which can be
use them actively in the process of reproducing solved only with great difficulty without an
speech. Each of these components can, in turn, bealgorithm, or cannot be solved at all. It is essential
divided into sub-components. Thus, the pupil's that an algorithm make it possible to solve all
ability to perceive numerals can be divided into hisproblems of a certain class rather than one particu-
ability to perceive them by ear and the ability tolar problem of this class.
perceive them visually (in the process of reading). Analysis of mathematical as well as other types
On the other hand, his ability to use numerals of human thinking indicates that we can devise
actively in the process of speech is divided into his algorithms for solving problems of widely different
ability to pronounce them (the ability to use them fields, such as grammar, physics, chemistry, en-
gineering and many other problems, including
orally) and his ability to write them. If the mastery
of numerals is now regarded as the pupil's ability those which were once thought to be creative and
to apply them without mistakes and hesitation, defying any rigorous methods of solution. The
these parameters can be estimated quantitatively. detection of the algorithmic nature of semantically
Thus, we can say that the pupil has mastered different problems is of major importance for
numerals if he uses them correctly in 100 percent education and instruction in general. If the algo-
of cases with an assigned rate of speech response rithms for the solution of certain classes of
(for example, if the pupil is shown three objects, problems have been identified and the teacher is
he should say "three" in the foreign language aware of these algorithms, the ability to solve
under study within no more than one second). If corresponding problems can be formulated much
definite numerical parameters are indicated formore quickly.
each component of speech (the rate of writing the A comprehensive explanation of algorithms and
numeral being less then the rate of pronouncing it), of their uses in instruction can be found in Landa
we shall obtain an accurate quantitative description (1974). Here we will provide only one illustration,
of what we mean by "mastering numerals," i.e., a from the field of language instruction. The object
precise description of the goal of teaching at a of the algorithm is to determine in which cases, in
stage of progress. This description does not differ German, the use of "doch" as opposed to "nein" is
in accuracy from the description of the goal of indicated. The proper use of "doch" provides
control which is given to the furnace operator. considerable difficulty for non-German speakers.
Not only processes like the mastery of definite This algorithm was devised by L.V. Shenshev and
describes the decision structure with which a
speech habits but also more complex cognitive
processes, such as those entering into the solution student must cope. See Figure 1.
of problems, can be described in precise terms. It will be evident that this algorithm and similar
Teaching to think toward the solution of problems ones are not algorithms for translating from the
is a major goal of teaching. However, its attainment native to the foreign language. They are algorithm
depends on the teacher's realization of what the for the analysis of comments and for the expres

12 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/October, 1977

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 effectively problems of a certain class but also
Figure 1 what the teacher should accomplish to enable the
pupil to learn these problems, i.e., what the
A Sample Algorithm algorithms of the teacher's activity should be. The
cybernetic analysis of the activity of teachers
Algorithm
indicates that this is possible, and that along with
the problem of the pupil's learning algorithms we
governing the use of "nein" and "doch" in have, also, through cybernetics a grasp of the
German in reacting to comments or answering problem of the algorithms of teaching itself.
questions. Though the activity of the teacher (as of pupils)
cannot be algorithmized completely, the design of
Heute is es nicht kalt. Heute ist es kalt. algorithms of teaching (where it is possible and
(Today it isn't cold) (Today it's cold) expedient) makes it possible to program this major
type of activity as well. All this creates a scientific
1. Is the comment (question) negated? basis for programming the process of teaching and
the application of an effective educational or
yes no
instructional technology. □
' i
2. Agree with commen
References
yes no yes no
Landa, L.N. Aigorithmization in Learning and Instruction.
» r i Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1974.
Nein, es ist kalt. Doch, Landa, es istL.N. Instructional
kalt.Regulation
Ja, es and Control:
ist Cyber-
kalt
(No, it is cold) (It netics, cold)
is so, Aigorithmization and Heuristics
(Yes, it inis Education.
cold)
if Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology
Nein, es ist nicht kalt. Publications, 1976.
(No, it is not cold)

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comments in the foreign language.
Note: Volumes 1964 to 1968 have been repr
Space here does not permit the presentation of limited quantities in bound volumes. Volumes
the many and diverse examples of the successful 1976 are available in their original form, as single i
practical application of cybernetic, algorithmic and back volumes are $36.00 per year.
heuristic methods in various instructional situa-
tions. A discussion of these methods in foreign Name
language instruction can be found in Landa (1976,
Chapter 7), and other illustrations can be foundAddress.
elsewhere in the same source.
So far we have been discussing the algorithmic City

description of processes involved in the pupil's Note:

are to
solution of problems. However, it is legitimate to
advance.
ask not only what the pupil should do to solve

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/October, 1977 13

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