Blast Loads Effects and Blast-Resistant Design

and Retrofit of Buildings Buildings

M. Saatcioglu

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 Introduction
 Blast-resistant design of civilian infrastructure is not a common practice.
Building Codes across the World do not have explicit recommendations for
blast-resistant design, except for limited information on accidental explosions in
industrial facilities. Blast-resistant design has primarily been within the domain
of military engineers for the protection of defense-related structures against
military attacks and accidental explosions of military facilities.
 Recently emerging international and geopolitical conflicts in the world have
triggered new challenges for civil engineering infrastructure. Civilian
infrastructure has become a target for maliciously intended acts of terror. In
terrorist attacks, bombing is considered to be the most desired form of attack.
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 Introduction
 Another source of blast effects on civilian infrastructure is accidental explosions
that are often encountered in industrial facilities. These are referred to as
industrial explosions. Chemical plants and nuclear power facilities are examples
of such accidental explosions.
 Whether maliciously intended (intentional) or accidentally generated
(unintentional), blast effects on structural and non-structural components of built
infrastructure can be very significant, taking materials beyond their elastic limits,
resulting in significant damage and potentially causing partial or complete
failures.
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 Examples of Bomb Attacks on Civilian Buildings

Murrah Building in Oklahoma City in USA
On April 19, 1995, a truck carrying explosives equivalent
to 5000 lbs (2300 kg) of TNT was parked in front of the
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nine-storey building and was detonated.
Argentine Israelite Mutual Association (AMIA)
Building in Buenos Aires, Argentina
A van loaded with 275 kg explosives was
detonated 3 to 5 meters away from the building
 Typical bombs
used in civilian
attacks

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Source: FEMA 428
 Primary Parameters for Blast Effects
 Charge weight (size of
bomb), usually
expressed as weight of
explosives in pounds
(lbs) or kilograms (kg).
 Standoff Distance,
distance between the
centre of explosion and
the target.
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 Primary Parameters for Blast Effects

Typical Truck Bomb;

Standoff Distance and
Pressures on Building

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 Explosives and Explosion Phenomenon
 When a high-explosive detonation occurs, the following sequence of events take
place:
 The explosion reaction generates hot gas, which can be at a pressure of 100
to 300 kilobars (1 bar = 100 kPa) and a temperature ranging between 3000oC
and 4000oC.
 A violent expansion of this gas occurs, and the surrounding air is pushed out
of the volume it occupies. As a result, a layer of compressed air, called shock
or blast wave, forms in front of the expanding gas.
 The blast wave propagates in all directions from the explosion centre. The
front of the wave, called shock front, is like a wall of highly compressed air
moving at a very high velocity.
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 Blast Pressures
 The waves propagate with supersonic velocity and finally hit the building.
The air blast penetrates through windows and doors and other openings in
the building. Floor slabs, partitions, and contents are subjected to these
pressures. Upon hitting the building (or any infrastructure) the pressure
reflects from the building with amplified overpressure. The amplified
pressure is referred to as “Reflected Pressure.”
 The reflected pressure can be 2 to 13 times the incident (in-air) pressure.
The higher end of this range is obtained as incident pressures increase.

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 Blast Pressures
Pr: Reflected pressure Pso: Incident pressure (overpressure)
Po: Atmospheric pressure ta: Arrival time

Blast pressure decays

exponentially with time

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 Blast Loads
 The first step towards blast load analysis is to determine the blast loads. This
requires the establishment of the following parameters:
 TNT-equivalent weight of the explosive
 Standoff distance
 Blast category (unconfined/external: free-air; air; surface or confined/internal:
fully vented, partially vented, fully confined)
 Angle of incidence
 Depending on the location of interest for the building the blast pressure may
result in reflected overpressure, side-on (incident) overpressure, dynamic
pressure (blast wind) and negative pressure.
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 Blast Loading Categories

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 Blast Loading Categories Free air burst
explosion takes
place in free air
where the blast
waves propagate
from the center of
detonation with a
spherical shape,
moving towards
the structure
without any
interference that
would amplify the
blast loads.

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 Blast Loading Categories
Air burst explosion takes
place in free air at a distance
close to the ground surface.
This means that the blast loads
generated from blast shock
waves acting on the structure
would get amplified after hitting
the ground surface.

Air burst explosion

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 Blast Loading Categories

Surface burst explosion takes place when the detonation is close to or at the
ground surface level. In this type of explosion blast loads are amplified after hitting
the ground and generate hemispherical shock waves on the structure.
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 Blast Loading Categories

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Partially Confined Explosion
 Blast Pressures

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 Blast Pressures
tc: Clearing time; the
Pr time it takes for the
shock wave to
travel to the closes
edge of the wall and
for a relief wave to
Pso + CDqo Ps + CDq
travel back to the
Pso
point of interest.

U: Shock front velocity

tr tc td
q: Dynamic pressure
Pressure on front face versus duration

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 Blast Scaling
 It is convenient to scale airblast parameters according to the dimensional “cube-
root” scaling law, also known as the Hopkinson-Cranz scaling. Accordingly;

Where, Z is the scaled distance with units of m/kg1/3

R is standoff distance (m)
W is the charge weight (kg), usually taken as the TNT equivalent weight

This scaling law indicates that two charges with similar geometry in the same
ambient conditions, identical explosive composition, and different size (weight)
will produce similar blast waves if their scaled distances are equal.
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 Blast Loading Categories
 Scaled distance is an important parameter that can be used conveniently to
establish blast load parameters. Kingery and Bulmash developed standard
airblast curves for positive-phase blast parameters for detonation of bare TNT
charges. These curves are available through the US Department of the Army.
The curves are applicable within a range of scaled distance between Z = 0.054
m/kg1/3 and Z = 39.7 m/kg1/3. The smallest distance corresponds to the radius of
the spherical charge, implying that they may be used for close-in explosions.
However one must be cautious in this range, as the pressure will not be uniform
for close-in or contact charges. ASCE defines close-in explosions as those with
scale distance of less than 1.2 m/kg1/3.

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 Pso (MPa): Peak incident pressure
TNT in Free Air is (MPa-ms): Incident specific impulse
(Spherical) Pr (MPa): Peak normally reflected
pressure
ir (MPa-ms): Normally reflected
specific impulse
ta (ms): Shock arrival time
to (ms): Positive phase duration
U (m/ms): Shock front velocity
Lw (m): Positive wavelength

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 Pso (MPa): Peak incident pressure

TNT on Ground Surface is (MPa-ms): Incident specific impulse

(Hemispherical) Pr (MPa): Peak normally reflected
pressure
ir (MPa-ms): Normally reflected
specific impulse
ta (ms): Shock arrival time
to (ms): Positive phase duration
U (m/ms): Shock front velocity
Lw (m): Positive wavelength

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 Software “Overpressure”

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 Simplified Blast Loads for Design

Approximate pressure pulse for Approximate pressure pulse for

shock only shock plus gas
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 Blast Pressure Distribution on Buildings

Blast pressure decreases with time and distance. Even for the same building, the pressure at a
point closer to the explosion will have higher pressure. For example, for a side wall, locations
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closer to the explosion will have higher pressure than locations near the end of the wall.
 Blast Pressure Distribution on Buildings

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 Blast Pressure Distribution on Buildings

Blast pressure is not uniform due to change in distance and angle of incidence. We may use
average pressure, depending on the location of the wall and the critical elements.
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 Blast Pressure Distribution on Buildings

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Source: ASCE, 2010
 Front Wall Loading
Front wall, facing explosion,
experiences a reflected overpressure.
The pressure increases rapidly with the
angle of incidence α = 0 (normally
reflected pressure).
The reflected pressure decays to the
S = Clearing distance, smaller of H or B/2
stagnation pressure Ps within the H= Building height B=Building width
clearing time, tc. U= Shock front velocity tc = Clearance time
3𝑆𝑆 Cd= Drag coefficient td = Duration of pressure
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞0 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 = < 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 qo= Peak dynamic (blast wind) pressure
𝑈𝑈
2
𝑞𝑞0 = 0.0032𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (kPa) 𝑈𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) 0.5 (m/s) Cd = 1.0 (for front wall of a
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rectangular buildings)
 Front Wall Loading
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Where Cr is reflection coefficient
𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 = (2 + 0.0073𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) where 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
A triangular idealization of the pressure-
time curve can be obtained by equating the
impulse under the bi-linear pressure-time
curve (Iw) to that of the linear (triangular)
relationship.
𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 − 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠
𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 = 0.5 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 − 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 + 0.5𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 = 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 /2 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 = + 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟
Where; 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞0
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 Front Wall Loading
EXAMPLE: Determine the reflected blast pressure for the front wall of the building
shown and establish the idealized triangular pressure-time relationship for blast
analysis. The incident pressure (Pso) is equal to 41 kPa and the duration td is 0.05 s.
Assume that the pressure on the front face is uniform.

𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 = 2 + 0.0073𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 2.3 4.5 m

𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 2.3𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 94.3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑆𝑆
𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 = 3 < 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 S = smaller of H or B/2 ; S=4.5 m
𝑈𝑈 Blast

𝑈𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )0.5 H=4.5 m L=20.4 m B=28.4

𝑈𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)0.5 = 400𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
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 Front Wall Loading
EXAMPLE (Cont’d):
4.5
𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 = 3 = 0.034 𝑠𝑠 < 0.05
400
2
𝑞𝑞0 = 0.0032𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0.0032(41)2 = 5.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞0 = 41 + 1.0 5.4 = 46.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 − 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠

𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 = + 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟
0.05−0.034 46.4
𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 = + 0.034 = 0.042 s
94.3

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 Side Wall Loading
 The side walls of a building will experience less blast loading than the front wall.
This is because the incident overpressure does not reflect on the side wall.
Furthermore, the blast wave attenuates with distance from the explosion source.
 As a blast wave travels along the length of a structural element, the peak side-on
overpressure will not be applied uniformly. It varies with both time and distance.
If the length of the side wall is equal to the length of the blast wave, then the far
end may reach the peak side-on overpressure when the near end of the wall has
returned to ambient. A reduction factor, Ce, is used to account for this effect in
design. Values of Ce are dependent on the length of the structural element (L) in
the direction of the traveling blast wave.

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 Side Wall Loading
Where;
LW= Blast wave length
corresponding to
duration of
overpressure
𝐿𝐿𝑊𝑊 = 𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑

L = Building side wall

length parallel to the
blast shock wave

uOttawa.ca Effective overpressure coefficient

 Side Wall Loading
The effective side-on overpressure is:
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞0
The drag coefficient Cd = - 0.4 for the
side wall.
𝐿𝐿
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 = 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 = 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 + 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
𝑈𝑈

U= Shock front velocity

L= Building length in the direction of the traveling blast wave
td = Duration of pressure

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Side Wall Loading
EXAMPLE: Determine the blast pressure for the side wall of the building shown and
establish the triangular pressure-time relationship for blast analysis. The incident
pressure (Pso) is equal to 41 kPa and the duration td is 0.05 s. Side wall

4.5 m
Plan Rear wall
View

Blast Compute the relationship for

the first 1.0 m segment of the
H=4.5 m L=20.4 m B=28.4
side wall shown (L = L1 = 1.0 m). Side wall
1.0 m
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Side Wall Loading
EXAMPLE (Cont’d):
𝑈𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )0.5
𝑈𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)0.5 = 400𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿𝑤𝑤 20
𝐿𝐿𝑊𝑊 = 𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 = 400 0.05 = 20 𝑚𝑚 = = 20
𝐿𝐿1 1.0
For Lw/L1 = 20; the effective overpressure coefficient Ce = 1.0 from the chart.

The drag coefficient Cd = - 0.4 for the side wall.

2
𝑞𝑞0 = 0.0032𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0.0032(41)2 = 5.4 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞0 = 1.0 41 + −0.4 5.4 = 39 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐿𝐿1 1
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 = = = 0.0025 𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 = 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 + 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 = 0.0025 + 0.05 = 0.0525 𝑠𝑠
𝑈𝑈 400
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Side Wall Loading
EXAMPLE (Cont’d):
If an average overpressure over the entire side wall is needed, the value of L1 would
then be the length of the building (L = 20.4). The value of Ce would then be less than
one, reducing the value of Pa. The rise time would become significant.

For Lw/L = 20/20.4 = 0.98; the effective overpressure coefficient Ce = 0.45

from the chart

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞0 = 0.45 41 + −0.4 5.4 = 16 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝐿𝐿 20.4
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 = = = 0.051 𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 = 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 + 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 = 0.051 + 0.05 = 0.101 𝑠𝑠
𝑈𝑈 400
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 Structural Response to Blast
Earthquakes excite
the entire building;
blast loads often
excite individual
elements. The period
of an individual
element is closer to
the period of blast
loading.

Seismic versus Blast

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 Response to Undamped Forced Vibration
Consider a triangular impulsive forcing function with a peak load of F1 and duration td.

F(t)
F1
The response has two parts; forced vibration up to
time td and free vibration after td.
The equation of motion for forced vibration:
𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒖̈ + 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 = 𝑭𝑭𝟏𝟏 td t
The equation of motion for free vibration:

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𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒖̈ 𝒕𝒕 + 𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤(𝐭𝐭)=0
 Response to Undamped Forced Vibration
Consider a triangular impulsive forcing function with a peak load of F1 and duration td.

F(t)
F1
The equation of motion: 𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒖̈ + 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 = 𝑭𝑭𝟏𝟏

The solution for forced vibration consists of complementary

and particular solutions.
𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡) td t
The complementary solution satisfies the homogeneous equation, i.e., when the right
hand side is equal to zero (free vibration response): 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢̈ 𝑡𝑡 + ku(t)=0
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 Response to Impulsive Loading
Triangular Impulse
Phase I: Forced vibration
F(t) 𝐹𝐹1 𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑝𝑝 = (1 − )
F1 𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝐵𝐵 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹1 (1 − ) Applying initial conditions at time zero, one can
𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 obtain the general solution for Phase I.

td t General Solution:
𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Phase I Phase II 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + ( − 𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝜔𝜔

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 Response to Impulsive Loading
Phase II: Free vibration
F(t) 𝑢𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 ) + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜔𝜔(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 )
𝜔𝜔
F1 Response of the structure at the end of Phase I
𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹1 (1 − ) (forced vibration) at td provides the initial
𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
displacement and velocity values to be used in
the above expression.
td t 𝐹𝐹1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
Phase I Phase II 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 ) = ( − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 )
𝑘𝑘 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹1 1 1
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡
̇ 𝑑𝑑 ) = ( 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 + 𝜔𝜔 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 − )
𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
After substituting and
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
rearranging terms: 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 ) − 1 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
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 Dynamic Load Factor (DLF)
 Dynamic load factor (DLF) is defined as the ratio of the displacement during
dynamic response at any time to the displacement resulting from the static
application of load F1, used in specifying the force-time relationship.
 DLF is non-dimensional and independent of the magnitude of load.
 DLF can be used as a convenient design tool. Equivalent static load can be used to
find static displacement, and then multiplied by DLF to obtain the value under
dynamic loading.
 DLF’s can be computed at different times, and the maximum value of DLF (DLFmax)
can be extracted and plotted as a function of design parameters for convenience.
For example, DLFmax versus td/T ratio provides a convenient tool for design under
impulsive loading.
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 Dynamic Load Factor (DLF)
For a triangular impulse having force F1:
𝑢𝑢 𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + ( − 𝑡𝑡)
𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝜔𝜔
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑡𝑡
F(t) 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + −
𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
F1 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 ≤ t
𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹1
𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 ) − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘
1
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 ) − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
td t 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜋𝜋 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆( − ) − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝜋𝜋
uOttawa.ca 2𝜋𝜋𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
 Dynamic Load Factor (DLF)

𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑
=2
(DLF)max increases with 𝑇𝑇

increasing td/T ratio

DLF
𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑇𝑇 5
td 2td 3td 4td 5td

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 Maximum Dynamic Load Factor (DLF)max Time to Maximum Response

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 Equivalence between Real Structural and Non-Structural
Elements and the Idealized Spring-Mass Model
 So far, we have been concentrating on a single lumped mass and a concentrated force
applied on the mass. This provides a convenient representation of a single-degree-of-
freedom (SDOF) system for which the equation of motion was formulated, and the
solutions were presented.
 However, in reality the elements of a structure subjected to blast loading often have
distributed mass (rather than a concentrated mass) and the applied pressure is distributed
over the element (rather than applied as a concentrated force).
 This results in multiple-degree-of freedom systems.
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 Equivalence between Real Structural and Non-Structural
Elements and the Idealized Spring-Mass Model
P (N/m)

m (kg/m) Real Beam

k (N/m)
L
Me SDOF Model

MDOF Model
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 Multiple-Degree of Freedom Systems

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Equivalence between Real Structural and Non-Structural Elements and
the Idealized Spring-Mass Model
 The first mode response dominates the dynamic behavior. If we assume the first mode
deflected shape, we can find an equivalent SDOF system to the existing MDOF system.
If the deflected shape remains constant (not deflections, just the shape), then all we need is
a single quantity to define deflections along the length of the beam. This then becomes a
SDOF system.

We can find an equivalent SDOF system by using the principle of conservation of energy
and virtual work.

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 Transformation Factors
Consider the simply supported beam shown below, with uniformly distributed
mass m (kg/m) and uniformly distributed load p (kN/m)
P

ke
Me Fe (t)
k m
L
Real Element Analytical SDOF Model
𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢̈ + 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 = 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒
𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢̈ + 𝐾𝐾𝑅𝑅 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝐹𝐹
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒
𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 = 𝐾𝐾𝑅𝑅 = = 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 =
uOttawa.ca 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘 𝐹𝐹
 Transformation Factors
Assume a deflected shape for the
element that is associated with the
first mode response; usually taken
as the deflected shape under static
uo loading.
x Select a point at which deflection
L
is associated with the deflection of
the equivalent lumped mass
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑢𝑜𝑜 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) Where 𝜙𝜙 𝑥𝑥 is the shape function model, usually taken as the
maximum deflection.
16 3 Use the principles of the
𝜙𝜙 𝑥𝑥 = 4 (𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 − 2𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 4 )
5𝐿𝐿 conservation of energy to
384𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 compute the transformation
𝑘𝑘 = 3 factors.
uOttawa.ca 5𝐿𝐿
 Transformation Factors
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒
𝐿𝐿
∫0 𝑚𝑚𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥)2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 16 3
𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 = = = 0.5 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥)2 = { 4 (𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 − 2𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 4 )}2
𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 5𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 ̈
∫0 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ∫0 𝑝𝑝𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐾𝐾𝑅𝑅 = = = 0.64 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 = = = 0.64
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝐹𝐹 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢̈ + 𝐾𝐾𝑅𝑅 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝐹𝐹

𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 𝐾𝐾𝑅𝑅 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿
Dividing all terms by 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢̈ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝐹𝐹
𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿
𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢̈ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝐹𝐹 Where: Load-Mass Factor KLM= KM/KL = 0.5/0.64 = 0.78
𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝜔𝜔 = = =
uOttawa.ca 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡
 Transformation Factors

Adopted from Biggs (1964)

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 Transformation Factors
Adopted from Biggs (1964)

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 Transformation Factors
Adopted from Biggs (1964)

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 Support Reactions
 SDOF analysis based on lumped mass model provides valuable information on the
selected displacement quantity (usually the maximum displacement) and
corresponding moments/shears, stresses at the same location under dynamic loads,
it does not provide actions elsewhere in the element.
 Support reactions cannot be computed directly from the element resistance (R = ku)
because of the differences in the distribution of applied load (pressure) and the
inertia force. While the pressure may be uniformly distributed, the inertia force is a
function of the acceleration, which is a function of the deflected shape. Therefore,
the support reactions and actions elsewhere in the element have to be computed
with due consideration given to the distribution of dynamic forces along the length
of the element. This is illustrated in the following slides using the simply support
beam example presented earlier.
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 Support Reactions

It is apparent that the dynamic reaction V(t) depend on both the load F(t) and the inertia
force I(t). Let us consider half the beam as a free-body diagram.
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 Support Reactions
Consider the dynamic equilibrium of forces
acting on the left half of the beam. By
symmetry, shear at mid-span S = 0.

Taking moment about the point of

application of the inertia force:

61 1 61 1
𝑉𝑉 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐 − 𝐹𝐹 𝐿𝐿 − 𝐿𝐿 = 0
192 2 192 4

Because the resultant dynamic force at

mid-span (force on the equivalent lumped
mass) is R=ku, the moment at mid-span is
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Mc = RL/8.
 Support Reactions

Substituting Mc into the equilibrium equation

and solving for V:
61 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 1 61 1
𝑉𝑉 𝐿𝐿 − − 𝐹𝐹 𝐿𝐿 − 𝐿𝐿 = 0
192 8 2 192 4

0.318𝑉𝑉 − 0.125𝑅𝑅 − 0.159𝐹𝐹 + 0.125𝐹𝐹 = 0

𝑉𝑉 = 0.39𝑅𝑅 + 0.11𝐹𝐹

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Example: Consider the 400 mm square reinforced concrete building
column with 40 MPa concrete, shown in the figure. The column is
subjected to a blast shock wave due to the detonation of a 200 kg car
bomb at 30 m of standoff distance. The tributary area for the column
(the surface area of the exterior panel, assumed to have negligible Pr L
mass, supported by the column) is 12 m2. Assume that the column
stiffness is reduced by 50% due to cracking. L=6.0 m.
Compute the maximum column displacement, maximum moment and
support reactions due to the blast loading.

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 Example (Cont’d):
m = (0.4m)(0.4m)(2400 kg/m3)=384 kg/m (distributed mass)
𝑏𝑏ℎ3 (400)4
I= = = 2.13𝑥𝑥109 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚4
12 12
𝐸𝐸 = 4500 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ = 4500 40 = 28,460 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

0.5𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 0.5 28460 2.13𝑥𝑥109 = 3.0𝑥𝑥1013 𝑁𝑁. 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 (cracked rigidity)

384𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘 = 𝜔𝜔 = = = (under uniform load and mass)
5𝐿𝐿3 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡
Application of this factor transforms the real member with uniformly
KLM = 0.78 distributed mass subjected to uniformly distributed dynamic load to an
equivalent lumped mass spring model to compute the maximum displacement
uOttawa.ca umax maximum resistance Rmax = k umax and Mmax = RmaxL/8 using (DLF)max.
 Example (Cont’d):

384𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 384𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 384(3𝑥𝑥1013 ) 𝑁𝑁 6

𝑁𝑁
𝑘𝑘 = = 𝑘𝑘 = 3
= 3
= 10,667 = 10.7𝑥𝑥10
5𝐿𝐿3 5𝐿𝐿 (5)6000 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 384𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 6.0𝑚𝑚 = 2304 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘 10.7𝑥𝑥106 2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋

𝜔𝜔 = = = 77.16 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇 = = = 0.081 𝑠𝑠 = 81𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡 0.78(2304) 𝜔𝜔 77.16

From “Overpressure” for W=200 kg and R= 30 m; Pr = 93 kPa and Ir = 570 kPa-ms

Equivalent duration for triangular distribution:
te = 2 x Ir/Pr = (2) 570/93 = 12.3 ms te/T = 12.3/81 = 0.15

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Example (Cont’d):
te/T = td/T = 12.3/81 = 0.15
(DLF)max = 0.41

F = Pr x A = (93)(12) = 1116 kN

Maximum deflection under static

concentrated load uo = F/k:
uo = F/k = 1116,000N/10,667 N/mm
uo = 104.62 mm
Maximum deflection under
dynamic load umax = uo (DLF)max
umax = uo (DLF)max = 104.62 (0.41) = 43 mm
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 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
̈ + 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)
Example (Cont’d):
V(t) u(𝑡𝑡)

𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)

𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒

umax Mmax
Mmax = RL/8
L
I(t)
𝐼𝐼 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡)

𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡 − 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡)

uOttawa.ca V(t)
 Example (Cont’d):
Maximum quantities under dynamic loading:
R = F (DLF)max = 1116 (0.41) = 458 kN or;
R = k umax = 10,667 N/mm x 43 mm = 458,681 N = 459 kN

Mmax = RL/8 = 459(6.0)/8 = 344 kN.m

V = 0.39R + 0.11F = 0.39(459)+0.11(1116) = 302 kN

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 Elasto-plastic Resistance Function
 Elastic response of elements to blast loads has been discussed in earlier lectures.
However, structural and non-structural elements subjected to extreme loads, like
blast loads, often respond beyond their elastic limits.
 Inelastic response has to be assessed for blast resistant design.

Consider the bilinear resistance function, shown below.

R
F(t)
Rm

u
uOttawa.ca t uy um
 Elasto-plastic Resistance Function
 Unlike the elastic response solution (based on k and m), this time there are two
discontinuities in the resistance function and corresponding changes in stiffness:
 Elastic response up to yield.
 Plastic response between the yield and maximum displacements.
 Rebound after the maximum displacement when the displacement starts
decreasing.
 The initial conditions (displacement and velocity) for R
the second and third stages of loading can be taken Rm
as the final conditions for the preceding stage.
 There are two other discontinuities associated with the
forcing function; i) forced vibration and ii) free vibration.
These make the closed-form solution to be too tedious. u
uOttawa.ca uy um
 Charted Solutions for Undamped SDOF Elasto-Plastic Systems
 The analysis of elasto-plastic systems is cumbersome. Therefore, numerical
procedures are often employed if accurate response time history is needed.
 For design purposes, the designer is often interested in maximum design strength
and ductility (inelastic displacement).
 Design charts have been developed by the US Army and made available for inelastic
response of members to blast loads. Numerical analysis results under different blast
loads and different ductility ratios were plotted for structural elements having
different fundamental periods. The charts are available through the Uniform
Facilities Criteria (UFC) document.
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 Maximum response of elasto-plastic SDOF systems (undamped) due to triangular pulses

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 Levels of Protection
LEVEL OF
BUILDING PERFORMANCE
PROTECTION

Collapse Prevention: Able to evacuate; damage

Very Low up to onset of collapse; re-entry unlikely;
contents not intact.
Life Safety: Able to evacuate; temporary re-
Low entry; repair not economically viable.

Immediate Occupancy: Able to evacuate;

Medium operational after cleanup or repair; repair
economically viable.

High Operational: Uninterrupted occupancy; contents

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 Levels of Protection
Load Load

B1 B2 B3 B4 B1 B2 B3 B4
Response Response
Primary Components Secondary and Nonstructural
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Components
 Response Limits for Reinforced Concrete
Element Type B1 B2 B3 B4
µ θ µ θ µ θ µ θ
Single-Reinf. 1 - - 2o - 5o - 10o
Slab or Beam
Double-Reinf. 1 - - 2o - 5o - 10o
Slab or beam
without shear
Flexure
reinforcement

Double-Reinf. 1 - - 4o - 6o - 10o
Slab or beam
with shear
reinforcement

With tension 1 - - 6o - 12o - 20o

membrane
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 Response Limits for Reinforced Concrete
Element Type B1 B2 B3 B4
µ θ µ θ µ θ µ θ
Single-Reinf. Beam 1 - - 2o - 2o - 2o
Column
Double-Reinf. 1 - - 2o - 2o - 2o
Beam-column
without shear
Combined reinforcement
Flexure and
Axial Load Double-Reinf. 1 - - 4o - 4o - 4o
Beam-column with
shear
reinforcement
Wall or seismic 0.9 - 1 - 2 - 3 -
column
Nonseismic column 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1
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 Questions and Comments…

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