Unit 1

Introduction: Concept of manufacturing process:

Manufacturing Process contain two words: Manufacturing and Process.

 Manufacturing is the process of turning raw materials or parts into finished products
through the use of tools, human labour, machinery and chemical processing.
 Product is the desired or wanted material which has shape, size, colour and moreover
has a function to perform.
 Process is the step by step operations involved in the conversion of raw material.
 Most products were handmade using human labour and basic tools before the
Industrial Revolution.
 The Industrial Revolution led to mass production, assembly line manufacturing and
the use of mechanization to manufacture larger quantities of goods at a lower cost.

Types of manufacturing processes

Hand manufacturing involves the use of basic tools through more traditional processes. This
form of manufacturing is often associated with decorative art, textile production,
leatherwork, carpentry and some metalwork.

Handmade goods are labour-intensive and require a lot of time. In some cases, they can
command a high price, depending on the supplier and the type of goods. For instance, one-
of-a-kind handmade fashion items can be sold at a higher price compared to something
mass-produced. There are cases, though, where people who make goods using these
techniques can be exploited, especially where labour laws are lax and demand for jobs is
high.

Larger businesses use mechanization to mass-produce items on a much grander scale. This
process involves the use of machines, which means that the manual manipulation of
materials isn't necessarily required. Very little human capital is needed in the production
process, although highly skilled individuals may be required to operate and ensure that
machinery is running properly.

History of Modern Manufacturing

Handmade products dominated the market before the Industrial Revolution. This period
ushered in the industrial process, where raw materials were made into finished products in
high volumes. The development of steam engines and newer technologies allowed
companies to use machines in the manufacturing process. This reduced the need for human
capital while increasing the sheer volume of goods that could be produced.

Mass production and assembly line manufacturing allowed companies to create parts that
could be used interchangeably and allowed finished products to be easily made by reducing
the need for part customization. Ford popularized mass-production techniques in the early
20th century.

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Computers and precision electronic equipment have since allowed companies to pioneer
high-tech manufacturing methods. Companies that use these methods typically carry a
higher price but also require more specialized labour and higher capital investment.

The skills required to operate machines and develop manufacturing processes have
drastically changed over time. Many low-skill manufacturing jobs have shifted
from developed to developing countries because labour in developing countries tends to be
less expensive. As such, high-end products that require precision and skilled manufacturing
are typically produced in developed economies.

Steps of manufacturing process

These seven steps, following in sequential order, encompass not only the physical
manufacturing of a good but the stages before and after a tangible product is made.

Step 1: Develop the Idea

Before any tangible good is made, manufacturing begins with concept development and the
growth of the product vision. This product vision defines what the product is, who the target
audience is, what the need for the good is, and what competitors exist. Many of these types
of questions may define the good and help refine what characteristics will go into the actual
product.

Step 2: Perform Market Research

Though many believe manufacturing only entails the physical aspect of making a good, the
manufacturing process still incorporates researching the potential product to explore ways to
make it better. This includes understanding what raw materials can be used, what equipment
is needed, what conditions the good must be made under, and how the good will
differentiate from competing goods.

Step 3: Design the Product

With research considerations in-hand, it's time to design the product. This should always be
done in consideration of what the customer will need and use. This also should incorporate
any manufacturing limitations discovered during the research stage. This also includes
understanding the costs that will go into this product design so you can forecast what your
product profitability will be. It is during this stage that the manufacturing process is most
deeply rooted in research and development.

Step 4: Finalize and Prototype

With the design stage now complete, it's time to make final decisions on what the product
will be. This includes making choices of what raw materials to use or how to define the
manufacturing process. These decisions are implemented by creating an initial prototype.
This means drafting a smaller-scale test product that mirrors what the true manufacturing
product will be.

Step 5: Prototype Testing

Once the prototype is complete, it's time to test it. This includes analyzing actual resources
that went into the good to better understand how much the actual product will cost and what
its profit margin will be. This also includes finding weaknesses or inefficiencies in the
manufacturing process. This is often the final stage before mass production begins; though

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changes can be made in the future, this is the time for big changes to be made without major
implications on the product or manufacturing process.

Step 6: Manufacture the Good

Enough time, testing, and research has been done; it's now time to make the good. The
company acquires the machinery and equipment necessary to make full-scale processes to
manufacture the good. The company also invests in the full amount of labor,
storage, insurance, and other costs related to a full manufacturing line.

Companies may choose to continually improve their processes; instead of returning back to
prototype stages, they often review and implement smaller changes during the actual
manufacturing step.

Step 7: Monitor the Process

In order to continually improve, the company must continually evaluate how the process is
going and whether expectations are being met. The company must analyse how much the
product costs to make and compare this against sale prices. The company must also evaluate
product demand and scale up (or scale down) based on consumer preference.

Manufacturing vs. Production

Though sometimes referred to as the same thing, there are subtle differences between the
manufacturing process and the production process. In manufacturing, a company must often
solicit raw materials from third-party or external vendors to be processed into finished
goods. For production, the company often has ownership of those raw materials.

The definition of each encompasses different processes. Production is broader and

encompasses manufacturing, as production is simply taking input and yielding an output.
Manufacturing, a more specific type of production, is the act of taking a raw material and
transforming it into a tangible finished good.

The manufacturing process ends with a tangible good. Alternatively, production can end
with a tangible or intangible good. Consider the theatrical example that is aptly named. A
show or theatre production literally ends with public entertainment to be consumed by the
general public.

Because the manufacturing process is heavily reliant on raw materials, the manufacturing
process often relies on heavy machinery or equipment. It also relies on set-up time and labor
to establish the process. During production, machinery may not be required depending on
the output.

Manufacturing

 Often requires procurement of a raw material

 Output is physical, tangible goods

 Machinery and labor are essential to the process

 Is a more specific type of process

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Production

 Often entails previous ownership of the inputs for the process

 Output may be tangible or intangible good

 Machinery may or may not be required

 Is a less specific type of process

Classification of Manufacturing processes:

Manufacturing Processes can be classified as i) Casting ii) Joining (welding, mechanical

fasteners, epoxy, etc.) iii) Machining iv) Mechanical working v) Powder Metallurgy etc.,

(i) Casting process exploits the fluidity of a metal in liquid state as it takes shape and
solidifies in a mould.

(ii) Joining process permits complex shapes to be constructed from simpler

components and have a wide domain of applications.

(iii) Machining process provides desired shape with good accuracy and precision but
tend to waste material in the generation of removed portions.

(iv) Mechanical working process exploits a property of metals, which is their ability to
flow plastically in the solid state without deterioration of their properties. With the
application of suitable pressures, the material is moved to obtain the desired shape
with almost no wastage. The required pressures are generally high and the tools
and equipment needed are quite expensive.

(v) In powder metallurgy process a die cavity is made in the form of a metal part. The
metal powder is filled in the die, and then compacted. When the die is opened, the
part is stiff. It goes through a sintering operation that partially melts the powder
and gives the strength to the part.

Cast iron Manufacturing Process: Foundry grade Pig iron, Coke and flux are melted in
Cupola furnace and Cast iron is manufactured.

Iron – 95%, Carbon – 3 to 3.4%, Silicon – 1.8 to 2.5%, Manganese – 1%, Sulphur – 0.1 to 0.2
%, phosphorus – 0.1% - 0.2%

Introduction to Casting process

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 Casting is one of the easiest classes of process to understand. Casting is simply a
process where a mould is filled with a fluid, which then solidifies in the shape of the mould
cavity, provided the liquid is capable of undergoing a liquid-to-solid transition, by freezing or
chemical reaction for instance, then casting can be used. Making ice cubes and jellies are
useful analogies here. The production of the mould is one of the most important stages in
making a casting. The casting, when solidified, must be of the right shape for the final
product.

Complex 3D shapes can be made using casting processes. Casting can be used to make a vast
array of products, from gas-turbine blades to cheap plastic toys. Cast parts can range in size
from fractions of centimetres and grams (such as the individual teeth on a zipper), to over 10
metres in length and many tonnes (such as the propellers of ocean liners).

It is a matter of optimising materials to be cast, the mould material and the pouring method.
Generally, during casting, the fluid flows into the mould under gravity, but sometimes the
fluid may need some extra force to push it into the cavity.

Casting is not restricted to metals (or jellies). Glass and plastics can also be cast using a
variety of processes, each being dependent on the raw starting material, and the manner by
which it can be made to flow when it is in its liquid state.

Casting is used to produce ingots which are then used as the raw materials for forming
processes such as rolling or extrusion.

As an intermediate processing step, casting needs to be less carefully regulated (than other
processes to make engineering products), as the properties of the final product are controlled
by the forming processes which follow casting.

Casting processes vary depending on the type of solid to be produced and the type of fluid
used to fill the mould. The type of mould required depends on the material to be cast, and in
particular, on the temperature at which it is sufficiently viscous to flow into the mould. Metal
Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting means pouring molten
metal into a mould with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify.

When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mould either by breaking the
mould or taking the mould apart. The solidified object is called the casting.
By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity, frequently not obtainable by
any other manufacturing process. The mould, into which the metal is poured, is made of some
heat resisting material.

Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten metal. Permanent
moulds of metal can also be used to cast products.

Steps in Making Sand Castings

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 1. Patternmaking 2. Core making 3. Moulding 4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning
Pattern making: The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold. The
mould is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as moulding sand,
around the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mould cavity,
which is ultimately filled with metal to become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as
in the case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores, are used to form these
cavities.
Core making: Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to
form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void space between the core and mould-cavity
surface is what eventually becomes the casting.
Moulding: Moulding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving
molten metal. Moulding usually involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held
with a supporting frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the mould cavity, setting the cores
in the mould cavity and finishing and closing the mold.
Melting and Pouring : The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as
melting. Melting is usually done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the
molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where the moulds are filled.
Cleaning: Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and
excess metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improve the surface
appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and
gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality is performed.

Components Produced by Casting Process

Automotive sector - Nearly 90 % of the parts in automobiles are-manufactured by castings.

A few parts include brake drum, cylinder, cylinder linings, pistons, engine blocks, universal
joints, rocker arm, brackets etc.,
Aircraft - Turbine blades, casing etc.
Marine propeller blades.
Machine tools - Cutting tools, machine beds, wheels and pulleys, blocks and table for
supports etc.
Agriculture and rail road equipments, Pumps and compressors frame, bushings, rings,
pinion etc.
Valves, pipes and fittings for construction work, Parts in washing machine, refrigerators
and air-conditioners, Steel utensils etc.,

Advantages
1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made
by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and
welding, can be minimized or eliminated.
2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be
achieved.
4. The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a
result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.

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 5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this
way.
6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations
1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting
processes are a limited. Many new casting processes have been developed which can
be taken into consideration in the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
Some of these processes are die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-
sealed molding process, and shell molding process.

2. The metal casting process is a labour intensive process

Mould

Mold Section showing some casting terms

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by
various names such as drag – lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek –
intermediate molding flask used in three piece moulding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with
the help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the
mould.
4. Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or
gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface
of the mould cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to
create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten
metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the
mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.

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9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its
own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and gases.

Pattern
Pattern is the replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some
modifications. The main modifications are the addition of pattern allowances, and the
provision of core prints. If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are
used to create these cavities in the finished product. The quality of the casting produced
depends upon the material of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of the pattern
and the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting. The use of an expensive
pattern is justified when the quantity of castings required is substantial.

Functions of the Pattern

1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core
and need to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may form a
part of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting
defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Pattern Material
Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own
advantages, limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making patterns
are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. To
be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined

2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used pattern
material is wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped
and is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which
can cause distortion and dimensional changes. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood
is almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of wood as a pattern material.

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MOLDING SAND BINDERS
Binders produce cohesion between the molding sand grains in the green or dry state (or
condition).
Binders give strength to the molding sand so that it can retain its shape as mold cavity.
Binders (to the molding sands) should be added as optimal minimum.
Increasing binder content reduces permeability of molding sand.
Increasing binder content, increases green compression strength up to a limit; after which
green compression strength remains practically unchanged with further increase in binder
content.
Clay binders are most commonly used for bonding molding sands.
The best clay is one which imparts the optimum combination of bonding properties, moisture,
life and cost of producing the required casting.
• Clay binders are most commonly used for bonding molding sands.
• Clay binders can be classified as:
– Fire clay , Illite , Kaolinite
– Bentonite
• Sodium montmorillonite
• Calcium montmorillonite
• Bentonite:
– The most commonly used clay binders are Bentonites as they produce
strongest bonds in foundry molding sands.
– Bentonite deposits are available in India in Rajasthan and Bihar
– Bentonites are the weathered product of volcanic ash and are soft creamy
white powders.
• Fire Clay:
– Fire clay is a refractory clay usually found in the coal measures.
– Fire clay particles are about 400 times as large as compared to those of
Bentonite ; hence the same percentages of fire clay produce lower strengths.

• Illite
– Illite is the decomposition product of micaceous materials due to
weathering.

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 – Illite is found in natural molding sands.
– Illite has softening point of about 2500°F.
WATER
The amount of water may vary from 1.5 to 8%. Water is responsible for the bonding action of
clays. Water activates the clay in the sand and the clay-sand mixture develops strength and
plasticity.
Water added to the sand mixture, partly gets adsorbed by clay and partly remains free and is
known as Free Water. The absorbed water is responsible for developing proper bond and the
green strength.
The free water acts as a lubricant, It increases plasticity. It improves moldability, but it
reduces strength of the sand mixture.
• For a given type of clay and its amount, there is an optimum required water content.
• Too little water will not develop proper strength and plasticity.
• Too much water will result in excessive plasticity and dry strength.
The amount of water required to develop the optimum properties can be found out
experimentally.

ADDITIVES
The basic constituents of molding sand mixture are; Sand, binder and water.
Materials other than the basic ingredients are also added to molding sand mixtures, of course
in small quantities, in order to
– enhance the existing properties.
– To develop certain other properties.
– to give special qualities like resistance to sand expansion, defects etc.
Some of the additive materials along are given below.
• Facing materials:
– Facing materials tend to obtain smoother and cleaner surfaces of castings and
help easy peeling of sand from the casting surface during shake out.
– A few facing materials are -Sea coal, Graphite, Coke, Silica floor
Cushion materials :
Cushion materials burn when the molten metal is poured and thus give rise to space for
accommodating the expansion of silica sand at the surfaces of mold cavity.
In the absence of cushion materials, large flat surfaces of castings may buckle due to thermal
expansion of silica sand grains.
A few cushion materials are: Wood floor, Cellulose

Other special Additives :

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Finely ground corn floor, Iron oxide, Boric acid, diethylene glycol.

MOLD MATERIALS

• A mold material is one, out of which the mold is made.

• A mold material should be such that the mold cavity retains its shape till the molten
metal has solidified.
• Castings can be made in:
– Permanent molds—made of ferrous metals and alloys (steel, Grey C.I. etc.).
– Temporary refractory molds — made up of refractory sands and resins.
• Permanent molds are normally employed for casting low melting point materials.
Permanent molds are too costly.
• For the above mentioned reasons, most of the foundry industry has its castings
produced using refractory mold materials like Refractory Sands.
• As compared to permanent molds, the refractory sand molds can cast high melting
point materials and bigger objects, whereas permanent molds produce small castings
of better quality and dimensional accuracy.

TYPES OF BASE SAND

The primary and basic material used for preparing moulds is sand, due to its high
refractoriness.
Sand usually referred to as ‘base sand’. Nearly 90 - 95 % of the total moulding sand is
occupied by sand and the remaining is binder and additives.
Basic types of base sand are given below
Silica Sand, Chromite sand, Zircon, Olivine sand

Silica Sand
Silica sand is essentially silicon dioxide (Si02) found in nature on the bottoms and banks
of rivers, lakes and seashore. Silica deposits tend to have varying degree of organic and
contaminants like limestone, magnesia, soda and potash that must be removed prior to its use,
otherwise which affects castings in numerous ways.
Silica sand is available in plenty, less expensive and possess favorable properties.
Thermal expansion leads to certain casting defects; the reason for which not being used in
steel foundries. However, silica sand when mixed with certain additives like wood flour,
(corn flour), saw dust etc., defects can be eliminated.
These additives burn by the heat of the molten metal thereby creating voids that can
accommodate the sand expansion.

Olivine sand
Olivine sand is typically used in non-ferrous foundries.
With its thermal expansion about half of that of silica sand, makes it suitable for
production steel castings . But the high cost restricts its wide use.

Chromite sand
This is African sand with cost being much higher compared to other sands.
Due to its superior thermal characteristics, it is generally used in steel foundries for both
mould and core making.
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Zircon or Zirconium silicate
This sand possesses most stable thermal properties of all the above sands.
The choice for this type of sand arises when very high temperatures are encountered and
refractoriness becomes a consideration.
But the major disadvantage is that, zircon has trace elements of Uranium and Thorium
which is hazardous in nature thereby restricting its use in foundries.

Molding Material and Properties

A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and
cores. They include molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand,
and core sand. The choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties. The
properties that are generally required in molding materials are:

Refractoriness
It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be
poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is
highest.

Permeability
During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam
is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air
absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these
gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting
and cause casting defects. To overcome this problem the molding material must be porous.
Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are generated inside the mold
cavity.

Green Strength
The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles
must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The
green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.

Dry Strength
When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly
converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten
metal. At this stage the molding sand must posseses the sufficient strength to retain the exact
shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the metallostatic
pressure of the liquid material.

Hot Strength
As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the
metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the
shape of the cavity is called hot strength.

Collapsibility
The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the
solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the

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castings. Besides these specific properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable and
should have good thermal conductivity.

Molding Sand Composition

The main ingredients of any molding sand are:
 Base sand,
 Binder, and
 Moisture

Base Sand
Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also used for making
mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest among all
types of base sand and it is easily available.

Binder : Binders are of many types such as:

1. Clay binders,
2. Organic binders and
3. Inorganic binders

Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to
provide the strength. The most popular clay types are:
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.

Moisture
Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of moisture.
When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the
surface of each flake of the clay. The amount of water used should be properly controlled.
This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in
bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity. A typical composition of
molding sand is given in (Table 1).

Table 1 : A Typical Composition of Molding Sand

Molding Sand Constituent Weight Percent

Silica sand 92
Clay (Sodium Bentonite) 6
Water 2

MOULDING SAND MIXTURE- INGREDIENTS FOR DIFFERENT SAND

MIXTURES
• A moulding sand is a mixture of base sand, binder and additives.
• ingredients of
– green sand
– no-bake sand mixture
– dry sand mixture
• Green sand mixture is composed of base sand, binder, moisture and additives.

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 • Base sand
– Silica sand is used as the base sand.
– It possesses favorable properties, inexpensive and can be reused many
number of times.
– The amount of silica sand added may vary from 85 - 92 % depending on the
requirements.
• Binder
– Bentonite (clay binder) is the widely used binder for bonding sand particles.
– It is activated in the presence of water.
– A best bond between the sand particles can be obtained with Bentonite
varying from 6 - 12 % and water 3 - 5 %.
• Additives
– Additives are added in small quantities to develop certain new properties, or to
enhance the existing properties of moulding sand.
Sea coal, silica flour, wood flour and iron oxide are a few commonly used additives.
Ingredients for No-bake sand mixture
• Ingredients of 'alkyd binder system' which is one of the most widely used binder
system in Indian foundries is discussed below.
• Base sand
– Silica sand is used as the base sand.
• Binder
– The alkyd binder system consists of three parts: Part A (binder), Part B
(hardener) and Part C (catalyst).
• Part A (Binder):
– The binder is an alkyd resin which is obtained by reacting linseed oil with a
polybasic acid like isopthalic and solvents like turpentine, kerosene or
mineral spirit to improve flowability.
– Its addition ranges from 2 - 5 % based on weight of sand.

• Part B (Hardener):
– The hardener is a reacted product between cobalt/lead salts and napthanic
acid.
– Its addition ranges from 5 - 10 % based on weight of binder.
• Part C (Catalyst):
– Methylene-diphenyl-Di-isocyanate commonly known as MDI is used as
catalyst to speed up the chemical reaction.
Its addition ranges from 20- 25 % based on weight of binder.
Ingredients for Dry Sand Mixture
• Ingredients for dry sand mixture are similar to that of green sand.

Loam sand ingredients

• Loam sand contains much more clay as compared to ordinary molding sand. The
clay content is of the order of 50% or so.
• The ingredients of loam sand may be fine sands, finely ground refractories, clays,
graphite and fibrous reinforcement.
• A typical loam sand mixture contains silica sand 20 volumes, clay 5 vols, and
moisture 20%.
• Molds for casting large bells etc., are made up of brick framework and lined with
loam sand and dried.

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TYPES OF SAND MOULDS
Moulds prepared with sand are called 'sand moulds or 'temporary moulds', as they are broken
for removing the casting.

The different types of sand moulds are:

– Green sand mould
– Dry sand mould and
– No-bake sand mould

Green sand mould

The word ‘green‘signifies that the moulding sand is in the moist state at the time of metal
pouring.
The main ingredients of green sand are silica sand, clay and moisture (water).
Additives may be added in small amounts to obtain desired properties of mould/casting.
Nearly 60 % of the total castings are prepared from green sand moulds.
Advantages of green sand moulds
 Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
 Suitable for mass production, Least expensive
 Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture
Disadvantages
 Moulds/cores prepared by this process lack in permeability, strength and stability.
 They give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes etc., because of low
permeability and lot of steam formation due to their moisture content.
 Moulds/cores cannot be stored for appreciable length of time.
 Not suitable for very large size castings.
 Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings produced are not satisfactory.
 Difficult to cast thin and intricate shapes.
 Mould erosion which is common in green sand moulds is another disadvantage.
Dry sand mould
• The word 'dry' signifies that the mould is dry or free from moisture at the time of
metal pouring.
• The absence of moisture makes dry sand moulds to overcome most of the
disadvantages of green sand moulds.
• A dry sand mould is prepared in the same manner as that of green sand mould, i.e.,
by mixing silica sand, clay and water.
• The entire mould/core is dried (baked) in ovens to remove the moisture present in
them.
• Baking hardens the binder thereby increasing the strength of moulds/cores.

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• The temperature and duration of baking ranges from 200 - 450°F and from a few
minutes to hours respectively depending on the type of metal being poured and size
of the casting.

Advantages
• Strength and stability of moulds is high when compared to green sand moulds.
• Baking removes moisture and hence, defects related to moisture are eliminated.
• Better surface finish and dimensional tolerance of castings.
Disadvantages
• Consumes more time, labor and cost due to baking process. Hence, not suitable for
mass production.
• Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult to bake.
• Capital cost of bake ovens.
• Under baked or over baked moulds/cores is another disadvantage.

No-Bake sand moulds

• A no-bake or self-setting sand mould is one that does not require baking.
• The main ingredients of no-bake sand are silica sand, binder (resin type), hardener
and a catalyst or accelerator (if necessary).
• The bonding strength developed in moulds/cores is by means of a self-setting
chemical reaction between the binder and the hardener.
• In some cases, a catalyst or an accelerator is added to speed up the chemical
reaction.
Advantages
• Higher strength - about 50 to 100 times that of green sand moulds.
• Patterns can be stripped within a few minutes after ramming which is not possible
in both green and dry sand moulds.
• Moulds/cores can be stored for longer periods.
• Highly simplified moulding. Hence, reduced need for skilled labour.
• Better dimensional accuracy and stability.
• Improved casting quality with increased freedom from defects.
• Surface finish is excellent. In many cases, castings can be used in as-cast condition
without machining.
Disadvantages
• Use of resins and catalysts causes lot of environmental problems both within (i.e.,
during mixing and pouring) and outside (dumped sand) the foundries.
• Resins and catalysts are expensive.
• Unsafe to human operators.
• Due to high strength and hardness of moulds/cores, sand reuse is a slightly difficult
process.
Skin-dried molds
• Sands used for making skin dried molds contain certain binders like linseed oil which
harden when heated.
• The mold is made with the molding sand in the green condition and then the skin of
the mold cavity is dried with the help of gas torches or radiant heating lamps.
• Unlike dry mold, a skin dried mold is dried only up to a depth varying from 6 mm to
25 mm.
• A skin-dried mold possesses strength and other characteristics in between green and
dry sand molds.

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 • If a skin-dried mold is not poured immediately after drying, moisture from green
backing sand may penetrate the dried skin and make the same ineffective.

CORES: Introduction
• Core is an obstruction-which when positioned in the mold, naturally does not permit
the molten metal to fill up the space occupied by the core. In this way a core produces
hollow castings.
• Cores are required to create the recesses, undercuts and interior cavities that are often
a part of castings.
• A core may be defined as a sand shape or form which makes the contour of a casting
for which no provision has been made in the pattern for molding.
• core as a sand shape is generally produced separate from the sand mold and is then
baked (hardened) to facilitate handling and setting into the mold.
• Cores may be made up of sand, metal, plaster or ceramics.

Different Functions (Purposes) of Cores

• For hollow castings, cores provide the means of forming the main internal cavities.
• Cores may provide external undercut features
• Cores may be employed to improve the mold surface
• Cores may be inserted to achieve deep recesses in the castings.
• Cores may be used to strengthen the molds
• Cores may be used to form the gating system of large size molds.

Concept of Gating and riser:

Principle :
– The term gating system refers to all passageways through which the molten metal
passes to enter the mold cavity. The gating system is composed of Pouring cups and
basins, Sprue, Runner, Gates, Risers.

–
Components of the gating system.

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 • Since the way in which liquid metal enters the mold has a decided influence upon the
quality and soundness of a casting, the different passages for the molten metal are
carefully designed and produced.
• A gating system should avoid sudden or right angle changes in direction.
• Sudden change in direction causes mold erosion, turbulence and gas pick-up.
If possible the gating system should form a part of the pattern.

REQUIREMENTS, PURPOSES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE GATING SYSTEM

• A Gating system should,
– fill the mold cavity completely before freezing;
– introduce the liquid metal into the mold cavity with low velocity and little
turbulence, so that mold erosion, metal oxidation and gas pickup is prevented;
– incorporate traps for the separation of non metallic inclusions which are either
introduced with the molten metal or are dislodged in the gating system;
– regulate the rate at which liquid metal enters into the mold;
– be practicable and economical to make and;
consume least metal. In other words, the metal solidified in sprue, runner, gates and risers
should be minimum because gates, risers etc., are removed from the final casting; the gating
system should provide for the maximum yield.

GATES
Characteristics
• A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mold cavity and through which
molten metal flows to fill the mold cavity.
• A gate should feed liquid metal to the casting at a rate consistent with the rate of
solidification.
• The size of the gate depends upon the rate of solidification.
• A small gate is used for a casting which solidifies slowly and vice-versa.
• More than one gates may be used to feed a fast freezing casting.
• A gate should not have sharp edges as they (i.e., edges) may break during pouring and
(sand pieces) thus be carried with the molten metal into the mold cavity..
• Moreover, sharp edges may cause localized delay in freezing, thus resulting in the
formation of voids and inclusions in the cast objects.
• A gate may be built as a part of the pattern or it may be cut in the mold with the help
of a gate cutter.
•

PRINCIPLES OF RISERING
Definition
• A riser or a feeder head is a passage of sand made in the cope (mold) during ramming
the cope.
• The molten metal rises in the feeder head after the mold cavity is filled up.
• This metal in the feeder head (or riser) compensates the shrinkage as the casting
solidifies.

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 Riser

Functions of Riser

• Metals and their alloys shrink as they cool and solidify. It creates a partial vacuum
within the casting. Partial vacuum leads to a shrinkage void. This shrinkage void will
grow and form shrinkage cavity if extra liquid metal from outside the mold (cavity) is
not supplied.
• The primary function of the riser (attached with the mold) is to feed metal to the
solidifying casting so that shrinkage cavities are get rid of.
• A riser permits the escape of air and mold gases as the mold cavity is being filled with
the molten metal.
• A riser full of molten metal indicates that the mold cavity has already been completely
filled up with the same.
• A casting solidifying under the liquid metal pressure of the riser is comparatively
sound.
• Risers promote directional solidification.

Fettling & Cleaning of Castings

• Fettling is the name given to cover all those operations which help giving the casting
a good appearance after the same has been shaken out of the sand mold.
• Fettling includes
1. Removal of cores from the casting.
2. Removal of adhering sand and oxide scale from the casting surface (surface
cleaning).
3. Removal of gates, risers, runners etc. from the casting.
4. Removal of fins, and other unwanted projections from the castings.

1. Removal of Cores
• It may be difficult to remove dry sand and hardened cores in the absence of suitable
equipment.
• Hammering or vibrations imparted to cores does loosen and break them up.
• Sand portions sticking inside the castings are removed by poking action using a metal
rod.
• Cores from larger castings may be removed effectively by pneumatic rapping and
hydro blasting.

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2. Cleaning of Casting Surfaces
• The outside and inside surfaces of castings are cleaned of adhering refractory (sand)
particles and oxide scale and they (i.e., surfaces) look smooth and pleasing.
• The extent of surface cleaning required depends upon the metal/ alloy of the casting
and size of the casting.
• Steel castings (because of their high melting and pouring temperatures and
consequent burning of the sand in contact with the molten metal) require considerable
more cleaning than those of iron and brass.
• Aluminium castings are virtually free from burned-on sand.
• Since heavy castings suffer more than light castings from the burning-on of sand, their
cleaning is more difficult.
• Sand may be removed from the surfaces of castings using hand methods or
mechanical equipment

3. Removal of gates and risers

• Numerous methods are available for removing feeding and gating systems.
• The choice of a particular method depends upon the type of metal/alloy,
— size of the casting,
— size of runners, gates and risers.
• A few commonly used methods are given below:
1. Chipping hammers
2. Flogging (knocking off).
3. Shearing.
4. Sawing
5. Abrasive wheel slitting
6. Machining.
7. Flame cutting.

4. REMOVAL OF FINS AND OTHER UNWANTED PROJECTIONS FROM

CASTINGS
Castings are trimmed to remove fins, chaplets, wires, parting line and the stumps of feeder
heads and ingates. All these unwanted projections are dressed flush with the surface.
The methods employed to remove unwanted projections from the castings are
1. Chipping
2. Sawing
3. Flame cutting
4. Flame gouging and flame scarfing.
5. Grinding
6. Abrasive belt machining
7. Rotary tools cutting
8. Trimming and sizing.

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CASTING DEFECTS
• Casting process involves a number of variables and a loss of control in any of these
variables can cause defects under certain circumstances.
• Some of the common casting defects, their features and remedies to prevent such
defects are discussed below.

1. Shrinkage defect

• Shrinkage is a void on the surface of the castings resulting from concentrated

contraction or shrinkage of metal during solidification.Refer figure.
• Although a riser is used to over come the shrinkage effect, in some cases it fails to
feed the molten metal efficiently to the casting as it solidifies.
Remedies
• Use large sprue and riser to promote directional solidification.
• Locate risers and gating systems in correct positions.
• Gates to be cut as wide as possible.
2. Porosity defect (Blow hole and Pin hole)

• Molten metal absorb gases from various sources such as fluxes, moisture in sand,
binders, additives and normal atmospheric gases like oxygen and nitrogen.
• If these gases are not allowed to escape, they get entrapped in the mould cavity
forming small balloon shaped voids or cavities leading to porosity defect in castings.
• Two types of gas related defects occur in castings. They are:
– blow hole
– pin hole defect.
• Blow holes occur below the surface of the castings and are not visible from the
outside surface.
• Pin holes are small gas cavities, many in number at or slightly below the surface of
the casting.
Remedies
• Avoid excess ramming of mould.

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 • Provide proper vent holes.
• Avoid use of excess carbonaceous or other organic material in the sand/core binders,
because these materials react with the molten metal producing large amount of gases.

3. Misrun

• Misrun occur when the mould cavity is not completely filled with molten metal.
• it is a defect wherein a casting solidifies before the molten metal completely fills the
cavity.
Remedies
• Fluidity of metal should be high.
• Pouring rate and time should be controlled.
• Thin sections should be suitable designed.

4. Penetration

• When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into the sand mould/core (into
the voids between the sand particles) causing a fused aggregate of metal and sand on
the surface of the casting leading to defect.
Remedies
• Sand should be properly rammed. .. .
• Moulding sand/core sand should not be too coarse to promote metal penetration.
• Control proper metal temperature.

Page 22 of 40
5. Mould shift

• It is a step in the cast product at the parting line caused by sidewise relative
displacement of cope and drag box.
Remedies
• Proper alignment of cope and drag box.
• Proper handling of assembled cope and drag box during operations.

6. Cold shut

• Two portions of metal flow together, but lack of fusion due to premature freezing
results in a defect known as cold shut.
Remedies
• Place gates and risers at proper locations.
• Metal fluidity should be high.

7. Hot tears

• A hot tear is an internal or external ragged discontinuity formed in the casting due to
the pulling action of the metal just after it has solidified.
Remedies
• Provide adequate fillets at sharp corners.
• Proper metallurgical and pouring temperature.
• Place gates and risers at proper locations.

Page 23 of 40
Casting processes can be classified into following FOUR categories:

1. Conventional Molding Processes

a. Green Sand Molding
b. Dry Sand Molding
c. Flask less Molding

2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes

a. Shell Molding
b. Sodium Silicate Molding
c. No-Bake Molding

3. Permanent Mold Processes

a. Gravity Die casting

b. Low and High Pressure Die Casting

4. Special Casting Processes

a. Lost Wax
b. Ceramics Shell Molding
c. Evaporative Pattern Casting
d. Vacuum Sealed Molding
e. Centrifugal Casting

A. Sand moulds
 Green sand mould
 Dry sand mould
 Core sand mould
 Carbon dioxide mould (CO2 mould)
 Shell mould
 Investment mould
 Sweep mould
 Full mould

B. Metal moulds
1. Gravity die casting or Permanent mould casting
2. Pressure die casting
3. Continuous casting
4. Centrifugal casting
5. Squeeze casting
6. Thixocasting process

Page 24 of 40
 1. GREEN SAND MOULDS

GREEN SAND MOULDS

Procedure involved in making green sand moulds
• Suitable proportions of silica sand (85 - 92 %), bentonite binder (6-12 %), water (3-5
%) and additives are mixed together to prepare the green sand mixture.
• The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it as shown in
figure (a). Parting sand is sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid green sand mixture
sticking to the pattern.
• The drag box is filled with green sand mixture and rammed manually till its top
surface. Refer figure (b). The drag box is now inverted so that the pattern faces the top
as shown in figure (c). Parting sand is sprinkled over the mould surface of the drag
box.
• The cope box is placed on top of the drag box and the sprue and riser pin are placed in
suitable locations. The green sand mixture is rammed to the level of cope box as
shown in figure (d).

Page 25 of 40
• The sprue and the riser are removed from the mould. The cope box is lifted and
placed aside, and the pattern in the drag box is withdrawn by knocking it carefully so
as to avoid damage to the mould. Gates are cut using hand tools to provide passage
for the flow of molten metal. Refer figure (e) and (f).
• The mould cavity is cleaned and finished. Cores, if any, are placed in the mould to
obtain a hollow cavity in the casting. Refer figure (g).
• The cope is now placed on the drag box and both are aligned with the help of pins.
Vent holes are made to allow the free escape of gases from the mould during pouring.
The mould is made ready for pouring. Refer figure (h).
Advantages
– Dry sand molds possess high strength.
– They are more permeable as compared to green sand molds.
– Castings produced from dry sand molds possess clean and smooth surfaces.
– As compared to green sand molding, dry sand molding turns out castings with
less defects.
– Dry sand molding imparts better overall dimensional accuracy to the molds
and castings as compared to green sand molding.
Disadvantages
– Dry sand molding involves more labour and consumes more time in
completing the mold. Mold baking is an extra work as compared to that
required in green sand molding.
– Dry sand molding is more expensive as compared to green sand molding.
– Dry sand molding involves chances of hot tears occurring in the castings.
– Because of baking, a mold may distort.
– Dry sand molding involves a longer processing cycle as compared to green
sand molding.
– Dry sand molding gives a slower rate of production as compared to green sand
molding.

Page 26 of 40
 2. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) MOULDING

Carbon dioxide moulding also known as sodium silicate process is one of the
widely used process for preparing moulds and cores.

In this process, sodium silicate is used as the binder. But sodium silicate activates
or tends to bind the sand particles only in the presence of carbon dioxide gas. For
this reason, the process is commonly known as CO2 process.

Steps involved in making carbon dioxide mould

• Suitable proportions of silica sand and sodium silicate binder (3-5% based on sand
weight) are mixed together to prepare the sand mixture.

• Additives like aluminum oxide, molasses etc., are added to impart favorable
properties and to improve collapsibility of the sand.

• The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it. Parting sand is
sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid sand mixture sticking to the pattern.

• The drag box is filled with the sand mixture and rammed manually till its top surface.
Rest of the operations like placing sprue and riser pin and ramming the cope box are
similar to that of green sand moulding process.

• Figure (a) shows the assembled cope and drag box with vent holes. At this stage, the
carbon dioxide gas is passed through the vent holes for a few seconds. Refer figure
(b).

• Sodium silicate reacts with carbon dioxide gas to form silica gel that binds the sand
particles together. The chemical reaction is given by:

Na2SiO3 + CO2 -----> Na2CO3 + SiO2

(Sodium Silicate) (sodium carbonate) + (silica gel)

Page 27 of 40
• The sprue, riser and the pattern are withdrawn from the mould, and gates are cut in the
usual manner. The mould cavity is finished and made ready for pouring. Refer figure
(c).

Advantages
• Instantaneous strength development. The development of strength takes place
immediately after carbon dioxide gassing is completed.
• Since the process uses relatively safe carbon dioxide gas, it does not present sand
disposal problems or any odour while mixing and pouring. Hence, the process is safe
to human operators.
• Very little gas evolution during pouring of molten metal.
Disadvantages
• Poor collapsibility of moulds is a major disadvantage of this process. Although some
additives are used to improve this property for ferrous metal castings, these additives
cannot be used for non-ferrous applications.
• The sand mixture has the tendency to stick to the pattern and has relatively poor
flowability.
• There is a significant loss in the strength and hardness of moulds which have been
stored for extended periods of time.
• Over gassing and under gassing adversely affects the properties of cured sand.

SHELL MOULDING
SHELL MOULDING steps involved

Page 28 of 40
 • Shell moulding is an efficient and economical method for producing steel castings.
• The process was developed by Herr Croning in Germany during World war-II and is
sometimes referred to as the Croning shell process.

Procedure involved in making shell mould

a..A metallic pattern having the shape of the desired casting is made in one half from carbon
steel material. Pouring element is provided in the pattern itself. Refer figure (a).
b. The metallic pattern is heated in an oven to a suitable temperature between 180 -
250°C. The pattern is taken out from the oven and sprayed with a solution of a
lubricating agent viz., silicon oil or spirit to prevent the shell (formed in later stages)
from sticking to the pattern.
c. The pattern is inverted and is placed over a box as shown in figure (b). The box
contains a mixture of dry silica sand or zircon sand and a resin binder (5% based on
sand weight).
d. The box is now inverted so that the resin-sand mixture falls on the heated face of the
metallic pattern. The resin-sand mixture gets heated up, softens and sticks to the
surface of the pattern. Refer figure (c).
e. After a few seconds, the box is again inverted to its initial position so that the lose
resin-sand mixture falls down leaving behind a thin layer of shell on the pattern face.
Refer figure (d).
f. The pattern along with the shell is removed from the box and placed in an oven for a
few minutes which further hardens the shell and makes it rigid. The shell is then
stripped from the pattern with the help of ejector pins that are provided on the pattern.
Refer figure (e).
g. Another shell half is prepared in the similar manner and both the shells are assembled,
together with the help of bolts, clips or glues to form a mould. The assembled part is
then placed in a box with suitable backing sand to receive the molten metal. Refer
figure (f).
h. After the casting solidifies, it is removed from the mould, cleaned and finished to
obtain the desired shape.
Advantages
 Better surface finish and dimensional tolerances.
 Reduced machining.
 Requires less foundry space.
 Semi-skilled operators can handle the process easily.
 Shells can be stored for extended periods of time.
Disadvantages
 Initially the metallic pattern has to be cast to the desired shape, size and finish.

Page 29 of 40
  Size and weight range of castings is limited.
 Process generates noxious fumes.

INVESTMENT MOULD
Investment mould also called as 'Precision casting' or 'Lost wax process' is an ancient
method of casting complex shapes like impellers, turbine blades and other airplane parts
that are difficult to produce by other manufacturing techniques.
The various steps involved in this process are:
Step 1 Die and Pattern making

• A wax pattern is prepared by injecting liquid wax into a pre-fabricated die having the
same geometry of the cavity of the desired cast part. Refer figure.1.
Several such patterns are produced in the similar manner and then attached to a wax
gate and sprue by means of heated tools or melted wax to form a 'tree' as shown in
figure 2.

Step 2 Pre-coating wax patterns

• The tree is coated by dipping into refractory slurry which is a mixture of finely
ground silica flour suspended in ethyl silicate solution (binder).
• The coated tree is sprinkled with silica sand and allowed to dry. Refer figure 3 and 4.
Step 3 Investment
• The pre-coated tree is coated again (referred as 'investment') by dipping in a more
viscous slurry made of refractory flour (fused silica, alumina etc.) and liquid binders
(colloidal silica, sodium silicate etc.) and dusted with refractory sand.
• The process of dipping and dusting is repeated until a solid shell of desired thickness
(about 6 - 10 mm) is achieved.
Note: The first coating is composed of very fine particles that produce a good
surface finish, whereas the second coating which is referred as 'Investment' is
coarser so as to build up the shell of desired thickness.

Page 30 of 40
 Step 4 De-waxing
• The tree is placed in an inverted position and heated in a oven to about 300°F. The
wax melts and drops down leaving a mould cavity that will be filled later by the
molten metal. Refer figure 5.
Step 5 Reheating the mould
• The mould is heated to about 1000 - 2000°F (550-1100°C) to remove any residues of
wax and at the same time to harden the binder.
Step 6 Melting and Pouring
• The mould is placed in a flask supported with a backing material and the liquid metal
of the desired composition is poured under gravity or by using air pressure depending
on the requirement. Refer figure.6.
• After the metal cools and solidifies, the investment is broken by using chisels or
hammer and then the casting is cut from the gating systems, cleaned and finished.
Refer figure.7
Advantages
• Gives good surface finish and dimensional tolerances to castings
• Eliminates machining of cast parts.
• Wax can be reused.
Disadvantages
• Process is expensive.
• Size and weight range of castings is limited
• In some cases, it is difficult to separate the refractory (investment) from the casting.
• Requires more processing steps.

Page 31 of 40
 Permanent Mold Casting

GRAVITY DIE CASTING

Page 32 of 40
• Gravity die casting or permanent mould casting is a casting process in which the
molten metal is poured into a metallic mould called die under the influence of gravity.
Hence the name 'gravity die casting'.
• The mould or die is usually made from cast iron, tool steel, graphite, copper or
aluminum alloys and the choice for a particular material depends on the type of metal
to be cast.
• Gating and risering systems are machined either in one or both the mould halves.
• Figure shows a permanent mould made in two halves which resembles a book. The
mould halves are hinged and can be clamped together to close the mould.
Steps involved in the process
• The mould is cleaned using wire brush or compressed air to remove dust and other
particles from it.
• It is preheated to a temperature of 200 - 280°C by gas or oil flame and then the
surface is sprayed with a lubricant.
• The lubricant helps to control the temperature of the die thereby increasing its life and
also assist in easy removal of solidified casting.
• The mould is closed tightly and the liquid metal of the desired composition is poured
into the mould under gravity.
• After the metal cools and solidifies, the mould is opened and the casting is removed.
Gating and risering systems are separated from the cast part.
• The mould is sprayed with lubricant and closed for next casting. The mould need not
be preheated since the heat in the previous cast is sufficient to maintain the
temperature.
Advantages
• Good surface finish and close dimensional tolerances can be achieved.
• Suitable for mass production.
• Occupies less floor space.
• Thin sections can be easily cast.
• Eliminates skilled operators.
Disadvantages
• Initial cost for manufacturing moulds (dies) is high.
• Not suitable for steel and high melting point metals/alloys.
• Un-economical for small productions.

PRESSURE DIE CASTING

• Pressure die casting often called 'Die casting' is a casting process in which the molten
metal is injected into a 'die' under high pressures.
• The metal being cast must have a low melting point than the die material which is
usually made from steel and other alloys.
• Hence, this process is best suitable for casting non-ferrous materials, although a few
ferrous materials can be cast.
• The two basic methods of die casting include:
a) Hot chamber die casting process
b) Cold chamber die casting process.

Page 33 of 40
Hot chamber die casting process
• Figure shows a 'goose neck' type of hot chamber die casting machine.
• In this process, the dies are made in two halves: one half called the fixed die or
'stationary die’ while the other half called 'movable die’.
• The dies are aligned in positions by means of ejector pins which also help to eject the
solidified casting from the dies.
•

Figure: Hot chamber die casting (Goose neck or air injection type)
Steps involved in the process
• A pivoted cast iron goose neck is submerged in a reservoir of molten metal where the
metal enters and fills the goose neck by gravity.
• The goose neck is raised with the help of a link and then the neck part is positioned in
the sprue of the fixed part of the die.
• Compressed air is then blown from the top which forces the liquid metal into the die
cavity.
• When the solidification is about to complete, the supply of compressed air is stopped
and the goose neck is lowered back to receive the molten metal for the next cycle. In
the meantime, the movable die half opens by means of ejector pins forcing the casting
from the die cavity.

Cold chamber Die Casting Process

In hot chamber process, the charging unit (goose neck) rests in the melting chamber,
whereas in cold chamber process, the melting chamber is separate and the molten metal is
charged into the machine by means of ladles.
• Cold chamber process is employed for casting materials that are not possible by the
hot chamber process.
• For example, aluminum alloys react with the steel structure of the hot chamber
machine and as a result there is a considerable iron pick-up by aluminum.
• This does not happen in cold chamber process, as the molten metal has a momentary
contact with the structure of the machine.
• Figure shows the cold chamber die casting machine
• The machine consists of a die, made in two halves: one half called the 'fixed die' or
'stationary die’ while the other half called 'movable die’.
The dies are aligned in positions by means of ejector pins which also help to eject the
solidified casting from the dies.

Page 34 of 40
 Steps involved in the process
• A cylindrical shaped chamber called 'cold chamber' (so called because, it is not a part
of melting or charging unit unlike in hot chamber process) is fitted with a freely
moving piston and is operated by means of hydraulic pressure.
• A measured quantity of molten metal is poured into the cold chamber by means of
ladles.
• The plunger of the piston is activated and progresses rapidly forcing the molten metal
into the die cavity. The pressure is maintained during the solidification process.
• After the metal cools and solidifies, the plunger moves backward and the movable die
half opens by means of ejector pins forcing the casting from the die cavity.
• The cold chamber process is slightly slower when compared to the hot chamber
process.

Fig: cold chamber die casting machine

Advantages of Die casting process

• Process is economical for large production quantities.
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
• Thin sections can be easily cast.
• Near net shape can be achieved.
Disadvantages
• High cost of dies and equipment.
• Not economical for small production quantities.
• Process not preferable for ferrous metals.
• Part geometry must allow easy removal from die cavity

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CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• Centrifugal casting is a process in which the molten metal is poured and allowed to
solidify in a revolving mould.
• The centrifugal force due to the revolving mould holds the molten metal against the
mould wall until it solidifies.
• The material used for preparing moulds may be cast iron, steel, sand or graphite (for
non-ferrous castings).
• The process is used for making castings of hollow cylindrical shapes.
• The various centrifugal casting techniques include:
a) True centrifugal casting
b) Semi-centrifugal casting and (c) Centrifuge casting.

True Centrifugal casting

• True centrifugal casting is used to produce parts that are symmetrical about the axis
like that of pipes, tubes, bushings, liners and rings.
• The outside shape of the casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal etc., but the
inside shape is perfectly (theoretically) round due to radially symmetric forces.
• This eliminates the need for cores for producing hollow castings.
• Figure shows the true centrifugal process.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Steps involved in the process

1. The mould of the desired shape is prepared with metal and the walls are coated
with a refractory ceramic coating.
2. The mould is rotated about its axis at high speeds in the range of 300 - 3000
rpm. A measured quantity of molten metal is poured into the rotating mould.
3. The centrifugal force of the rotating mould throws the liquid metal towards the
mould wall and holds the molten metal until it solidifies.
4. The casting cools and solidifies from its outer surface towards the axis of
rotation of the mould thereby promoting directional solidification.
5. The thickness of the casting obtained can be controlled by the amount of
liquid metal being poured.
• An inherent quality of true centrifugal castings is based on the fact that, the non-
metallic impurities in castings being less dense than the metal, are forced towards the
inner surface (towards the axis) of the casting due to the centrifugal forces. These
impurities can be machined later by a suitable machining process (say boring
operation).

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• The mould may be rotated horizontally or vertically.
• When the mould is rotated about horizontal axis, a true cylindrical inside surface is
produced; if rotated on a vertical axis, parabolic inside surface is produced.
• Cores and gating/risering systems are not required for this process.

Semi-centrifugal casting:
• Semi-centrifugal casting process is used to produce solid castings and hence, requires
a core to produce hollow cavities.
• The process is used only for symmetrically shaped objects and the axis of rotation of
the mould is always vertical.
• Gear blanks, sheaves, wheels and pulley are the commonly produced parts by this
process.
• Figure shows the process to produce a wheel shaped casting.
•

•
Semi-centrifugal casting process
Steps involved in the process
• The mould is prepared in the usual manner using cope and drag box.
• The mould cavity is prepared with its central axis being vertical and concentric with
the axis of rotation.
• The core is placed in position and the mould is rotated at suitable speeds, usually less
than true centrifugal casting process.
• The centrifugal force produced due to the rotation of the mould causes the molten
metal to fill the cavity to produce the desired shape.

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Centrifuging Process
• In true and semi centrifugal process, the axis of the mould/cavity coincide with the
axis of rotation.
• Where as in centrifuging process, the axis of the mould cavity does not coincide with
the axis of rotation.
• The mould is designed with part cavities located away from the axis of rotation.
• Hence, this process is suitable for non-symmetrical castings.
• Figure shows the centrifuging process.
Steps involved in the process
1. Several mould cavities are arranged in a circle and connected to a central down sprue
through gates.
2. The axis of the down sprue is common to the axis of rotation of the mould.
3. As the mould is rotated, the liquid metal is poured down the sprue which feeds the
metal into the mould cavity under centrifugal force.
4. The rotational speed depends on a number of factors such as, the moulding medium
(sand, metal or ceramic), size of the casting, type of metal being poured and the
distance of the cavity from the central axis (sprue axis).
5. Centrifuging is done only about a vertical axis.

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 CONTINUOUS CASTING
• Continuous casting is a casting process in which the operation of pouring,
solidification and withdrawal of casting from an open mould are carried out
continuously.
• Figure shows a schematic of the process.

Schematic representation Of Continuous Casting process

Steps involved in the process

1. The molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle to the intermediate ladle
called 'tundish' from where it is continuously poured into the mould at a controllable
rate, keeping the level at a constant position.
2. The mould usually made of copper or graphite is open at the bottom and is water
cooled so as to extract the heat of the metal causing its solidification. The shape of the
mould corresponds to the shape of the desired casting.
3. The process is started by placing a dummy bar at the bottom of the mould upon which
the first liquid metal falls.
4. The molten metal from the tundish enters the mould and takes the shape of the mould.
The water cooled mould controls the cooling rate of the metal, so that it solidifies
before it leaves the mould.
5. The metal after coming out of the mould is further cooled by direct water spray (or
water with air) to complete solidification.

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6. The solidified metal is continuously extracted (along with the dummy bar) by 'pinch
rolls', bent and fed horizontally and finally cut to the desired length.
7. The dummy bar is initially placed at the bottom of the mould to receive the first liquid
metal (since the bottom of the mould is open). It is later disconnected from the
casting.

Advantages
• Sprue, runner, riser etc., are not used. Hence, no waste metal. This leads to 100 %
casting yield*.
• Capable of producing in single operation, rods, sections and tubes with varying sizes
and wall thickness.
• Process is automatic.
• Product has good consistent soundness.
• Mechanical properties are high

Disadvantages
• Not suitable for small quantity production.
• Continuous and efficient cooling of moulds is required, else, center-line shrinkage
develops.
• Requires large floor space.

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