Teaching guide

This resource is provided as guidance for teachers on the minimum content to be covered when delivering the
specifications. Please note that where examples of sociologists or studies have been provided these are a guide to
how you may deliver the specification.

Education 3.1.1 and 4.1.1

Education is a compulsory topic for both the AS and A-level. It is assessed on Paper 1 of the AS (7191/1) and Paper 1
of the A-level (7192/1).

Specification Minimum content to be covered

The role and functions of the education system, Functionalist and New Right explanations of the role
including its relationship to the economy and to class and functions of the education system, eg in relation to
structure social solidarity, skills teaching, meritocracy, selection
and role allocation.

Durkheim, Parsons, Davis & Moore, Chubb & Moe

Marxist explanations of the role and functions of the

education system, eg in relation to ideological state
apparatuses, reproduction of social class inequality,
legitimation of social class inequality.

Althusser, Bowles and Gintis, Willis

Differential educational achievement of social groups Patterns and trends in differential educational
by social class, gender and ethnicity in contemporary achievement by social class, ethnicity and gender, eg
society in relation to GCSE results.

Official statistics on patterns

Different sociological explanations of social class

differences in educational achievement in relation to
external factors (outside the education system), eg
cultural deprivation, material deprivation and cultural

capital.

J.W.B. Douglas, Bernstein, Bourdieu

Different sociological explanations of gender

differences in educational achievement in relation to
external factors, eg changes in the family and labour
market affecting women and men and the influence of
feminist ideas.

Sharpe, McRobbie, Francis

Different sociological explanations of ethnic differences

in educational achievement in relation to external
factors, eg cultural deprivation, material deprivation
and racism in wider society.

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Relationships and processes within schools, with
particular reference to teacher/pupil relationships, pupil
identities and subcultures, the hidden curriculum, and
the organisation of teaching and learning
The significance of educational policies, including
policies of selection, marketisation and privatisation,
and polices to achieve greater equality of opportunity
or outcome, for an understanding of the structure, role,
impact and experience of and access to education; the
impact of globalisation on educational policy
Bereiter & Engelmann, Evans, Lupton
Different sociological explanations of social class
differences in educational achievement in relation to
internal factors and processes within schools, eg
teacher labelling, the self-fulfilling prophecy, pupil
subcultures and pupils’ class identities.
Becker, Lacey, Ball
Different sociological explanations of gender
differences in educational achievement in relation to
internal factors, eg the curriculum, selection and
marketisation, feminisation of education, pupil
subcultures and gender identities.
Kelly, Gorard, Weiner
Patterns and trends in subject choice by gender.
Different sociological explanations of gender
differences in subject choice, eg in relation to subject
image, teaching and learning styles and primary
socialisation.
Official statistics on patterns
Different sociological explanations of ethnic differences
in educational achievement in relation to internal
factors, eg racist labelling, the self-fulfilling prophecy,
pupil subcultural responses, ethnic identities,
institutional racism and the ethnocentric curriculum.
Gilborn & Youdell, Coard, Moore & Davenport
The impact of educational policies of selection,
marketisation and privatisation, such as the tripartite
system and the post-1988 education system, in relation
to educational standards and class differences of
outcome; the globalisation of educational policy.
Ball, Whitty, David
The impact of educational policies aimed at achieving
greater equality of opportunity or outcome, eg the
comprehensive system, compensatory education
policies, education action zones and tuition fees.
Douglas, Keddie, Ball
Education policies in relation to gender and ethnic
differences and their impact, eg GIST, WISE and
multicultural education.
Francis, Sewell, Mirza
Different sociological explanations of the impact of
educational policies, eg in relation to parentocracy and
differences in economic and cultural capital.
Gewirtz, Gillborn & Youdell, Bartlett
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Methods in context (3.1.2 and 4.1.2)
Methods in context is a compulsory topic for both AS and A-level. It is It is assessed on Paper 1 of the AS (7191/1)
and Paper 1 of the A-level (7192/1).
Specification
Students must be able to apply sociological research
methods to the study of education
AS research methods (3.2.1)
Research methods is a compulsory topic for AS and is assessed on Paper 2 of the AS (7191/2).
Specification
Quantitative and qualitative methods of research;
research design
Sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews,
participant and non-participant observation,
experiments, documents and official statistics
The distinction between primary and secondary data,
and between quantitative and qualitative data
The relationship between positivism, interpretivism
and sociological methods; the nature of ‘social facts’
The theoretical, practical and ethical considerations
influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and
the conduct of research
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Content
The application of the range of primary and secondary
methods and sources of data (as covered below in AS
level Research Methods and in A-level Theory and
Methods) to the particular topics studied in education,
with specific reference to the strengths and limitations
of the different methods and sources of data in
different educational contexts.
Content
Types of research method and data sources: the
differences between quantitative and qualitative
data, and between primary and secondary sources of
data; the strengths and limitations of each of these.
Primary methods of data collection: questionnaires,
interviews, observation and experiments; the main
variants of each, eg structured and unstructured
interviews, participant and non-participant
observation, laboratory and field experiments.
Secondary sources of data: documents, official
statistics; different types of document, eg personal,
public and historical; different sources of official
statistics.
Research design, eg in relation to pilot studies and
sampling techniques; main stages of the research
process in relation to these methods.
Practical issues affecting choice of methods and
sources, eg time, cost, access and researcher’s
characteristics; strengths and limitations of different
methods and sources in relation to these issues.
Ethical issues affecting choice of methods and
sources, eg informed consent, deceit and vulnerable
groups; strengths and limitations of different
methods and sources in relation to these issues.
Theoretical issues affecting choice of methods and
sources, eg reliability, validity, representativeness,
positivism, interpretivism; strengths and limitations
of different methods and sources in relation to these
issues.
Practical, ethical and theoretical factors influencing
choice of research topic, eg personal experience and
policy concerns.
A-level theory and methods (4.1.3 and 4.3.2)
Theory and methods is a compulsory topic at A-level and assessed on Paper 1 of the A-level (7192/1) and Paper 3 of
the A-level (7192/3).
Specification
Quantitative and qualitative methods of research;
research design
Sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews,
participant and non-participant observation,
experiments, documents and official statistics
The distinction between primary and secondary data,
and between quantitative and qualitative data
The relationship between positivism, interpretivism
and sociological methods; the nature of ‘social facts’
The theoretical, practical and ethical considerations
influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and
the conduct of research
Consensus, conflict, structural and social action
theories
Content
Types of research method and data sources: the
differences between quantitative and qualitative
data, and between primary and secondary sources of
data; the strengths and limitations of each of these.
Primary methods of data collection: questionnaires,
interviews, observation and experiments; the main
variants of each, eg structured and unstructured
interviews, participant and non-participant
observation, laboratory and field experiments.
Secondary sources of data: documents, official
statistics; different types of document, eg personal,
public and historical; different sources of official
statistics.
Research design, eg in relation to pilot studies and
sampling techniques; main stages of the research
process in relation to these methods.
Practical issues affecting choice of methods and
sources, eg time, cost, access and researcher’s
characteristics; strengths and limitations of different
methods and sources in relation to these issues.
Ethical issues affecting choice of methods and
sources, eg informed consent, deceit and vulnerable
groups; strengths and limitations of different
methods and sources in relation to these issues.
Theoretical issues affecting choice of methods and
sources, eg reliability, validity, representativeness,
positivism, interpretivism; strengths and limitations
of different methods and sources in relation to these
issues.
Practical, ethical and theoretical factors influencing
choice of research topic, eg personal experience and
policy concerns.
The difference between consensus and conflict theories
of society, including consensus theories such as
functionalism, the New Right, and conflict theories, ie
Marxism and feminism; the major variants of such
theories, eg scientific and humanistic Marxism; liberal,
radical, Marxist etc feminism.
Marx, Gramsci, Althusser, Durkheim, Parsons,
Merton
The difference between structural theories such as
functionalism and Marxism, and action theories; the
main types of action theory, such as social action
theory, symbolic interactionism and
ethnomethodology.
Weber, Mead, Blumer, Becker, Goffman,
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 Garfinkel

The concepts of modernity and post-modernity in The concepts of modernity and postmodernity,
relation to sociological theory including variants such as late modernity.

Baudrillard, Giddens, Beck, Harvey

Modernist and postmodernist theories of contemporary

society.

Baudrillard, Giddens, Beck, Harvey

The nature of science and the extent to which Debates about the scientific status of sociology:
Sociology can be regarded as scientific positivist and interpretivist views.

Durkheim, Weber, Glaser & Strauss, Atkinson

Different views of the natural sciences, eg Popper,

Kuhn, realism, and implications for sociology’s scientific
status.

Popper, Kuhn, Keat & Urry

The relationship between theory and methods The relationship between theoretical perspective and
preference for particular research methods and sources
of data, eg positivism and quantitative data,
interpretivism and qualitative data.

Durkheim, Atkinson, Jack Douglas

Debates about subjectivity, objectivity and value Concepts of objectivity, subjectivity, value freedom and
freedom ideology.

Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Weber, Becker,

Gouldner

Different views of whether sociology can and should be

objective or value free, eg classical sociology, value
neutrality and committed sociology; relativism.

Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Weber, Becker,

Gouldner

The relationship between Sociology and social policy The difference between social problems and
sociological problems; perspectives on social policy and
on the role of sociology in relation to policy.

Worsley, Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Murray

Culture and identity (3.2.2.1 and 4.2.1)

Culture and identity is an optional topic at AS and A-level. It is assessed at AS on Paper 2 (7191/2) and at A-level on
Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

Different conceptions of culture, including subculture, The meaning of these different concepts of culture.

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mass culture, folk culture, high and low culture, popular Bourdieu, Durkheim, The Frankfurt school
culture and global culture
How are they used by different sociologists?

The Frankfurt school, Strinati, Storey

Sociological views, eg functionalist, Marxist, neo-

Marxist, interactionist, feminist and postmodernist, on
the role of culture in society.

Durkheim, Parsons, Marx, Frankfurt school, Wolf,

Strinati Goffman

The socialisation process and the role of the agencies Different sociological perspectives on socialisation, eg
of socialisation functionalist, Marxist, feminist, interactionist and
postmodernist.

Parsons, Marx, Oakley, Mead, Lyotard

Different sociological views on the role of different

agencies of socialisation, ie primary and secondary,
and their relative importance.

Durkheim, Zaretsky, Oakley

Meaning of concepts such as norms, values, role,

status.

Parsons, Marx, Goffman

How individuals are socialised into the social constructs

of age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality,
sexuality and social class.

Bradley, Barnes, Gilroy, McRobbie, Hall, Bourdieu

The self, identity and difference as both socially caused How an individual’s sense of self and identity, and also
and socially constructed differences between social groups, develop according
to structuralist views, eg functionalist, feminist and
Marxist.

Parsons, Marx, Oakley

How an individual’s sense of self and identity, and also

differences between social groups, develop according
to social action views, eg interactionist, and
postmodernist views; including concepts such as
labelling, master status and stereotype. How an
individual’s identity is shaped by interaction with
others.

Goffman, Mead, Becker, Cooley

The relationship of identity to age, disability, ethnicity, How an individual’s experiences and sense of identity
gender, nationality, sexuality and social class in are shaped by these factors.
contemporary society
Bradley, Barnes, Gilroy, McRobbie, Hall, Bourdieu

Their relative importance and the extent to which

these factors are changing in contemporary society.

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 Bradley, Barnes, Gilroy, McRobbie, Hall, Bourdieu

The relationship of identity to production, consumption How identity is shaped by traditional structures such as
and globalisation the relationship an individual has to work (including
social class).

Roberts, Bourdieu, Parker

How identity is shaped by consumption choices,

including leisure, and how social identity affects
consumption/lifestyle/leisure choices.

Clarke and Critcher, Bauman, Rojek

To what extent can individuals choose and shape their

social identity independent of wider social constructs.

Bauman and May, Deem, Strinati

The effect of globalisation on identity.

Ritzer, Hall, Anderson

Families and households (3.2.2.2 and 4.2.2)

Families and households is an optional topic at AS and A-level. It is assessed at AS on Paper 2 (7191/2) and at A-
level on Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

The relationship of the family to the social structure Different sociological views, eg functionalist, feminist,
and social change, with particular reference to the Marxist, New Right and postmodernist, on the role of
economy and to state policies the family and its relationship to wider social structures
such as the economy.

Parsons, Murdock, Zaretsky, Oakley

The impact of government legislation, eg divorce,

adoption and same sex marriage, and policies, eg
education, housing and welfare, on the family.

Donzelot, Leonard, Murray

Changing patterns of marriage, cohabitation, An understanding of the trends in contemporary family

separation, divorce, childbearing and the life course, and household structures, eg symmetrical family,
including the sociology of personal life, and the beanpole families, matrifocal families, serial
diversity of contemporary family and household monogamy, lone-parent families, house husbands,
structures living apart together, same sex couples etc.

Chester, Giddens, Rapoports

Different sociological explanations for the reasons and

significance of these trends.

Weeks, Chester, Stacey

Including the significance of individual choice in

personal relationships and the significance of
relationships beyond the traditional family structures.

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 May, Smart, Stacey

Gender roles, domestic labour and power relationships Different sociological arguments and evidence on this,
within the family in contemporary society including an understanding of the extent of changes
and also diversity of experiences.

Dunscombe and Marsden, Pahl, Dunne

Different aspects of relationships, eg domestic labour,

childcare, domestic violence, finance, dual burden
triple shift etc.

Pahl and Vogler, Dobash and Dobash, Gershuny

The nature of childhood, and changes in the status of How childhood is socially constructed.
children in the family and society
Pilcher, Aries, Wagg

Different sociological views on the nature and

experience of childhood.

Postman, Palmer, Womack

How childhood is experienced differently across

gender, ethnicity and social class.

McRobbie and Garber, Brannen, Howard

Cross cultural differences and how the experience of

childhood has changed historically.

Aries, Punch, Donzelot

Demographic trends in the United Kingdom since 1900: Sociological debates about the nature, causes and
birth rates, death rates, family size, life expectancy, significance of these changes.
ageing population, and migration and globalisation
McKeown, Hirsch, Townsend

How these changes impact on family and households,

and also wider society, including concepts such as net
migration, infant mortality rate and fertility rate.

The Griffiths report, Picher, Blaikie

Health (3.2.2.3 and 4.2.3)

Health is an optional topic at AS and A-level. It is assessed at AS on Paper 2 (7191/2) and at A-level on Paper 2
(7192/2).

Specification Content

The social construction of health, illness, disability and Includes concepts such as the biomedical model,
the body, and models of health and illness medicalisation, iatrogenesis, social models and
impairment.

Parsons, Illich, Oliver

Social and cultural definitions of health, illness,

disability and the body.

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 Blaxter, Shakespeare, Oakley

Strengths and limitations of these approaches.

Giddens, McKeown, Goffman

The unequal social distribution of health chances in the Differences in patterns of health chances by social
United Kingdom by social class, gender, ethnicity and class, gender, ethnicity and region.
region
ONS, The Acheson report, The Marmot Review

Reasons why some groups have higher/lower rates of

illness than others, including cultural, behavioural and
material factors.

Shaw et al, Graham, Wilkinson and Marmot

Inequalities in the provision of, and access to, health The nature, including inequalities, of health care in
care in contemporary society contemporary society.

Mencap, Age UK, Tudor-Hart

The patterns of inequalities in access to that health

care in relation to age, disability, ethnicity, gender,
region and social class.

Dixon et al, Wilkins et al, Latif

Explanations for inequalities in access to that health

care in relation to age, disability, ethnicity, gender,
region and social class.

Checkland et al, Calnan, Alford

The nature and social distribution of mental illness Mental illness as a social construction.

Szarz, Scheff, Goffman

Sociological views on the nature and causes of the

social distribution of mental illness by social class,
gender and ethnicity.

Link and Phelan, Brown et al, Nazroo

Biomedical, structural and interactionist approaches.

Foucault, Laing, Goffman

The role of medicine, the health professions and the Sociological views on the power of the medical
globalised health industry profession, eg functionalist, feminist, interactionist,
Marxist, Weberian and postmodernist.

Parsons, Weber, Navarro

Changes in the role of medicine and the power of the

medical profession in contemporary society.

Giddens, Nettleton, Witz

The role of the global health industry, eg the role of

‘big pharma’.

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 Williams et al, Law, Goldacre

Work, poverty and welfare (3.2.2.4 and 4.2.4)

Work, poverty and welfare is an optional topic at AS and A-level. It is assessed at AS on Paper 2 (7191/2) and at A-
level on Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

The nature, existence and persistence of poverty in Definitions and measurements of poverty including
contemporary society absolute, relative, subjective poverty and social
exclusion.

Townsend, Mack and Lansley, Byrne, The

Rowntree Foundation

Structural, individual and cultural explanations,

including feminist, functionalist, Marxist, New Right,
Social Democratic and Weberian, on the causes of
poverty and why it continues to exist in contemporary
society.

Marsland, Townsend, Miliband

The distribution of poverty, wealth and income The pattern of the distribution of poverty, wealth and
between different social groups income across social class, gender, ethnicity, age,
disability and family structure.

Lister, Flaherty et al, Palmer

Why some groups are more/less likely to experience

poverty.

Lister, Flaherty et al, Alcock

Different sociological explanations for these patterns

and reasons for change in distribution, eg the widening
gap between rich and poor.

Murray, Weber, Townsend

Responses and solutions to poverty by the state and by Government policies, eg means-tested versus universal
private, voluntary and informal welfare providers in benefits.
contemporary society
Giddens, Marsland, Page

Different sociological views on the nature, extent and

effectiveness of state, private, voluntary and informal
providers.

Pierson, Bartholomew, Townsend

Organisation and control of the labour process, Sociological debates about the nature and underlying
including the division of labour, the role of technology, reasons for the organisation and control of the labour
skill and de-skilling process, including the division of labour.

Braverman, Marx, Durkheim

The nature, extent and significance of technology and

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 its impact on the labour process including organisation,
control and levels of skill.

Braverman, Zuboff, Piore

The significance of work and worklessness for people’s Sociological views on the role that work plays in
lives and life chances, including the effects of people’s lives not only in terms of its effect on life
globalisation chances but also in terms of identity, sense of purpose,
fulfilment, alienation, work satisfaction etc.

Grint, Marx, Blauner

The impact of worklessness, including being

unemployed, underemployed, retired, unable to work.

Fagin and Little, Cumming and Henry, Hockey

and James

The impact of globalisation on these issues.

Ritzer, Klein, Marx

Beliefs in society (4.2.5)

Beliefs in society is an optional topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

Ideology, science and religion, including both Christian Science as a social construct. Issues in defining
and non-Christian religious traditions religion.

Durkheim, Giddens, Berger

Religion and science as belief systems and ideological

influences.

Bainbridge, Weber, Berger

Different theoretical views on the role and function of

religion, eg functionalist, Marxist (including neo-
Marxist), feminist and postmodernist.

Durkheim, Parsons, Marx, El Sadaawi

The relationship between social change and social Sociological views on religion as a conservative force
stability, and religious beliefs, practices and and, as a force for social change, for stability or
organisations conflict.

Durkheim, Marx, Weber

The impact of social change on religious belief,

practices and organisations.

Wilson, Bruce, Wallis

Religious organisations, including cults, sects, Characteristics of different types of religious

denominations, churches and New Age movements, organisation.
and their relationship to religious and spiritual belief
and practice Troeltsch, Wallis, Wilson

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The relationship between different social groups and
religious/spiritual organisations and movements, beliefs
and practices
The significance of religion and religiosity in the
contemporary world, including the nature and extent of
secularisation in a global context, and globalisation and
the spread of religions
Global development (4.2.6)
Global development is an optional topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 2 (7192/2).
Specification
Development, underdevelopment and global inequality
Globalisation and its influence on the cultural, political
and economic relationships between societies
The role of transnational corporations (TNCs), non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) and international
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Explanations for growth or decline of different forms of
religious organisation.
Wallis, Weber, Barker
Patterns of religiosity among different social groups,
such as social class, ethnicity, gender and age.
Weber, El Sadaawi, Davies
Explanations for changes in these patterns.
Modood et al, Woodhead, Bruce
Defining and measuring secularisation. The extent of
belief and practice.
Wilson, Glock and Stark, Davie
Competing explanations and evidence for
secularisation in terms of belief, practice and
organisations.
Bruce, Wilson, Weber
Global context of debate including fundamentalism and
the growth of religion.
Berger, Davie, Norris and Inglehart
Content
Different perspectives on the nature, extent and
causes of development, underdevelopment and global
inequality, including modernisation, dependency,
Marxist, neo-liberal, environmentalist and post-
development perspectives.
Rostow, Frank, Escobar
Competing definitions and measurements of
development, underdevelopment and global inequality.
Rostow, Frank, Collier
Sociological debates about the nature, extent, causes
and significance of these different aspects of
globalisation.
Wallerstein, Cohen and Kennedy, Held and
McGrew
Sociological debates about the role and effectiveness of
these organisations in the development process.
agencies in local and global strategies for development Debates about strategies.

Hoogvelt, Moyo, Ellwood

TNCs.

Klein, Sklair, Froebel

Local and national NGOs.

Chambers, Edwards and Hulme, Bebbington et al

International agencies such as the World Bank, IMF, EU,

UN, WTO and their associate organisations.

Foster, Stiglitz, Buira

Development in relation to aid and trade, Sociological debates about the role of aid, trade,
industrialisation, urbanisation, the environment, and industrialisation and urbanisation in the development
war and conflict process.

Hayter, Sachs, Cohen and Kennedy

The relationship between development and the

environment, including debates about sustainable
development, environmental change and green
growth.

Kingsbury, Ellwood, Brundtland Commission

Debates about the nature and causes of wars and

conflict, and the effects of war and conflict on
development.

Kaldor, Duffield, Collier

Employment, education, health, demographic change The changing nature of employment as a result of
and gender as aspects of development development.

Leonard, Elson and Pearson, Rostow

The role of education in development, including

different education systems.

Lerner, Sen, UNESCO Education for All Global

Monitoring Report 2010

Health care systems and the nature of health and

illness in developing countries.

Cohen and Kennedy, WHO 2006 report,

MacDonald

Trends, causes and significance for development of

demographic change, including global population
growth.

Malthus, Boserup, Adamson

The significance of gender in relation to development.

Leonard, Pearson, Van der Gaag

13
The media (4.2.7)
The media is an optional topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

The new media and their significance for an Competing views on the nature and significance of
understanding of the role of the media in contemporary digital media in contemporary society.
society
Boyle, Curran and Seaton, Cornford and Robbins

The growth and diversity of new media; control and use

of new media.

Boyle, Cornford and Robbins, Keen

The relationship between ownership and control of the Sociological views, including Marxist and postmodernist
media pluralist, on the ownership and control of the media.

The Frankfurt school, Whale, Levene, Baudrillard

The pattern of ownership.

Curran, GUMG, Bagdikian

The extent to which owners, as opposed to other

groups, control the content.

GUMG, Curran, Miliband

The media, globalisation and popular culture Definitions of culture and the nature, causes and
significance of global culture and global media on
contemporary society.

Strinati, Ritzer, Lechner and Boli

The effects of globalisation on popular culture and the

role of the media, including debates about cultural
imperialism.

Flew, Fenton, Storey

The processes of selection and presentation of the Sociological views on the social construction of news,
content of the news including practical, technological, (including the new
media), organisational and ideological factors.

Jones, Galtung and Ruge, Davies

The influence of audience, advertisers, the new media,

media professionals and government on the content of
news.

The Leveson Enquiry, GUMG, Jewkes

Media representations of age, social class, ethnicity, The nature, causes, trends and significance of these
gender, sexuality and disability representations.

Wayne, Newman, Van Djik, Wolf, Batchelor et al,

Barnes

14

The relationship between the media, their content and
presentation, and audiences
Stratification and differentiation (4.2.8)
Stratification and differentiation is an optional topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 2 (7192/2).
Specification
Stratification and differentiation by social class, gender,
ethnicity and age
Dimensions of inequality: class, status and power;
differences in life-chances by social class, gender,
ethnicity, age and disability
15
Changes in the representations of different groups.
Connell, Hall, McRobbie
Different theories concerning the effects of the media
on their audience.
Morley, Klapper, Blumer and McQuail, GUMG
Methodological issues of researching media effects,
including violent content.
Gauntlett, GUMG, Morrison, Bandura et al
Content
Functionalist theories of stratification, eg meritocracy
and role allocation.
Durkheim, Davis & Moore, Parsons
Marxist theories of stratification, eg relationship to the
means of production, alienation, the role of state
apparatuses and class consciousness.
Marx, Engels, Wright
Weberian theories of stratification, eg life chances and
the interplay of class, status and party/power.
Weber
Feminist theories of stratification, eg patriarchy and
different branches of feminism.
Millett, Walby, Firestone, Oakley, Mirza
Postmodernist theories of stratification, eg
consumerism as differentiation and subjective aspects
of differentiation.
Pakulski & Waters, Grusky, Strinati
Explanations of and changes to differences in life
chances by social class, eg the upper class, wealth,
income, the middle class, the working class, the
underclass and differences in health, education and
work chances.
Westergaard & Resler, Weber, Marx, Lockwood
Explanations of and changes to differences in life
chances by gender, eg the expressive role, gender
socialisation, the reserve army of labour and
differences in health, education and work chances.
Barron & Norris, Swain, Sharpe
 Explanations of and changes to differences in life
chances by ethnicity, eg prejudice, discrimination,
institutional racism and differences in health, education
and work chances.

Rex & Tomlinson, Miles, Modood

Explanations of and changes to differences in life

chances by age, eg the impact of an ageing population,
the elderly, the young and differences in health,
education and work chances.

Aries, Postman, Parsons

Explanations of and changes to differences in life

chances by disability, eg social exclusion, poverty and
differences in health, education and work chances.

Finkelstein, Shakespeare, Oliver

The problems of defining and measuring social class; Sociological approaches to the measurement of social
occupation, gender and social class class, eg neo-Marxist.

Wright, Runciman

The use of occupation, education and social status in

measuring social class.

Registrar General’s Scale, National Statistics

Socio-Economic Classification

The problems of defining and measuring social class,

eg objective and subjective views of class and
occupation, gender and social class.

Giddens, Arber, Gale & Gilbert, Southerton

Changes in structures of inequality, including Changes in structures of inequality and the implications
globalisation and the transnational capitalist class, and of these changes.
the implications of these changes
Goldthorpe et al, Savage et al, Pakulski & Waters

Changes to the class structure of the UK.

Marshall et al, Murray, Giddens, Westergaard &

Resler

The impact of the global economy and the movement

of capital, migration and immigration and its impact on
stratification.

Roberts, Savage

The nature, extent and significance of patterns of social The nature, extent and significance of patterns of social
mobility mobility.

Dorling et al, Goldthorpe

Types of social mobility.

Goldthorpe, Payne

16

Crime and deviance (4.3.1)
Crime and deviance is a compulsory topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 3 of the A-level (7192/3).
Specification
Crime, deviance, social order and social control
The social distribution of crime and deviance by
ethnicity, gender and social class, including recent
patterns and trends in crime
17
Patterns, changes and impacts of social mobility in the
UK.
Goldthorpe, Payne, Glass, Sutton Trust
Measurement and studies of social mobility, problems
of measuring social mobility and patterns and impacts
of social mobility in the UK.
Goldthorpe, Heath & Britten, Stanworth,
Saunders, Platt
Content
Functionalist explanations of crime, deviance, social
order and social control, eg positive functions of crime,
adaptations to strain, types of subculture, differential
association.
Durkheim, Merton, A.K.Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin
Marxist and neo-Marxist explanations of crime,
deviance, social order and social control, eg
criminogenic capitalism, law making and critical
criminology.
Marx, Chambliss, Snider, Taylor, Walton & Young
Labelling theory of crime, deviance, social order and
social control, eg the social construction of crime, the
effects of labelling and deviance amplification.
Becker, Cicourel, Lemert, S.Cohen, Braithwaite
Right realist explanations of crime, deviance, social
order and social control, eg the causes of crime and
solutions to crime.
Wilson, Murray, Wilson & Kelling, Felson
Left realist explanations of crime, deviance, social
order and social control, eg relative deprivation,
subcultures and marginalisation.
Young, Lea & Young
The social distribution of crime and deviance by
ethnicity, including recent patterns and trends and
different explanations for these, eg ethnicity and
criminality, racism and the criminal justice system and
victimisation.
Bowling and Phillips, Gilroy, Hall
The social distribution of crime and deviance by
gender, including recent patterns and trends and
 different explanations for these, eg feminism, the
chivalry thesis, sex role theory, social control and
liberation thesis.

Pollak, Heidensohn, Carlen

The social distribution of crime and deviance by social

class, including recent patterns and trends and
different explanations for these, eg selective law
enforcement and white-collar crime.

Marx, Lea & Young, Pearce, Merton, Miller

Globalisation and crime in contemporary society; the Globalisation and crime in contemporary society, eg
media and crime; green crime; human rights and state transnational organised crime, global criminal
crimes organisations, global capitalism and crimes of the
powerful.

Castells, Held, Taylor, Hobbs & Dunningham,

Glenny

The media and crime, eg media representations of

crime, the media as a cause of crime and moral panics.

S.Cohen, Young, Jewkes, McRobbie & Thornton

Green crime, eg types of green crime and green

criminology.

South, Beck, White

Human rights and state crimes, eg war, genocide and

torture, and human rights abuses.

McLaughlin, H & J Schwendinger

Crime control, surveillance, prevention and Crime control, surveillance, prevention and
punishment, victims, and the role of the criminal justice punishment, eg crime prevention strategies, and
system and other agencies sociological perspectives on punishment.

Durkheim, Rusche & Kirchheimer, Felson,

Chaiken, Wilson & Kelling

Patterns of victimisation and explanations for these, eg

positivist and critical victimology.

Christie, Miers, Mawby & Walklate, Tombs &

Whyte

The role of the criminal justice system and other

agencies, eg the role of police, courts and prisons.

Foucault, Garland, S.Cohen

Specifications that
use this resource:
AS and A-level
Sociology 7191; 7192 (
https://www.aqa.org.uk/
18
 subjects/sociology/as-a
nd-a-level/sociology-71
91-7192)

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Last updated 29 Aug 2018

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