SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING RESEARCH BOARD

TEACHERS ASSOCIATESHIP FOR RESEARCH EXCELLENCE

Project title:
ESTABLISHING HYBRID HYDRODYNAMIC ASSISTED WITH ACOUSTIC CAVITATION
WATER TREATMENT FACILITY FOR HIGH-QUALITY DRINKING WATER
Project Investigator Mentor
Dr. C. SYAMSUNDAR Dr. BADARINATH KARRI
Assistant Professor and Dean R&D Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Global Water Challenges

• Three-quarters of the earth's surface is water, but only 1% is available for drinking [Water Rights, 2011]

• Almost 80% of all sickness and disease in developing and developed countries are caused by unsafe water
[Yadav et al., 2021; Progress on Drinking Water, 2017].

• Vulnerable populations remain at risk for significant illness and even death [Pelczar et al., 1986]

• UN reports - 1800 million people will be living with water scarcity by 2025 [Water Use, 2012]

• Water consumption rate is doubling every 20 years - exponential and unplanned growth of population [WHO
Reports, 2015]

• In India, around 97 million people do not have access to safe drinking water, and 40 million people are affected
by water borne diseases such as, fluorosis (fluoride contamination), arsenic poisoning diarrhoea, cholera,
hepatitis (bacteriological contamination) every year [WHO/UNICEF, 2012].

• Each disinfection technology has unique benefits, limitations, and costs [Van Leeuwen, 2000]

Challenge: Development of sustainable, energy-efficient technologies

1
The “Top 10” Global Challenges for the New Millennium

1. Energy
2. Water
3. Food
4. Environment
5. Poverty
6. Terrorism and War + +
7. Disease
8. Education
9. Democracy
10. Population
Richard E. Smalley, Nobel Laureate, Chemistry, 1996,
MRS Bulletin, June 2005 Water Scarcity is a Global and Regional Challenge
Types of water contaminants
1. Physical: Physical parameters of water may include temperature, color, taste, odor, floating materials etc. which
can be determined by touch, sight, smell etc. [Alexandrou et al., 2018]

2. Chemical: For example, chemicals dissolved in water like heavy metals, nitrate, fluoride, dyes etc. [Richardson
and Postigo, 2012]

3. Biological: For example, pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, virus, protozoa etc. [Hu et al.,
2018; Krasner et al., 2006]
2
Health Concerns with Consumption of Polluted Water

Contaminants Health Hazards

Total hardness Scaling of skin and hair loss
Chloride Chloramides are carcinogenic, causing learning disabilities and neurological illnesses, as
well as thyroid and liver difficulties.
Nitrate Methamoglobinemia, also known as blue baby disease, is caused by haemoglobin's
inability to combine oxygen.
Fluoride Dental fluorosis, affect bone structure, and digestive disorders
[Central Ground Water Board]

Stages of water purification are;

1. Primary Sedimentation and Filtering are used to remove colloidal and suspended materials
2. Followed by Ion Exchange [Saravanan et al., 2015 a, b], Carbon Adsorption and Membrane Processes
[Rajendran et al., 2016] to remove dissolved solids
3. Finally, Chlorination Disinfection for microbial inactivation [Saby et al., 1999], Ozonation [Zhang et al.,
2019] and Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation [Tansel, 2008] are carried out.

3
Water Disinfection Methods

• The combination of different techniques are using over the years; like

a. UV Radiation and Ozonation [Wolfe et al., 1989]

b. Ultrasonication and Ozonation [Simpson and Hayes, 1998]

c. Ozone and Hydrogen Peroxide [Save et al., 1994] for disinfection of water

• There are several disadvantages with the available disinfection techniques;

1. Formation of Carcinogenic By-products [Mezule et al., 2009]

2. Appearance of Taste [Simpson and Hayes, 1998],

3. Odour[Fetyan and Attia, 2020] ,which makes the water inadequate for use for drinking purposes

Hydrodynamic cavitation assisted with acoustic cavitation in the flow field has the potential to
generate enough hydroxyl radicals and their oxidative potential could be utilized for water
purification.

4
 Cavitation-Based Water Disinfection Technique

• Cavitation is defined as the formation, growth, and subsequent collapse of gas-filled cavities (bubbles) within a
liquid bulk as a result of pressure pulses [Hammitt and Frederick, 1980].

• It evolves to a considerable degree of minuscule timeframes of milliseconds with the emission of massive
magnitudes of energy [Rajoriya et al., 2016].

• When bubbles collapse, the compression effects upon its internal gases might induce temperature spikes up to
1000-10000 K [Suslick et al., 1986] and pressure peaks of several hundred MPa [Franc and Michel, 2004].

• Cavitation is mostly linked to performance losses, noise, and erosion damage in various fluid machinery [Mija
Sežun et al., 2019].

• Water treatment, it is a green technology that does not need additional chemicals and can be coupled with other
technologies if required [Maharshi Yadav et al., 2021]

5
Characteristics of the Cavitation Phenomenon

The four principal types of cavitation and their causes;

• Hydrodynamic cavitation:
Pressure variation in a flowing liquid [Saharan et al., 2011]

• Acoustic cavitation:
Pressure variation in a liquid due to ultrasound waves
[Song et al., 2009]
• Optic cavitation:
Result of the rupture of a liquid due to high-intensity light/laser
[Young 1999]
• Particle cavitation:
Produced by any type of elementary particle (e.g., a proton)
rupturing a liquid, as in a bubble chamber [Young 1999]

Figure: The main causes of cavitation in liquids

[Janusz Ozonek, 2020]

6
Types of Cavitation—Forms of Cavitation Clouds
Various types of cavitation depending on where the cavitation cloud occurs and the initial conditions.
Franc and Michel (2004) identify eight characteristic types namely:
1. Travelling bubble cavitation appears as bubbles moving along a solid body which become visible in the vicinity of
a low-pressure point.
2. Cavitation bubbles in the shear layer develop when a submerged liquid jet is introduced into a container
containing water and on a sharp edge of a boundary layer separation.
3. Sheet cavitation also described as attached bubble cavitation. For axisymmetric bodies the term ‘ring cavitation’ is
used. The bubbles are formed on the surface of the solid body and subsequently are then detached by the flow.
4. Sheet cavitation is also known as laminar cavitation in its advanced stage. This type of cavitation appears as a
cavity filled with a homogenous mixture of vapour and gas with a glossy surface.
5. Localised attached cavitation, also described as localised sheet cavitation is associated with the local roughness
of the surface and appears as attached cavities.
6. Localised bubble cavitation occurs as a continuous stream of bubbles forming in specific places on the surface of
a solid body. This form is also associated with the pitted nature of the surface.
7. Hub vortex cavitation occurs in the cores of vortices spiralling away from the flow around the obstacle.
8. Tip vortex cavitation, appears in the core of vortices flowing from the load bearing surface.

7
Physicochemical Effects of Cavitation Process
The effects of cavitation can be broadly split into mechanical effects and physicochemical

• Cavitation favors energy dissipation

leading to a temperature rise
• Produce a series of other
physicochemical and mechanical
effects
• Implosions is characterized by very
high energy densities in the order
of 1018 kW/m3.

Figure: Useful cavitation effects in environmental engineering technologies [Janusz Ozonek, 2020]

8
• During the implosion of the cavitation bubbles a primary shockwave is produced with a pressure amplitude of around
240 MPa and a molecular speed of up to 1700 m/s.
• Local to the collapsing bubble, secondary waves are also produced with speeds of around 1800 m/s and pressures of
up to 70 GPa [Wójs, 2004].
• Intensive shockwaves lead to a dramatic increase in temperature (greater than 5000 K) at the centre of the bubble and
a significant increase in the phase transition boundary surface [Suslick et al., 2008].

Figure: Physicochemical effects produced during the

cavitation process [Janusz Ozonek, 2020].

9
• A cumulative microjet forms in the liquid, directed towards the boundary with a velocity of more than 100 m/s.
• The asymmetric bubble explosion causes a pressure pulse directed towards the boundary.
• The effect creates cavitation erosion and vibrations in the cavitation setup.

Figure: Jet collapse models for:

(a) A hemispherical bubble attached to a wall
(b) A bubble moving into a pressure gradient
(c) A bubble collapsing near a wall

[Janusz Ozonek, 2020]

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Cavitation-Water Treatment - Mechanisms of Water Treatment

• The mechanism cavitation treatment of water ate

✓ Mechanical (shear stresses, and turbulence generation)

✓ Chemical (generation of active free radicals), and

✓ Heat Effects (generation of local hot spots) [Randhavane, 2019].

• Due to the extreme pressure-temperature conditions inside the bubbles, the water dissociates into hydrogen (H+)
and hydroxyl (OH-) highly reactive radicals, resulting in bacteria eradication and virus inactivation [Mija Sežun et
al., 2019; Mancuso et al., 2021]

Organic pollutant degradation mechanism [Malade and Deshannavar, 2017]

11
Objectives

• In line with this research goal, the main objectives of the present work are formulated as follows:

✓ Development of a laboratory scale novel hydrodynamic assisted with acoustic cavitation water treatment
facility

✓ Operation of the facility to characterize the hybrid technique by evaluating the water samples under different
operating conditions.

• The work is conceptualized in 3 stages:

i. Study of drinking water quality after treatment using a hydrodynamic cavitation facility

ii. Study of drinking water quality after treatment using an acoustic cavitation facility

iii. Study of synergetic relationship between hydrodynamic, and acoustic cavitation and water treatment
mechanisms when both approaches are combined together.

To the best of our knowledge, no existing stand-alone facility exists to bring out the combined
effects of hydrodynamic cavitation, and acoustic cavitation water treatment.

12
Objectives

• The specific objectives of the proposed research work are as follows:

• Development of a hybrid two stage cavitation-based water treatment facility that incorporates hydrodynamic
cavitation as the first stage and acoustic cavitation as the second stage. In each of the stages, specific
studies will be carried out as well.

• In hydrodynamic cavitation water treatment studies, it is planned to study

✓ The influence of the geometry of the flow chamber on the water quality and intensity of cavitation.

✓ The effect of parameters like of the cavitation number, fluid temperature etc

• In acoustic cavitation water treatment studies, it is planned to investigate the effect of the intensity and
frequency of the acoustic irradiation on the water quality.

Finally, based on the experimental results, we are planning to develop a cavitation water treatment
numerical or empirical model which enables understanding of the mechanisms involved.

13
Factors Affecting Cavitation Behavior in Hydrodynamic Cavitation
Figure: An overview of the effective parameters in
hydrodynamic cavitation
[Braeutigam et al., 2010]
The deciding factor in the cavitation process is
• Shape of the cavitation inducer
• Liquid flow velocity and
• Pressure
[Braeutigam et al., 2010]
Parameters and its Effects in Cavitations Inception
1. The cavitations number, σ
2. The Reynolds number, Re
3. The liquid temperature, T∞
4. The liquid quality, and nature of the free stream
nuclei
5. The amount of dissolved gas, and free stream
turbulence
6. The bounding surfaces, including the roughness
[Brennen, 1985]
14
 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactors
• When the cavities generated collapse, high
temperature and pressure are produced[Braeutigam
et al., 2012; Šarc et al., 2017]

• Under these conditions, water molecules have been

suggested being separated into hydroxyl (•OH) and
hydrogen (•H) radicals [Šarc et al., 2017; Jančula et
al., 2014].
• The proposed mechanism for organic pollutant
degradation using HC
𝐻𝐶 • •
𝐻2 𝑂 𝐻+ 𝑂𝐻
• •
𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻2 𝑂2
•
𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

[Zhang et al., 2018]

Summary of different types of HC reactors [Braeutigam et al., 2010]
15
Operational Parameters in the Hydrodynamic Cavitation Setup

Parameter Studied Effect Observed Possible Explanation

Treatment time Increasing treatment time Increasing the time of exposure increases the probability of a
increases the number of bacteria cell coming into contact with a collapsing cavity, which would
killed. lyse it [Save et al., 1994; Jyoti and Pandit, 2001].

Discharge pressure Increase in pressure increases
percent disinfection and
decreases the time required for
achieving a certain degree of
disinfection
At higher pressures the number and intensity of cavitation
events are higher and the cavitation threshold is reached
earlier.

Presence of multiple- Increased disinfection rate Cavitation inception occurs at the fluid shear layer. When
hole orifice plate water flows out of the orifice plate having multiple holes, the
compared to that obtained
number of shear layers corresponding to each issuing liquid
without orifice plate.
jet (generated from each hole) is formed, and hence the
number of cavitational events significantly increases [Vichare
et al., 2000].

16
Acoustic Cavitation

• The growth and collapse of bubbles in liquids induced by the propagation of ultrasonic waves that impose a
sinusoidal pressure variation on the transmitting medium, alternately decreasing or increasing the local
pressures in the medium Cravotto and Cintas, 2012].

• Microscopic bubbles form and grow in size during the “rarefaction half cycle” of the sound wave, and implode
during the “compression half cycle” [Hua and Thompson, 2000].

• Experimentally, a range of temperatures during bubble implosion has been observed: 12,000 to 14,000 K in
aqueous solution [Misik et al., 1995]; Pressures of several hundreds of atmospheres [Seghal et al., 1979]

𝐻2 𝑂 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝐻 • + 𝐻 •
𝐻 • + 𝑂2 → •𝐻2
𝐻 • + 𝑂2 → 𝑂𝐻 • + 𝑂•
𝑂𝐻 • + 𝑂𝐻 • → 𝐻2 𝑂2
•
𝐻𝑂2 + •𝐻𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂2 + 𝑂2
𝐻2 𝑂2 + 𝑂𝐻 • → •𝐻𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑂2 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑂• + 𝑂• [Young, 1999; Thompson and Doraiswamy, 1999]
𝑂• + 𝑂2 → 𝑂3 17
Factors Affecting Cavitation Behavior in Acoustic Cavitation
Extrinsic Variable Physical Property
Acoustic Frequency Period collapse
Acoustic Intensity Reaction zone size
Liquid vapor pressure
Bulk Temperature
Thermal activation
Total applied pressure
Static Pressure
Gas solubility
Polytropic ratio
Thermal conductivity
Ambient Gas
Chemical reactivity
Gas solubility
Vapor pressure
Surface tension
Choice Of Liquid
Viscosity
Chemical reactivity
Effect
Resonant bubble size
Cavitation events per volume
Bubble content, intensity of collapse
Enhanced secondary reaction rates
Intensity of collapse
Bubble content
Intensity of collapse
Intensity of collapse
Primary or secondary sonochemistry
Bubble content
Intensity of collapse
Transient cavitation threshold
Transient cavitation threshold
Primary or secondary sonochemistry
Suslick (1986a)
18
Acoustic Cavitation - Equipment
1. The Ultrasonic Bath
• Transducers are attached to its base in order to generate and transmit ultrasound
• They are frequently used as ultrasonic cleaning systems
• Applications - cleaning glassware, hospitals for surgical instruments and hypodermic syringes, cleaning spectacle
frames and lenses, and for better adherence of plating during electroplating, to name a few.

2. The Probe System

• It generates maximum ultrasound intensity
• It essentially consists of a horn made of metal alloy
• Here, the ultrasound is introduced directly into the medium by the transducer via the horn using the principle of
waveguide.
• It is very effective on a lab scale to treat small volumes of sample.

3.The Ultrasonic Flow Cell

• This type of sonicator is most commonly used to treat large volumes
• Consists of a sonic horn transducer that is attached to a flow loop system
• Generate a very high intensity of ultrasound operating in a continuous mode (Mason, 1991)

19
 ASTM G134 - Submerged Cavitating Jet Test Facility
Various components of the hydraulic circuit are;
1. Sump With Chiller
2. Pump
3. Hydraulic Accumulator/ Pulsation Damper
4. Pressure Relief Valve
5. On-off Valve
6. Pressure Regulating Valve/ By-pass Throttle Valve
7. H.P Filter
8. Heater
9. Upstream Pressure Gauge (0 To 25 MPa)
10. Downstream Pressure Gauge (With Protector; 0 To 0.6 MPa)
11. Thermocouple
12. Test Chamber
Figure: Test facility guided by ASTM G-134 Standards
13. Downstream Filter
14. Pressure Regulator.
15. Drain Valve
• Precise simulation of cavitation behavior
• A satisfactory alternative for the more traditional cavitation tunnel technique
• Testing process can be accelerated or slowed down
• Also facilitates the comparison of erosion behavior of various liquids, in addition to grading materials
20
Schematic of the Experimental Test Setup

Various components of the hydraulic circuit are; Proposed Facility

1. Constant Temperature Water Bath 6. High Pressure Filter
2. Plunger Pump with 5 HP Motor 7. Acrylic Hydrodynamic Cavitation Orifice Chamber
3. Pulsation Damper
8. Downstream Pressure Regulating Valve
4. Pressure Relief Valve
9. Acoustic Cavitation Chamber
5. Upstream Pressure Regulating Valve
21
Summary of Test Method

• The test setup can be used with either open or recirculation systems.
• To withstand maximum operating pressures, a pressure regulating valve is fitted at both upstream and
down stream
• Both the upstream and the downstream chamber pressures and the temperature of the discharging
liquid must be controlled and monitored.
• A typical test rig is built using Plunger Pump with 5 HP Motor capable of producing 21-MPa pressure and
a flow of 4.5 L/min.
• The nozzle must be made from a highly erosion- and corrosion-resistant alloy.
• The standard orifice bore diameter, may be changed if required for specialized tests.
• A constant temperature bath of capacity not less than 100 L is recommended
• Acoustic cavitation is applied to the above solution in the presence of Ultrasonic Horn at constant
temperature
• An automatic timer which switches the pump off after a preset test time
22
Experimental Setup (Hybrid Water Treatment System)

Design of facility

• Test liquid:Tap water

• Max. Working Pressure: 210 bar

• Working Temperature: 20-30 ºC

• Max. Flow Rate: 17 l/min

• Constant temp bath capacity: 100 l

Figure: In-house Fabricated Experimental Setup (Hybrid Water Treatment System)

23
Hydraulic Components
1. Pump – Requirement and Selection Reciprocating pump is the best option
• Requires an upstream pressure of around 21 MPa HAWK Pumps/ ClydeUnion Pumps/Grundfos Pumps
• Approximate flow rate of 0.000075 m3/sec (4.5 lt./min)
The pump specifications are;
• Flow: 13-17 L/min
• Pressure Range: 7 to 275 Bar
• Inlet Port: 1" NPTF (1" NPTF)
• Discharge Port: 3/8" NPTF (3/8" NPTF)
• Max. Liquid Temperature: 60 °C
• Stroke: 10 mm
HAWK Pumps, model no. NHD1315R
• Maximum Speed: 1740 rpm

For our calculation since we have not yet considered any particular nozzle profile, we have taken
conservatively
• Upstream pressure of 21 MPa
• Downstream pressure (chamber pressure) of 0.3 MPa
• Flowrate of 4.5 lpm.
2p
Vj = = 203 ms −1
• The velocity of the flow issuing out of nozzle can be approximately given as: 
P −P
The cavitation number thus achieved is given as:  = d v  0.014 as prescribed by ASTM G134-95.
Pu −around
Thus the nozzle diameter, based on above calculation, will be
Pv 1 mm for a discharge of 17 lpm
If we consider, 4.5 lpm, this nozzle diameter will be 0.7 mm. 24
2. Motor – Requirement and Selection A Three-phase induction motor with rated speed as 1440 rpm
• Required for the test conditions: 4.5 - 5.5 L/min was chosen
• Speeds of approx. 1300 to 1800 rpm It offered
• High Efficiency
The important specifications are;
• Low Noise Levels
• Power: 5 HP; ~3.7 kW
• High Power Factor
• Volts: 415 ±10%
• Smooth Acceleration, and Low Current
• Rated Speed: 1440 rpm

25
3. Valves: Regulate the flow of a fluid by opening, closing, or partially obstructing
various passageways.
a. Ball Valve:
• A ball valve has been used since it is ideal for quick ON/OFF. Also, ball valves are
durable and usually work to achieve perfect on/shut-off even after years of use.
b. Bleed Valve: A bleed valve works by releasing the fluid through a valve opening to
reduce the built-up pressure of a system. The bleed valve is manually operated.
Specifications are:
• Material of construction: 316 SS
• Max. Working pressure: 689 bar
• Working temperature range: -53 0C to 200 0C
4. Filters:
• Test setup employs two inline filters. One filter is before the upstream pressure gauge, and the second filter is before
the downstream pressure regulator to remove the suspended impurities and the debris.
Specifications are:
• Maximum working pressure: 436 bar
• Working temperature range: -28 OC to 204 OC
• Series inline filter ¼” OD end connections
26
5. Pressure Regulators
a. Upstream Pressure Regulator
• Upstream pressure regulator is basically a pressure reducing regulator, also known as pressure reducing valve.
• The spring force is adjusted by turning the stem/handle, which sets the desired outlet pressure.
Specifications are:
• Maximum inlet pressure: 248 bar
• Outlet pressure range: 0-210 bar
• Bursting pressure: 1000 bar

b. Downstream Pressure Regulator

• Downstream pressure regulator regulates the pressure inside the test
chamber.
• It is basically a back pressure regulator.
• The spring force is adjusted by turning the stem handle, which sets the
desired inlet pressure.
Specifications are:
• Inlet Pressure: 0 to 10 bar
• Max. Outlet pressure: 10 bar

27
6. Pressure Gauges
• Each gauge determines the gauge pressure rather than absolute
pressure
• Pressure gauges are the bourdon tube pressure gauges.
a. Pump discharge Pressure gauge
The specifications are:
• Range of the gauge: 0 – 350 bar
• Accuracy: 1% of the range Upstream Downstream
• Least count: 2.5 bar Pressure Gauge Pressure Gauge
• Overload limit: 1.4 times the maximum rated pressure
• 316 SS Bourdon tube c. Downstream Pressure Gauge
b. Upstream Pressure Gauge The specifications are:
The specifications are: • Range of the gauge: 0 – 10 bar
• Range of the gauge: 0 – 250 bar • Accuracy: 1% of the range
• Accuracy: 0.25% of the range • Resolution: 0.25 bar
• Resolution: 1 bar • Overload limit: 1.4 times the maximum rated pressure
• Overload limit: 1.4 times the maximum rated pressure • 316 SS Bourdon tube
• 316 SS Bourdon tube • Max. working temperature: 132 oC
28
7. Acrylic Hydrodynamic Cavitation Orifice Chamber: Fabricated with acrylic to observe cavitation process
Interchangeable Orifice: Ensuring the following points are very important.
• It is important that the inlet corner of the orifice is sharp.
• Before drilling the small hole, polishing of both sides of the surface with 1200 emery cloth is necessary.
Material Selection: Material of the orifice is also a crucial design choice, which can affect the testing, significantly.
Nitronic 60 | 17-4 PH stainless Steel | Inconel 718 | Stellite 6
Nitronic 60 (Cr 17, Mn 8, Ni 8.5, Si 4, N 0.13, C 0.10, Fe Bal.).
• Corrosion resistance and yield strength falls between SS 304 and SS 316.
• Better chloride pitting resistance, and stress corrosion cracking resistance
• Excellent high temperature oxidation resistance and low temperature impact.
• High strength and best known for its wear and galling resistance

Orifice plate (different configurations in terms of number and diameter of the holes)
An orifice plate is characterized by
• Free area (flow area)

• Perimeter of the holes (shear layer)

29
8. Chiller Water Tank
• Capacity of the tank has to be at least 6-10 times the desired flow rate
✓ Here the flow rate is around 4.5 L/min
✓ Capacity of the tank is chosen as approximately 100 litres
• SS 304 is used as the design material for the tank in order to avoid corrosion.
• SS sheets of 3 mm thickness are used to develop the tank - sufficient to take the water pressure
• Argon welding is used at the joints and the edges of the tank again to ensure the strength.
• To avoid turbulence and to avoid air bubbles in the tank, two baffles have been added in the tank.
• A plug has also been provided at the bottom to empty the tank quickly.
• A provision has been made for the water level indicator in the tank.
• The tank is provided with a lid that can be bolted at the top.
• Tank can be made air tight using a gasket along with the lid at the top.

30
9. Chilling Unit - Maintain constant test conditions
• Standard vapor compression cycle with R-22 as the refrigerant
The specifications are:
• Max. Inlet fluid temperature: 42 °C (approx.)
• Outlet fluid temperature: 5 to 30 °C (approx)
• Cooling capacity: 1.5 TR
• Max. flow rate: 4.5 lt./min

1. Hermitically Sealed Compressor 7. Lower Pressure Gauge

2. Condenser With Forced Induced 8. Higher Pressure Gauge
3. Capillary Valve 9. Volt Meter
4. Evaporator Chamber 10. Ammeter
5. Thermostat 11. Temperature Indicator
6. Expansion Valve 12. Compressor Console
13. Power Supply Console

31
10. Seamless SS tubing - 1/8 inch. (3.175 mm)

11. Fittings: For the fitting and plumbing of the whole test rig,
all the components (Elbows, T-joints, plugs, unions etc.)
made of stainless steel

1. Transducer
2. Supported Stand
3. Adjustable Stand
4. Horn
5. Cooling Jacket
6. Electrical Switch Board
7. Ultrasound Generator

• Water samples were collected after 15, 30, 40, 45, 50, and 60 minutes of circulation in the
cavitating system under a constant input and outlet pressures.
• The water temperature at orifice nozzle inlet shall be constant
32
 Orifice Type - Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactor

Intensity of the generated cavitation significantly depends on the geometry of the component
The ratio of total perimeter to total flow area (α) The ratio of throat area to the cross-sectional area of pipe (β)
total sum of all the hole circumferences sum of the hole area(s)on the orifice plate
𝛼 = 𝑚𝑚−1 𝛽=
the cross sectional area of the pipe the cross sectional e area of the pipe

[Jyoti et al., 2004, Braeutigam et al., 2010]

The value β is often referred to as the Flow Number, its magnitude significantly affects the cavitation number and thus
determines the intensity of the resulting cavitation.

An orifice plate with circular holes An orifice plate with rectangular holes
𝟒 𝟐𝐚 + 𝟐𝐛
𝛂= 𝐦𝐦−𝟏 𝛂=
𝐝𝟎 𝐚𝐛
𝟐
𝐝𝟎 𝟒𝐚𝐛
𝛃=𝐧∗ 𝛃=𝐧∗
𝐃 𝛑𝐃𝟐
Where:
D – diameter of the cylindrical part of the cavitation reactor D – diameter of the cylindrical part of the cavitation reactor
n – the number of holes in the orifice plate. n – the number of holes in the orifice plate.
33
 Synergetic Effect of the Hybrid System

Synergetic Index (SI): Represents the effect of hybrid system (Hydrodynamic Cavitation and Ultrasonic Cavitation)
in comparison to the individual processes such as Hydrodynamic Cavitation Alone, and Ultrasonic Cavitation Alone
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 (𝑯𝑪+𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄)
𝐒𝐲𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱 𝑺𝑰(𝑯𝑪+𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄) = 𝑯𝑪+𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄

If SI > 1; that means the percentage removal of the compound by the hybrid system is greater than that sum of the
individual systems
Cost Evaluation for the Treatment Methodologies

Cost evaluation of hybrid treatment methodologies have been carried out based on 1 m3 capacity.

1. Ultrasound Cavitation (Sonication)

2. Hydrodynamic Cavitation
3. Ultrasound Cavitation (Sonication) + Hydrodynamic Cavitation

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Water Quality Parameters - Method of analysis:

1. Digital Potentio Meter

Specifications:
• Make: Infra Digi
• Voltage: 220-230V AC
• Model No: HTLP-081
• Accuracy: ± 0.01
• Repeatability: ± 0.01

Applications:
• Used to obtain more accurate pH measurements
• Used to measure hydrogen ion activity in solutions –
acidity/alkalinity of a solution

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Water Quality Parameters - Method of analysis:

2. Digital Conductivity Meter:

Specifications:
• Type: Digital Conductivity Meter
• Conductivity Range: 0-200 µs
• Conductivity Resolution: 0.1 µs
• Temperature Compensation: 0 - 50°C
• Power: 230V ± 10% AC, 50 Hz

Applications:
• Used to measure the level of conductivity in solutions

• Conductivity is an ability of materials (solutions,

metals or gases) to pass an electric current.

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3. Digital pH Meter
Specifications:
• Make: Infra Digi
• Voltage: 220-230V AC
• pH Range: 0.01 to +14 pH
• Model No: HTLP-081
• Accuracy: ± 0.01
• Repeatability: ± 0.01
Applications:
• Used to obtain more accurate pH
measurements
• Used to measure hydrogen ion
activity in solutions –
acidity/alkalinity of a solution
4. Digital Colorimeter
Specifications:
• Make: Digisum
• Measurement: % Transmission and
Absorbance
• Wave Length: 400 to 680 nm
Applications:
Used to measure the absorbance of
wavelengths of light at a particular
frequency (color) of a sample.
5. Magnetic Stirrer With Hot Plate
Specifications:
• Make: Labcare
• Temperature Range: 0-100 °C
Applications:
To conduct biological and chemical
experiments by mixing two components
It is equally suitable for solids or liquid
samples to obtain a consistent liquid
mixture
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6. Ultrasonic Bath
Specifications:
• Model Name: ATS-1
• Ultrasonic Frequency: 40kHz
• Tank Size: 300*300*150 mm
• Capacity: 1.5 Ltr
• Display: LCD
• Time Setting: 1-30 mins
• Heating Temperature Range: 0-80 °C
Applications:
• Suitable for cleaning a wide variety of materials, including metals, glass,
rubber, ceramics and some hard plastics. An ultrasonic parts cleaner is
especially useful for removing tightly-adhered contaminants from intricate
items with blind holes, cracks and recesses.

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7. IRIS Visible Spectrophotometer
Specifications:
• Wavelength Range: 190-1100 nm
• Data Output: USB/RS 232C
Applications:
• Effective tool for water quality monitoring systems
• Water quality parameters, pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and
chlorine
• To measure water quality parameters accurately and quickly.

8. Liquid Chromatography with Tandem Mass Spectrometry -LCMSMS

Specifications:
• Application: Laboratory use
Frequency: 50 Hz
• Voltage: 330 V

Applications:
• Identify and quantify contaminants, including organic and inorganic
compounds, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals.

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9. High-Speed Camera (2.1 HD Chronos) 10. Ultrasonic Processor
Specifications: Specifications:
• Handheld Camera • Max. power: 750 W
• Chronos 2.1-HD • Frequency: 20 kHz
• 2.1 Gigapixel -1000 fps • Sample Process Vol:0.2 to 2,000 ml
• Sound Abating Box
Applications:
• Monitoring and analyzing the
Applications:
hydrodynamic and acoustic cavitation
• Effective tool for water treatment facilities as it can
processes in a water treatment facility that
generate high-frequency sound waves that create
utilizes hydrodynamic assisted with cavitation bubbles in the water.
acoustic cavitation.
• Powerful tool for capturing fast-moving
events in detail.

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 Sustainability and Environmental Impact

Reducing greenhouse gases from Introduction cavitation

preventing the release of CH4 and CO2 reactors will allow to reuse
with cavitation reactors of waste water

Decomposition of surfactants
(surfactants), toxic compounds;
binding of salts of heavy metals, The introduction of
pesticides and herbicides into non- treatment facilities with
toxic complexes cavitation reactors in rural
and small towns will reduce
intestinal infections, and
Creation of over a thousand new jobs
improve the quality of life of
per year. thousands of residents

Cost Effective - Protect the Environment - Meets Environmental Sustainability Goals:

• Reduce or eliminate demand on water treatment facilities • Extends equipment service life
• Eliminates hazardous chemicals • Reduce carbon footprint by saving energy
• Reduce cost of purchased water • Water reuse- resulting in zero discharge
• Saves energy by cleaning system • Scalability - Multi-systems for larger capacities

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 SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING RESEARCH BOARD
TEACHERS ASSOCIATESHIP FOR RESEARCH EXCELLENCE

Thank you All!!

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