Developments in art and architecture between 4th and 8th centuries CE

Art and literature both reveal parallels in their ideals of beauty, displaying a fine balance
between the sensual and spiritual. While appreciating the artistic production of these centuries,
we can, at the same time, question whether it indeed represents 'the best' of Indian literature,
sculpture, and architecture—which is implied in the use of the term 'classical age'—or whether
it marks one of several epochs that saw impressive developments in artistic creativity.
J. C. Harle ([1986], 1990: 89) points to the remarkable degree of uniformity in temples, stone
sculpture, and terracotta art all over the Gupta empire. From the point of view of the history of
art, he suggests ([1974], 1996: 6) that the period can be further divided into three phases—the
early Gupta period, which in some regions extended into the 5th century C E ; the Gupta period
proper; and the late Gupta period, which may be said to have begun as early as the 2nd quarter
of the 5th century in western India, but significantly later in the east.
The early Gupta phase has been described by Hermann Goetz (1963) as a succesful combination
of the paradoxes of earthiness and daintiness, strength and elegance, the sublime and the
grotesque. These features were fused into a graceful and harmonious style in the Gupta period
proper. In the late Gupta period, the representation of the hu¬man body became more slender
and the poses of the figures more stylized.
Joanna Williams (1982: 3-4) suggests that the Guptas may have been responsible more for the
extent of the spread of a common artistic idiom than its precise form. She describes the art of
this period as imbued with a strong intellectual flavour, displaying a fine balance between
representational credibility and abstracting tendencies.The caves at Ajanta, Bagh, Dharashiva,
Ghatotkacha, Banoti, and Aurangabad bear testimony to the fact that it was the Vakatakas who
were the last sponsors and guardians of the so-called 'golden age'.
The stone temples include the Vishnu temple at Tigawa, the Shiva temples at Bhumara and
Khoh, the Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara, and the Buddhist shrines at Sanchi. The early
temples were small. The square garbha-griha (sanctum), about 10 x 10 ft, was just large enough
to house the image. There was a small portico and the roof was usually flat. Temple walls
tended to be plain, but the doorways were often intricately and profusely carved. Later temples
—those of the late 5 th and 6 th centuries—reveal some changes. The temple was now built on
a raised plinth and had a shikhara (spire).
The stones that comprised the structure were secured to each other with dowels. The pillars of
later temples of this period have capitals in the form of puma-kalashas (water pots). Although
an elaboration on the earlier temples, they have a very modest appearance compared to
temples built in later centuries.Another typical feature of this period is the carving or painting
of the conch and lotus on door jambs. This occurs, for instance, on the Deogarh temple.
The many Buddhist stupas, chaityas, and viharas built during this period include those at
Jaulian, Charsada, and Taxila in Gandhara. In eastern India, there is the Dhamekh stupa at
Sarnath, The cave architecture of this period is almost entirely Buddhist. There are, however, a
few exceptions. For example the Elephanta caves I could actually david do lord Shiva.
The most prominent examples of the rock-cut architecture of this period are found at Ajanta
and Bagh (Huntington, 1985: 239-74). The spectacular Buddhist site of Ajanta consists of several
caves nestled in a curving section of the Sahyadri hills, overlooking the Waghora river. There are
28 caves at Ajanta.
They stand apart from cave shrines of the earlier period on account of their richer sculptural
ornamentation, both inside and outside, and the profusion of figures from the Mahayana
pantheon. Cave 19 consists of a rectangular hall rounded into an apse at the rear. The hall is
divided into a central section and two side aisles by a number of richly carved pillars that go
down the entire length of the hall and around the central image of worship—a stupa with a
high, almost spherical dome within which a standing Buddha is carved in high relief. The roof is
vaulted and ribbed, a translation of the old wooden ceilings, now rendered in stone. The cave
has an elaborately carved facade, with Buddha figures, attendants, and various ornamental
devices. The upper part of the interior has sculpted panels representing Buddhas. The cave
must have been originally painted in many different colours.
Like the chaityas, the Ajanta viharas too display a profusion of sculptural ornamenta¬tion. They
consist of a colonnaded porch and three entrance doors leading into a hall. The hall, with pillars
arranged in a square, leads into an antechamber with a pillared portico, which in turn opens
into a shrine room. The introduction of a shrine room into the vihara is an innovation of this
period. Monastic cells are arranged around the central hall, and in some cases, also in the front.
The paintings are marked by a fine balance between the material and the spiritual.The human
figures are slender, well-proportioned, and elegant. Women have nar¬row waists and full
breasts, their faces are marked by highly arched eyebrows and elongated, lotiform eyes. There
is an intricate range of sophisticated costumes, jewellery, and hairstyles. The artists used
shading and highlighting to great effect, giving parts of their compositions a luminous glow. The
paintings display some stylistic differences, reflect¬ing the different hands that made them. The
beautiful Ajanta murals themselves point to a long tradition of mural painting in India.
Vishnudharmotara mentioned in account are the theory and practice off bending.
Broadly similar in plan and arrangement to those at Ajanta, the Bagh caves are more simple and
plain. The end of the hall usually has a chaitya instead of a Buddha image. Some caves have
additional columns in the interior of the central hall to support the roof. The Bagh caves also
had paintings, which have practically disappeared.

SCULPTURE
Much of the sculpture was inspired by themes drawn from Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina
traditions. The iconographic conventions of religious sculpture became elaborated and fixed.
The sculpture of this period is rich in ornamental designs such as the foliated scroll.
The Vishnu images are very varied. Some of them combine the anthropomorphic and
theriomorphic forms of the Varaha (boar) avatara. Another form (found at places such as
Mathura and Gadhwa) shows the god in a human form, surrounded with several radiating
heads. The deity's attributes such as the shankha and chakra are often personi¬fied as dwarfish
attendants known as ayudha-purushas. The images of Shiva depict him in a combination of the
Iinga and anthropomorphic form.
The Buddha images display a greater variety of mudras than before. The plain halo of the
earlier period makes way for ones decorated with bands of ornamentation, and the Buddha's
body is lothed in trans¬parent drapery.
Mathura continued to be a major centre of sculpture. There are seated tirthanharas, including a
headless one dated in Kumaragupta's reign. The figures are usually carved against the
background of a carved throne or are flanked by attendants carrying fly- whisks (chamaras). A
dated stone image of a seated tirthankara belonging to 4 32-33 CE was found at the Kankali Tila
at Mathura and is currently in the State Museum in Luc¬know. It differs from the seated
tirthankara figures of preceding centuries in several ways. This jina has a stocky body, with wide
hips and high waist, which makes the crossed legs appear as though they are tilting forward and
downwards.
In a story narrated in the Vishnu Purana, the god Vishnu dives deep into the ocean to rescue
the earth from the waters. This became a very popular theme in sculpture. The ornamentation
of the long, narrow, pedestal is also different from those on kushana period jinas.
The Buddha images from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar stand out from those of the earlier
centuries with their expression of serene spirituality. The Sarnath Buddhas of this period are
considered by several art historians as among the greatest works of art produced in the entire
history of ancient India. Two standing figures and one seated Buddha figure are especially
renowned for their beauty and finesse. The seated Buddha shows him in the meditative
padmasana pose. His hands are in the dharmachakra mudra, the mudra of teaching, wherein
both hands are held and touch each other at chest level. The halo around his head is beautifully
ornamented. Beneath the throne is a chakra, flanked with monks with hands folded in
veneration.
Huntington (1985: 267) suggests that the prominence of female imagery, especially the female
attendants who frequently flank the bodhisattvas, may reflect Tantric or Vajrayana influence. In
the scene lie according to his study of Aurangabad caves. Among the stone sculptures assigned
to the period c. 300-600 CE is a larger-than-life figure of a horse carved out of beige sandstone,
found at Khairigarh (UP) and currently in the State Museum, Lucknow. It has been suggested
that this horse represents the sacrificial horse in one of the ashvamedha sacrifices performed
by Samudragupta, but there is no definite evidence to support such an interpretation.
Mention may also be made here of the developments in the north-west. Sites such as Hadda in
Afghanistan show the increasing use of stucco instead of stone. The relief sculptures show
elements and modifications of the earlier Gandhara style. Among the most fabulous sculptures
in this region were the' gigantic figures carved onto a cliff side at Bamiyan. One of these was a
Buddha figure standing almost 55 m high.
The terracotta art of this period includes small figurines and plaques found at many places
including Kaushambi, Rajghat, Bhita, and Mathura. These represent animals, or¬dinary people,
and gods and goddesses such as Durga, Karttikeya, and Surya.
Among the remarkable pieces of monumental terracotta sculpture are the almost life-size
images of the goddesses Ganga and Yamuna found at Ahichchhatra. Such images were placed
in temple niches.The Sanskrit language acquired its classical form, both in poetry and prose.
Kavya is sometimes translated as 'poetry' but has a broader meaning of literature as a work of
art. It can take the form of prose (gadya) or verse (padya), or a combination of both,
Ashvaghosha (1st century CE) was the first known writer to use Sanskrit for non-religious
compositions.
Kalidasa is counted among the most brilliant playwrights of this period, although there is
uncertainty about exactly when he lived and wrote. His dramas—Abhi- jnanashakuntala,
Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiya, and his lyrical poems—Raghuvam- sha, Kumarasambhava,
and Meghaduta—are considered masterpieces of Sanskrit literature. Known, among other
things, for his beautiful poetic descriptions of love, his works also display an element of humour
in some places. His style is considered an example of the Vaidarbhi style, i.e., the style of the
Vidarbha region.
Bhasa, another important playwright, was author of works such as the Madhyama- vyayoga,
Duta-Ghatotkacha, Dutavakya, Balacharita and Charudatta. Shudraka's Mrichch- hakatika and
Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya are among the other prominent literary works of the period.
Apart from kavya literature, there were works that laid down the principles of poet¬ics
(kavyakriyakalpa) and dramaturgy (natyashastra). There is considerable overlap in these two
subjects. Bhamaha's Kavyalankara and Dandin's Kavyadarsha deal principally with poetics. The
main function of kavya, according to these treatises, is to produce delight or joy. The
Natyashastra is the oldest known treatise on drama. Many important Sanskrit texts were
compiled during c. 300-600 CE. These include the major Puranas, the Mahabharata, and the
Ramayana. In the field of grammar, Bhar- trihari (5th century) wrote a commentary on
Patanjali's Mahabhashya.
Marians ushered in linguistics as a formal science (see Staal, 2003). As mentioned at the
beginning of this chapter, several Dharmashastra works—the Yajnavalkya, Narada, Katyayana,
and Brihaspati Smriris—were composed in this period. Kamandaka's Nitisara, a work on
statecraft, belongs to this period, as does the Kamasutra, a treatise on sensual pleasure.