Power Series and Taylor Series (Bogarappu)

Power Series
Pradeep Boggarapu
Department of Mathematics
BITS PILANI K K Birla Goa Campus, Goa
August 27, 2017
Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 1/1
10.7 Power Series
10.7 Power Series
A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form
∞
X
cn x n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + · · ·. (0.1)
n=0
10.7 Power Series
∞
X
cn x n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + · · ·. (0.1)
n=0
A power series about x = a is a series of the form

∞
X
cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · ·.
n=0
(0.2)
10.7 Power Series
∞
X
cn x n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + · · ·. (0.1)
n=0
A power series about x = a is a series of the form

∞
X
cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · ·.
n=0
(0.2)
Here the center a and the coefficients
c0 , c1 , . . . , cn , · · · are constants.
Examples
∞
X
Geometric series: xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · .
n=0
Examples
∞
X
n=0
1
The series converges to 1−x for all −1 < x < 1 and
diverges if |x| > 1. At x = ±1, the series clearly
diverges.
Examples
∞
X
n=0
1
diverges.
∞
X 1 1 1
(− )n (x − 2)n = 1 − (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 − · · ·.
n=0
2 2 4
Examples
∞
X
n=0
1
diverges.
∞
X 1 1 1
(− )n (x − 2)n = 1 − (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 − · · ·.
n=0
2 2 4
The series converges when |x − 2| < 2. In that case,
1 2
the series converges to f (x) = −1 = .
1 − 2 (x − 2) x
Examples
Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 xx2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
un+1 |x|
Apply Ratio test: = → |x|.
un 1 + 1/n
Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
un+1 |x|
un 1 + 1/n
By ratio test, if |x| < 1 the the series converges.
Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
un+1 |x|
un 1 + 1/n
n
If |x| > 1, then {(−1)n−1 xn } is divergent and hence
the series diverges.
Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
un+1 |x|
un 1 + 1/n
n
For x = 1, the series is an alternating harmonic series
and hence it converges.
Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
un+1 |x|
un 1 + 1/n
n
For x = −1 the series becomes negative of harmonic
series hence it diverges.
Examples
Find the values of x where the following series converges

and diverges.
∞ 2n−1 ∞ ∞
X
n−1 x
X xn X
(a) (−1) , (b) , (c) n!x n .
n=1
2n − 1 n=0
n! n=0
Convergence of Power Series
Theorem 0.1.
∞
X
If the power series an x n converges at x = c 6= 0, then
n=0
it converges absolutely for all x with |x| < |c|. If the series
diverges at x = d, then it diverges for all x with |x| > |d|.
Theorem 0.1.
∞
X
n=0
Proof:
P∞ Suppose that the series converges for x = c that
is n=0 an c n converges.
Theorem 0.1.
∞
X
n=0
Proof:
P∞ Suppose that the series converges for x = c that
is n=0 an c n converges.
It implies limn→∞ an c n = 0 by n-th term test. Hence there

exists a positive integer N such that |an c n | < 1 for all
n > N.
1
We have that |an | < for n > N.
|c|n
1
|c|n
Now for any |x| < |c|, we see that
|x|n
|an x n | = |an ||x|n < n
= |x/c|n for n > N.
|c|
1
|c|n
|x|n
|an x n | = |an ||x|n < n
= |x/c|n for n > N.
|c|
Since |x/c| < 1, the geometric series ∞ n

P
n=0 |x/c|
converges,
P∞ and hence by comparison test, the series
n
n=0 |an x | converges.
1
|c|n
|x|n
|an x n | = |an ||x|n < n
= |x/c|n for n > N.
|c|
Since |x/c| < 1, the geometric series ∞ n

P
n=0 |x/c|
converges,
P∞ and hence by comparison test, the series
n
n=0 |an x | converges.
Therefore the ∞ n
P
n=0 an x converges absolutely for
|x| < |c|.
Now suppose that the series ∞ n

P
n=0 an x diverges for
n
P
x = d. We have to prove that the series n an x diverges
for |x| > |d|.

P
n
P
for |x| > |d|.
Proof by contradiction:

P
n
P
for |x| > |d|.
Proof by contradiction:Suppose
P∞ that for any x with
n
|x| > |d|, the series n=0 an x is convergent. .

P
n
P
for |x| > |d|.
n
Then by first part, the series ∞ n

P
n=0 an d is convergent
which contradicts the hypothesis.

P
n
P
for |x| > |d|.
n
Then by first part, the series ∞ n

P
n=0 an d is convergent
which contradicts the hypothesis.
n
P
Therefore, the series n an x is not convergent (diverges)
for any |x| > |d|.
Remark 0.2.
1 The above theoremPdeals with convergence of power
of the form ∞
seriesP n
n=0 an x . For the series of the
form ∞ n
n=0 an (x − a) , we can replace
P∞(x − na) by t
and apply the results to the series n=0 an t .
Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 10 / 1

Remark 0.2.
seriesPof the form ∞ n
form ∞ n
P∞(x − na) by t
If the power series ∞ n
P
n=0 an (x − a) converges for
2
some x = c then it converges absolutely for all x such

that |x − a| < |x − c|.

Remark 0.2.
seriesPof the form ∞ n
form ∞ n
P∞(x − na) by t
P
n=0 an (x − a) converges for
2
some x = c then it converges absolutely for all x such

that |x − a| < |x − c|.
P
n=0 an (x − a) diverges for some
3
x = d then it diverges for all x such that

|x − a| > |x − d|.

Radious of Convergence
Corollary 0.3.
an (x − a)n is described
P
The convergence of the series
by one of the following three possibilities:
There is a positive number R such that the series
diverges for x with |x − a| > R but converges
absolutely for x with |x − a| < R. The series may or
may not converge at either of the endpoints
x = a − R and x = a + R.

Corollary 0.3.
P
x = a − R and x = a + R.
The series converges absolutely for every x (R = ∞).

Corollary 0.3.
P
x = a − R and x = a + R.
The series converges absolutely for every x (R = ∞).
The series converges at x = a and diverges elsewhere
(R = 0).
Definition 0.4.
1 The numbe R in the above Corollary is called the
radious of convergence of the power series
an (x − a)n .
P

Definition 0.4.
1 The numbe R in the above Corollary is called the
radious of convergence of the power series
an (x − a)n .
P
2 The interval of radius R centered at x = a is called

the interval of convergence. The interval of
convergence may be open, closed, or half-open,
depending on the particular series.

Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3

Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
We have seen that by ratio test, if |x| < 1 the the
series converges absolutely.

Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
n

Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
n

Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
n

Examples
∞ n
X
n−1 x x2 x3
(−1) =x− + − ··· .
n=1
n 2 3
n
Therefore, the radius of convergence is R = 1 and
(−1, 1] is the interval of convergence
Find the radius and interval of convergence of
∞
X x 2n−1
(−1)n−1 .
n=1
2n − 1

∞
X x 2n−1
(−1)n−1 .
n=1
2n − 1
Apply ratio test for absolute convergence.

∞
X x 2n−1
(−1)n−1 .
n=1
2n − 1

un+1 2n + 1
= |x|2 → |x|2 .
un 2n − 1

∞
X x 2n−1
(−1)n−1 .
n=1
2n − 1

un+1 2n + 1
= |x|2 → |x|2 .
un 2n − 1
For |x| < 1 the power series is convergent absolutely.

∞
X x 2n−1
(−1)n−1 .
n=1
2n − 1

un+1 2n + 1
= |x|2 → |x|2 .
un 2n − 1

For |x| > 1 is the power series is not convergent.

∞
X x 2n−1
(−1)n−1 .
n=1
2n − 1

un+1 2n + 1
= |x|2 → |x|2 .
un 2n − 1

For x = ±1, the series is converges by Alternating series test.

∞
X x 2n−1
(−1)n−1 .
n=1
2n − 1

un+1 2n + 1
= |x|2 → |x|2 .
un 2n − 1

For x = ±1, the series is converges by Alternating series test.
Therefore, the radius of convergence is R = 1 and [−1, 1] is the
interval of convergence
To Find the Radious of Convergence
Use the Ratio Test (or n-th Root Test) to find the
interval where the series converges absolutely.
Ordinarily, this is an open interval |x − a| < R.

If R is finite, test for convergence or divergence at
each endpoint (at x = a ± R). Use a Comparison
Test, the Integral Test, or the Alternating Series Test.

If R is finite, test for convergence or divergence at
each endpoint (at x = a ± R). Use a Comparison
Test, the Integral Test, or the Alternating Series Test.
If the interval of absolute convergence is |x − a| < R,
the series diverges for |x − a| > R (it does not even
converge conditionally), because the n-th term does
not approach zero for those values of x.

Operations on Power Series
Theorem 0.5 (Multiplication Theorem for Power Series).
If A(x) = an x n and B(x) = bn x n coverge absolutely
P P
for all |x| < r and

n
X
cn = an b0 + an−1 b1 + an−2 b2 + · · · + a0 bn = an−k bk ,
k=0
cn x n converges to A(x)B(x) absolutely for

P
then
|x| < r :
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
n n
an x · bn x = cn x n .
n=0 n=0 n=0

The Term-by-Term Differentiation Theorem
Theorem 0.6.
an (x − a)n has radius of convergence R > 0, it defines a function
P
If
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n on the interval a − R < x < a + R.
n=0
This function f has derivatives of all orders inside the interval, and we
obtain the derivatives by differentiating the original series term by
term:
∞
X ∞
X
0 n−1 00
f (x) = nan (x − a) ; f (x) = n(n − 1)an (x − a)n−2 ,
n=1 n=2
and so on. Each of these derived series converges at evert point of

the interval a − R < x < a + R.
The Term-by-Term Integration Theorem
Theorem 0.7.
∞
X
Suppose that f (x) = an (x − a)n converges for all
n=0
∞
(x − a)n+1X
|x − a| < R. Then an converges for all
n=0
n + 1
|x − a| < R and
∞
(x − a)n+1
Z X
f (x) dx = an +C
n=0
n + 1
for |x − a| < R.

Example
1
By knowing that = 1 + x + x 2 + · · · for |x| < 1,
1−x
show that the following:
∞
1 2
X
1
2
= 1 + 2x + 3x + · · · = nx n−1 for |x| < 1.
(1 − x) n=1

Example
1
1−x
∞
1 2
X
1
2
= 1 + 2x + 3x + · · · = nx n−1 for |x| < 1.
(1 − x) n=1
X n(n − 1)∞
1 2
2
3
= 1 + 3x + 6x + · · · = x n−2 for
(1 − x) n=2
2
|x| < 1.

Example
1
1−x
∞
1 2
X
1
2
= 1 + 2x + 3x + · · · = nx n−1 for |x| < 1.
(1 − x) n=1
X n(n − 1)∞
1 2
2
3
= 1 + 3x + 6x + · · · = x n−2 for
(1 − x) n=2
2
|x| < 1.
∞
x2 x3 X1
3 ln(1 − x) = x + + + ··· = x n for |x| < 1.
2 3 n=1
n

10.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Introduction
P
n=1 an (x − a) has positive radius of
convergence R > 0, then we know that
∞
X
g (x) = an (x − a)n
n=1
is differentiable for infinitely many times on (a − R, a + R).

But what about the other way around?

Introduction
P
∞
X
g (x) = an (x − a)n
n=1

If a function f (x) has derivatives of all orders on an
interval, can it be expressed as a power series on at least
some part of that interval?

Introduction
P
∞
X
g (x) = an (x − a)n
n=1

If a function f (x) has derivatives of all orders on an
interval, can it be expressed as a power series on at least
some part of that interval?
And if it can, what are its coefficients?
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Definition: Let f be a function with derivatives of all

orders throughout some interval containing a as an
interior point.

Definition: Let f be a function with derivatives of all

orders throughout some interval containing a as an
interior point. Then the Tayloar series generated by f
at x = a is
∞
X f (k) (a) k f 00 (a)
0
(x −a) = f (a)+f (a)(x −a)+ (x −a)2
k! 2!
k=0
f (n) (a)
+ ··· + (x − a)n + · · · .
n!

Definition: the Maclaurin series generated by f is

∞
X f (k) (0) k 0 f 00 (0) 2
x = f (0) + f (0) x + x
k! 2!
k=0
f (n) (0) n
+ ··· + x + ··· ,
n!
the Taylor series generated by f at x = 0.

Examples
Find the Taylor series generated by f (x) = e x at x = 0.

Examples

Sol. Since f (n) (x) = e x and f (n) (0) = 1 for every
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Examples

Sol. Since f (n) (x) = e x and f (n) (0) = 1 for every
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . The Taylor’s generated by f at x = 0
(Maclaurin series) is given by
∞ ∞
X f (n) (0) n
X 1 n
x = x
n=0
n! n=0
n!
1 2 1 3 1
=1+x + x + x + · · · + xn + · · · .
2! 3! n!

Examples
The Taylor series representation of sin x is given by

∞
X (−1)n 2n+1
x .
n=0
(2n + 1)!

Examples
The Taylor series representation of sin x is given by

∞
X (−1)n 2n+1
x .
n=0
(2n + 1)!
The Taylor series representation of cos x is given by

∞
X (−1)n
x 2n .
n=0
(2n)!

Examples
Find the Taylor’s series generated by f (x) at x = 0, where

f (x) is given by
( 2
e −1/x , x 6= 0
1 f (x) =
0, x = 0.

Examples
Find the Taylor’s series generated by f (x) at x = 0, where

f (x) is given by
( 2
e −1/x , x 6= 0
1 f (x) =
0, x = 0.
2+x
2 f (x) =
1−x

Taylor Polynomial
Definition: Let f (x) be a function with derivatives of

order k for k = 1, 2, . . . , N in some interval containing
a ∈ R as an interior point.

Taylor Polynomial
Definition: Let f (x) be a function with derivatives of

order k for k = 1, 2, . . . , N in some interval containing
a ∈ R as an interior point.
Then for any integer n from 0 through N, the Taylor

polynomial of order n generated by f at x = a is the
polynomial
f 00 (a)
Pn (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · ·
2!
(k)
f (a) k f (n) (a)
+ (x − a) + · · · + (x − a)n .
k! n!

Examples
Find the Taylor’s series and n-th order taylor polynomial

of f (x) at x = a, when
1 f (x) = 1/x, a = 2

Examples

1 f (x) = 1/x, a = 2
√
2 f (x) = x, a = 4

Examples

1 f (x) = 1/x, a = 2
√
2 f (x) = x, a = 4

3 f (x) = cos 2x + (π/2) a = π/4.

Thank you for your attention

Power Series and Taylor Series (Bogarappu)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Series and Taylor Series (Bogarappu)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Series

August 27, 2017

A power series about x = a is a series of the form

A power series about x = a is a series of the form

Find the values of x where the following series converges

It implies limn→∞ an c n = 0 by n-th term test. Hence there

Since |x/c| < 1, the geometric series ∞ n

Since |x/c| < 1, the geometric series ∞ n

Now suppose that the series ∞ n

Now suppose that the series ∞ n

Now suppose that the series ∞ n

Now suppose that the series ∞ n

Then by first part, the series ∞ n

Now suppose that the series ∞ n

Then by first part, the series ∞ n

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 10 / 1

some x = c then it converges absolutely for all x such

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 10 / 1

some x = c then it converges absolutely for all x such

x = d then it diverges for all x such that

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 10 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 11 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 11 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 12 / 1

2 The interval of radius R centered at x = a is called

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 12 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 13 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 13 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 13 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 13 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 13 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 14 / 1

Apply ratio test for absolute convergence.

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 14 / 1

Apply ratio test for absolute convergence.

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 14 / 1

Apply ratio test for absolute convergence.

For |x| < 1 the power series is convergent absolutely.

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 14 / 1

Apply ratio test for absolute convergence.

For |x| < 1 the power series is convergent absolutely.

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 14 / 1

Apply ratio test for absolute convergence.

For |x| < 1 the power series is convergent absolutely.

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 14 / 1

Apply ratio test for absolute convergence.

For |x| < 1 the power series is convergent absolutely.

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 15 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 15 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 15 / 1

for all |x| < r and

cn x n converges to A(x)B(x) absolutely for

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 16 / 1

and so on. Each of these derived series converges at evert point of

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 18 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 19 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 19 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 19 / 1

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 20 / 1

is differentiable for infinitely many times on (a − R, a + R).

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 21 / 1

is differentiable for infinitely many times on (a − R, a + R).

Pradeep Boggarapu (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 27, 2017 21 / 1

is differentiable for infinitely many times on (a − R, a + R).