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From The Mahdi To The Imamate of Every Soul
From The Mahdi To The Imamate of Every Soul
Ibn ʻArabi's
mahdi" to the imamate of every soul
Published in Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society, vol. 30, pp. 1-18, 2001
* An earlier version of this paper was delivered at the 17th annual sym-
posium of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society in the UK: "The Spirit of the
Millennium", Chisholme House, Scotland, 3-6 August 2000.
1. See the translation and discussion of those key programmatic pas-
sages from his Muqaddima in our article "How to Study the Futuhàt Ibn
'Arabi's own Advice", pp. 73-89 in Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi: A Commemora-
tive Volume, ed. S. Hirtenstein and M . Tiernan (Shaftesbury, Element, 1993).
His model and inspiration for this structural device, as with so many of his
unique rhetorical features throughout the Futuhàt and his other works, is
of course to be found in the Qur'an itself.
2. One of the most dramatic recent illustrations of this phenomenon was
the case of the famous "Mahdi" of Sudan, at the end of the nineteenth-
century, who appointed his "ministers" (wuzarà') in a literal, self-conscious
imitation of Ibn 'Arabi's discussions in this particular chapter. One of Ibn
'Arabi's most influential and persistent critics, the philosopher Ibn Khaldun,
likewise focused throughout his famous Muqaddima on what he claimed
to be dangerously "messianic" tendencies encouraged by Ibn 'Arabi's
a n d His Helpers", w h i c h we have partially translated a n d sepa-
rately c o m m e n t e d - from the quite different perspective of his
distinctive personal approach to the sources a n d interpretations
of fiqh a n d " I s l a m i c L a w " - i n earlier p u b l i c a t i o n s . T h u s the
3
in his K. 'Anqa' Mughrib. Apart from the chapter title in his opening table
of contents, the other seven uses of the term (all in a non-technical sense)
preceding chapter 366 are in chapters 36, 72 (twice), 73, and 365 (twice).
" m i n i s t e r s " or "helpers" (wuzarà', themselves n o t even m e n -
t i o n e d i n the o r i g i n a l hadith) that take u p most of the r e m a i n -
der of this l o n g chapter. T o put it as s i m p l y as possible - w h i c h
7
7. Vol. Ill, pp. 327-40: the discussion of hadith (mixed with some pow-
erful personal anecdotes) takes up roughly the first four Arabic pages, and
Ibn 'Arabi's even more enigmatic and puzzling list of the distinctive divine
gifts of "knowing" ('ulum) characterising this particular spiritual stage
(manzil) cover more than two pages at the end of the chapter.
8. For readers unfamiliar with the descriptions of the "Mahdi" found
in most of the major Sunni hadith collections (or who do not have access
to our summary and partial translation cited at n.3 above), that figure is
described in terms that strongly echo many of the qualities of the expected
"Davidic" messiah in Jewish and Christian eschatology.
practical focus o n Ibn ' A r a b i ' s discussions of the M a h d i ' s " H e l p -
ers" a n d advisors as possible allusions to the c o n d i t i o n s for b r i n g -
ing about a hoped-for radical transformation of t h i s - w o r l d l y
p o l i t i c a l a n d social arrangements - perhaps even to the roles of
particular i n d i v i d u a l s ( i n c l u d i n g Ibn 'Arabi himself) 9
i n this
p r o p h e s i e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t there
were a m p l e h i s t o r i c a l a n t e c e d e n t s for t h a t k i n d of p o l i t i c o -
r e l i g i o u s perspective i n I b n ' A r a b i ' s o w n I s l a m i c m i l i e u , b o t h
i n h i s t i m e (especially i n A n d a l u s i a a n d the M a g h r e b ) a n d i n
earlier a n d later p e r i o d s . 10
A n d i n p a r t i c u l a r , the v i v i d l y a n t i -
clerical r h e t o r i c o f m u c h o f this c h a p t e r 11
has b e e n e c h o e d i n
popular messianic movements, tensions and expectations far
b e y o n d the Islamic w o r l d as w e l l .
Since the w i d e r messianic resonances of this language - a n d
the standard h i s t o r i c a l , religious a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s
9. Chapter 366 is the site of some of Ibn 'Arabi's most open allusions
to his self-conception as "Seal of the Muhammadan Saints", and to his
unique relationship with the Qur'an and its Source. It also contains some
striking anecdotes about contemporary acquaintances of his who appear
to embody various characteristics of the Mahdi's Helpers. (For more details,
see our translation and notes [at n.3 above], and the authoritative and
exhaustive discussion of this key theme in M . Chodkiewicz' The Seal of
the Saints [see n.25].)
10. Many of the central terms of Ibn 'Arabi's discussion in this chapter
(imam, hujja, and mahdi itself) had powerful, explicitly historical and
political connotations in earlier Shiite movements and writings (one may
mention in particular the Rasa'il of the Ikhwàn al-Safa', whose language
is sometimes literally echoed in expressions used here). See the further
historical references cited at n.2 above and in the notes to our translation
(n.3), as well as the more extensive studies summarised by Maribel Fiero
in her important article, "Opposition to Sufism in al-Andalus", pp.174-206
in Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polem
ics, ed. F. deJong and B. Radtke (Leiden, Brill, 1999). (Many of the other
extensive studies in this same collection centre on the ongoing political and
institutional importance of the issues highlighted in chapter 366 through-
out many other regions of the Islamic world in the centuries following Ibn
'Arabi's death.)
11. See the ample illustrations in our partial translation (n.3), further
explained and contextualised in our article on "Ibn 'Arabi's 'Esotericism':
The Problem of Spiritual Authority", n.3 above.
that underlie t h e m - are probably apparent to everyone i n this
m i l l e n n i a l p e r i o d , it m a y be h e l p f u l to consider some o f the
ramifications a n d eventual weaknesses o f either of these inter-
pretive options. Because b o t h of these possible understandings
of the M a h d i are closely e c h o e d b y p e r e n n i a l tendencies i n
Jewish a n d C h r i s t i a n apocalyptic t h o u g h t a n d expectation (and
i n particular by ostensibly "secular" messianic variants that have
m e m o r a b l y ravaged most of the globe over the past century), the
weaknesses, pitfalls a n d dangers - b o t h w o r l d l y a n d spiritual -
of b o t h those options are w i d e l y familiar. Either o n e is left "wait-
ing for the M a h d i " a n d h i s future apocalyptic struggle a n d even-
tual reign of justice, w h i l e the present age cycles downwards i n t o
deeper a n d deeper chaos; or o n e c o u l d t u r n more actively to
12
15. Vol. II, 587-90; see n.13 for the Qur'anic correspondences of each
chapter in this larger Section (fast) of the Futuhàt.
recurrent Q u r ' a n i c expression p o p u l a r l y understood to refer to
the m o m e n t of each person's b o d i l y death. However, Ibn ' A r a b i
p o i n t e d l y a n d u n a m b i g u o u s l y stresses here that this Q u r ' a n i c
expression can i n fact o n l y refer i n reality to the m o m e n t of each
person's s p i r i t u a l "awakening" (ba'th), a n awareness w h i c h is
beautifully expressed i n the dramatic words of the correspond-
i n g surat al-Nasr. T h u s he q u i c k l y moves o n to a m a r v e l l o u s
p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l description of that process, clearly referring
to his o w n experiences a n d those of his o w n spiritual c o m p a n -
ions, w h i c h he refers to i n a k i n d of t e c h n i c a l s h o r t h a n d as "the
Greatest P r o v i d e n c e " (al-'inayat al-kubra). T h e key t e r m 'inàya
- o n e of I b n ' A r a b i ' s central s p i r i t u a l a n d e x i s t e n t i a l themes
t h r o u g h o u t the Futuhàt - refers specifically to God's " w a t c h i n g
over" a n d t a k i n g care of each i n d i v i d u a l creature, a n d i n this
case specifically to the spiritual destiny a n d gradual perfection
of each h u m a n soul.
16. It turns out that Ibn 'Arabi's stress here on the nafs (in the sense of
the often distracting or deceiving "basharic soul"), rather than the qalb (the
locus of truly divine inspiration and perception), is quite important, since
this impulse to wandering or retreat turns out to be at best only a momen-
tarily necessary stage in the process of each person's spiritual growth. (See
detailed discussions cited in following note.)
in a room in their own homes, staying there alone and cut off
from people. 17
All of that is so that they can be alone and at ease
with the Real One (al-Haqq) who has called them to H i m - not in
order to find any particular being or miraculous event, whether
sensible or in their innermost selves.
Thus all of those we have mentioned continue like that until
they are suddenly illuminated by something from G o d that comes
between them and their nafs - which for some of them occurs in
their nafs; for others in their imagination ; and for others from
18
Then they are given comfort and solace (uns) wherever they are . . . .
But all of this (comfort in their loneliness) is only a test (ibtila')
unless G o d gives them comfort with (the company) of the angelic
21. For the wider significance of these Qur'anic expressions, as they are
developed in 'Arabi's longer explanations of the distinctive spiritual qual-
ities of the Mahdi's "Helpers" in chapter 366, see the translated selections
cited at n.3 above.
22. And if you are not at first granted such an understanding of that
divine "Addressing", Ibn 'Arabi hastens to add, then you should remem-
ber that experience and wait patiently until Cod reveals its intended mean-
ing at the proper moment. In this particular context, the superlative form
evidently alludes to the decisive spiritual importance of this event in each
individual's larger process of spiritual growth and perfection, since - from
Ibn 'Arabi's perspective - every moment and form of creation is in some
way part of the same overall divine "providence" ('inaya).
23. Vol. Ill, 57-60, on the spiritual station of understanding "the neces-
sity of suffering" (wujub al-'idhab), which corresponds symbolically (see
notes 13 and 15 above) to the explicitly and dramatically eschatological
Qur'anic Sura al-hashr (Sura 59). The following excerpt is quoted from the
bottom of p. 58 and top of p.59.
more o p e n l y his o w n personal m i s s i o n a n d the specific qualities
his readers a n d serious students need i n order to benefit from
his teaching:
For we are not "messengers from G o d " until we fulfil our respon-
sibility to convey these kinds of knowing by communicating them
(tabligh). A n d we only mention what we do mention of them for
24
those who have both true faith and intelligence (al-mu'minin al-
'uqalà'), who are constantly occupied with purifying their souls)
together with G o d and who constantly oblige their souls to real-
ise (tahaqquq) the humility of servanthood and needfulness for G o d
in all of their states. Then (for such individuals) the Light of G o d
is their inner vision (basirà), either through knowing (from God)
or through faith and surrender to what has come to them i n the
reports from G o d and His Books and Messengers. For that (sort of
active spiritual receptivity) is the Greatest Providence, the closest place
(to God), the most perfect path and the greatest happiness. M a y G o d
bring us together with those who are of this description!
24. In the larger context here, it is clear that the specific "kinds of know-
ing" ('ulum) Ibn 'Arabi is referring to here are those which form the sub-
ject of this chapter, the necessity of suffering. He goes on to explain that
most ordinary, unenlightened people find this reality virtually impossible
to understand on an existential level, while these spiritual knowers "have
a vast capacity for this".
descriptions of the M a h d i to the " I m a m - M a h d i " (or s i m p l y the
" I m a m of the m o m e n t " ) a n d his requisite qualities e x e m p l i f i e d
by the figure of his "Helpers", w o u l d not likely be too p u z z l e d .
The subject of the chapter, after all, is "the inner awareness of the
spiritual stage (manzil) of the M a h d i " , n o t a history lesson g i v e n
i n advance. A n d d e m a n d i n g as these requirements m i g h t seem,
the realisation of this spiritual stage, as Ibn ' A r a b i describes it
here, is surely the responsibility of a n y o n e seeking right G u i d -
ance, whatever their circumstances m a y be. Indeed the realisa-
t i o n of that stage i n itself transforms those o u t w a r d c i r c u m -
stances, b r i n g i n g about the " e n d " of e a r t h b o u n d , terrestrial
" t i m e " (al-zaman) for a n y o n e w h o is even remotely aware of the
realities a n d extent of the spiritual worlds.
T h u s an attentive reader c o u l d n o t h e l p b e i n g struck quite
forcefully b y the a d d i t i o n of a single key t e r m i n the title of
chapter 366 recorded at this p o i n t , c o m p a r e d w i t h the version
given at the b e g i n n i n g of the work. Instead of speaking s i m p l y
of "the M a h d i at the e n d of t i m e described b y the Prophet",
w h i c h sounds like a b o r i n g recapitulation of w h a t was already
given i n the h a d i t h o n that subject, Ibn ' A r a b i here adds - a n d
thereby s t r o n g l y h i g h l i g h t s - the key A r a b i c t e r m "appearing,
becoming manifest" (al-zahir)at the e n d of t i m e . W h a t is so strik-
i n g l y emphasised i n that new title is precisely the o n g o i n g , per-
e n n i a l task of r e a l i s i n g a n d a c t u a l i s i n g - of a c t u a l l y making
"manifest" - that ever-present spiritual guidance.
W h o e v e r does so has already become an " I m a m " a n d further
source of spiritual guidance - a n d at the same t i m e a p o i n t e d ,
unavoidable challenge, as he emphasises almost brutally through-
out this chapter, to all those c l a i m i n g wider p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y for
their o w n i m a g i n e d forms of g u i d a n c e , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d
pseudo-"knowledge". Particularly i m p o r t a n t i n this regard are his
detailed discussions at the e n d of the chapter o n the severe limits
of a n y sort of " d i s p u t a t i o n " or p o l e m i c a l a r g u m e n t a t i o n (jidàl)
w i t h a l l those w h o are n o t p r o p e r l y prepared to benefit f r o m
the i n s p i r e d knower's i l l u m i n a t i o n s . The "mahdi" i n this very
Q u r ' a n i c sense is a Reality that always exists - whatever names
m a y be g i v e n to that Reality - a n d w h i c h is therefore always
accessible to those w h o care to seek. The situation of that Reality
is n o t o n l y analogous to the e q u a l l y mysterious role of the
"Seals" of sainthood: i n reality it m a y actually refer to the same
spiritual Source, as Ibn ' A r a b i strongly h i n t s at i n several auto-
biographical passages i n this chapter. For i n this case, as w i t h the
mystery of the "Seals", it makes n o sense to pose the question
as referring "either" to some particular historical figure " o r " to
a trans-historical Reality: everything i n Ibn 'Arabi's wider meta-
physics of theophanies (tajalliyàt) - or of the "spiritual realities"
(ruhàniyàt) a n d their recurrent earthly "representatives" (nà'ib),
where the p r i m o r d i a l spiritual figures are c o n c e r n e d - points
25
25. See detailed illustrations and analysis of this point, which is indis-
pensable for understanding Ibn 'Arabi's subsequent discussions of our
"Imamate" and "khilafa" in the passages quoted below, which is to be
found throughout M . Chodkiewicz's The Seal of the Saints: Prophethood and
Sainthood in the Doctrine of Ibn 'Arabi (Cambridge, Islamic Texts Society,
1993; or in the original French source of that translation).
require a m u c h longer s t u d y , 26
readers w h o r e t u r n to those pas-
sages (or to o u r partial translations) w i l l q u i c k l y discover that i n
fact those descriptions do t u r n out i n m a n y cases to describe gifts
a n d abilities w h i c h are sometimes so familiar that we m i s t a k e n l y
fail e v e n to perceive t h e m as " s p i r i t u a l " , a n d t h u s to recognise
the further responsibilities t h e y a c t u a l l y e n t a i l .