TAUTOLOGIES, FALLACIES AND

SYLLOGISMS
for General Mathematics
Senior High School (CORE)
Quarter 2 / Week 8
 FOREWORD

This Self-Learning Kit for General Mathematics is

designed specifically for Grade 11 students in the Senior
High School. Thus, a modest background in junior high
school mathematics is important, written in a precise,
readable, and conventional manner to facilitate students’
understanding of the subject.
It is aligned with the BEC of the Department of
Education following the prescribed MELCs (Most Essential
Learning Competencies.
It has the following features proven to be valuable
aids to learning Mathematics even at home.
I. What Happened
This section contains review of prior knowledge on
truth values of propositions and truth tables and pretest on
propositional logic, syllogisms and fallacies.
II. What You Need To Know
This section includes the discussion on key concepts of
the different types of tautologies and fallacies and an
application on determining the validity and falsity of real-
life arguments through sound and accurate decision-
making. Each one is properly illustrated and well-labeled as
it gives examples that clearly emphasizes the applicability
of a mathematical concept.
III. What Have I Learned
The exercises contained in this section are guaranteed
to build mathematical comprehension, skills, and
competence to judiciously apply logic in real-life
arguments. These serve as tool to identify the learners’
areas of strengths and difficulties.
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 LESSON
TYPES OF TAUTOLOGIES & FALACIES
1

OBJECTIVES:
K. Define tautology and fallacy;
S. Illustrate the different types of tautologies and
fallacies;
A. Show respect and open mindedness of the
ideas of others in dealing with arguments.

LEARNING COMPETENCY:

▪ Illustrates the different types of tautologies and

fallacies (M11GM-IIi-1).

I. WHAT HAPPENED
PRE-TEST:
Direction: Read and analyze each statement below. Write the letter of the
correct on your activity sheet/activity notebook.
1. A compound proposition or argument that is n0 ot valid is called ___________.
A. tautology C. compound proposition
B. fallacy D. simple proposition
2. It is a compound statement that is always true regardless of the true values
of the propositions that comprise it.
A. tautology C. compound proposition
B. fallacy D. simple preposition
3. The three propositions below can be derived from the conditional
proposition p→q, EXCEPT:
A. converse: q→p C. inverse: ~p→~q
B. contrapositive: ~q→~p D. diverse: p∨q
4. Suppose p is true, q is false, and r is true. What is the truth value of the
compound proposition (p∧q)∧r?
A. True C. cannot be determined
B. False D. either true or false

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5. Suppose p is true, q is false, and r is true. What is the truth value of the
compound proposition (p∨q)∨r?
A. True C. cannot be determined
B. False D. either true or false

II. WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION:
TAUTOLOGY

Definition:
A proposition that is always true is callled a tautology, a proposition
that is always false, is called contradiction.

A tautology is a propositional form that is always true regardless of the

truth values of the individual statements substituted for its propositional
variables. A proposition whose form is a tautology is called tautological
statement. A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a compound
statement depends on the truth or falsity ofthe simple statements from which
it's constructed.

A valid argument satisfies the validity condition: that is, the

conclusion is true whenever the premises p1 , p2, . . . pn are all true.
Alternatively, the argument is valid if the conditional
(p1 ∧p2 ∧ . . . ∧pn) → q

is a tautology.
An argument (p1 ∧p2 ∧ . . . ∧p2)→ q which is not valid is called a
fallacy. In a fallacy, it is possible for the premises p1,p2,…,pn to be true,
while the conclusion q is false. In this case, the conditional
(p1 ∧p2 ∧ . . . ∧pn) → q is not a tautology.

4
TYPES OF TAUTOLOGIES:
Let p, q, and r be propositions.

RULES OF INFERENCE PROPOSITIONAL FORM STANDARD FORM

p∧q
Rule of Simplification (p∧q)→p
∴p
p
Rule of Addition p→(p∨q)
∴p∨q
p
Rule of Conjunction (p∧q)→(p∧q) q
∴p∧q
p→q
Modus Ponens [(p→q)∧p]→q p
∴q
p→q
Modus Tollens [(p→q)∧(∼q)]→∼p ∼q
∴∼p
p→q
Law of Syllogism [(p→q)∧(q→r)]→(p→r) q→r
∴p→r
p∨q
Rule of Disjunctive ∼p
[(p∨q)∧(∼p)]→q)
Syllogism ∴q
Rule of (~p)→∅
[(~p)→∅]→p
Contradiction ∴p
𝑝→𝑟
Rule of Proof by 𝑞→𝑟
[(p→r)∧(q→r)]→[(p∨q)→r]
Cases
∴(p∨q)→r

Example 1. Prove that the argument [(p → q) ∧ p] → q is valid. This argument

is known as Modus Ponens (or Rule of Detachment).

Solution. We only need to show that [(p → q) ∧ p] → q is a tautology.

p q p → q (p → q) ∧ p [(p → q) ∧ p] → q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
Since [(p → q) ∧ p] → q is a tautology, then the argument is valid.

5
Example 2. Consider the arguments below:
Argument A
If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.
My alarm sounded.
Therefore, I woke up.

Argument B
If there is limmited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is limited water supply.
Therefore, we should conserve water.

Argument C
If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of
the Americans in 1899.
General Antonio Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Antonio Luna died at the hands of the Americans in
1899.

Solution. Note that they are all of the form [(p→q)∧p]→q], or in standard form
p→q
p
∴q

Hence, by Modus Ponens, arguments A,B,and C are all valid. However,

this does not mean that the conclusions are true. Asserting that an argument
is valid simply means that the conclusion logically follows the premise.

FALLACY

Definition:
An argument
(p1 ∧p2 ∧ . . . ∧pn) → q

which is not valid is called a fallacy.

In a fallacy, it is possible for the premise p1 , p2 , . . . , pn to be

true while the conclusion q is false.
Equivalently, for this case, the connditional
(p1 ∧p2 ∧ . . . ∧pn ) → q

is not a tautology.

6
TABLE OF FALLACIES:
Let p, q, and r be propositions.

RULES OF INFERENCE PROPOSITIONAL FORM STANDARD FORM

p→q
Fallacy of the q
[(p→q)∧q]→p
Converse ∴p
p
Fallacy of the Inverse [(p→q)∧(∼p)]→∼q
∴p∨q
p∨q
Affirming the Disjunct [(p∨q)∧p]→~q) p
∴~q

Fallacy of the p→q

(p→q)→(q→p)
Consequent ∴q→p

[~(p∧q)
Denying a Conjunct [~(p∧q)∧(~p)]→q ∼p
∴q

Improper p→q
(p→q)→[(∼p)→(∼q)]
Transposition ∴(∼p)→(∼q)

Example 3. Prove that the argument [(p → q) ∧ q] → p is a fallacy. This is known

as the Fallacy of the Converse.

Solution. We show that [(p → q) ∧ q] → p is not a tautology by means of a truth

table.

p q p→q (p → q) ∧ q [(p → q) ∧ q] → p
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T

Since [(p → q) ^ p] → p is not a tautology, the argument is invalid and is

hence a fallacy. Note that it is sufficient to find truth values of p and q that will
make the premises simultaneously true but the conclusion false. We call such
set of values a counterexample. In this case, the counterexample is the case
when p is false and q is true (see the third row of the truth table given).

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Example 4. Show that the following arguments are fallacies.

Argument A’
If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.
I woke up.
Therefore, my alarm sounded.

Argument B’
If there is limited supply of freshwater, then I will conserve water.
I will conserve water.
Therefore, there is limited supply of freshwater.

Solution. Each of the arguments has the form

p→q
q
∴p
Thus, each argument is a fallacy of the converse.
For argument A’, it is possible that I woke up because of a bad dream,
or because I suddenly remembered that I still have to study for my logic exam.
For argument B’, even if I will conserve fresh water, it does not logically
imply that there is a imited supply of freshwater. Perhaps, I just want to lower
my monthly bill!

III. WHAT HAVE I LEARNED

POST TEST:
A. Completion Test. Show that the propositional form p ∨ ~ p is a tautology and
that the statement form p ∧ ~ p is a fallacy. Write your answer on the space
provided.

p ~ p p v ~ p p ^ ~ p
T F 1. _______ 3. _______
F T 2. _______ 4. _______

B. Give the propositional form of the following arguments (3points each).

5. If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he dies at the hands of the
Americans in 1899.

Argument A
General Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899.

6. If there is a limited supply of freshwater, then I will conserve water.

Argument B
I will conserve water.
Therefore, there is a limited supply of freshwater

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 SYNOPSIS AND ABOUT THE AUTHOR

This Self Learning Kit (SLK) will ANSWER KEY

enable learners to apply the key

PRE-TEST:
concepts of propositional logic
1. b 2. a 3. d 4. b 5.
and judiciously apply it in real life a

arguments. PRACTICE

Learners are expected to A. 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F

illustrate different types of B. 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. F

tautologies and fallacies. 9. T 10. T 11. T 12. T

Let’s appreciate, discover, POST-TEST

A. 1. T 2. T
enjoy and create meaningful
3. F 4. F
learnings in (General
B. 5. [ (p → q ^ q ) ] →p
Mathematics) through the
6. [ (p → q ^ q ) ] →p
concepts of logarithmic
functions.

AUTHOR
EVANGELINE K. IJE is currently the Teacher-In-Charge of
the Senior High School of Maloh Provincial Community
High School. She finished a bachelor’s degree in
Education major in Mathematics from Colegio de Santa
Catalina de Alejandria. Meanwhile, she has completed
all her academic requirements for the degree Master of
Arts in Mathematics Teaching in Negros Oriental State
University.

MAE SHERIDA O. MAGALSO is currently teaching in Maria

Macahig Memorial High School as the Teacher-In-
Charge of the Senior High School. She finished her
master’s degree (MAED-Mathematics) in Foundation
University and has completed her academic
requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy major in
Mathematics Education (Ph.D.-Math Ed.) in University of
St. LaSalle – Bacolod City.

9
 REFERENCES

Faylogna, Frelie B., and et.al. General Mathematics for

Senior High School: Vicarish Publications and Trading, Inc. 2017 on
pages 179-180.
General Mathematics Teacher’s Guide First Edition 2016
on pages 277 – 290.
General Mathematics Learner’s Material First Edition 2016
on pages 257 – 260.
https://sites.millersville.edu/bikenaga/math-proof/truth-tables/truth-
tables.html
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-logical-fallacy.html

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 LESSON CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS,
2 VALIDITY & FALSITY OF ARGUMENTS

OBJECTIVES:
K: Determine the validity of categorical syllogisms;
S: Establish the validity and falsity of real-life
arguments using logical propositions, syllogisms,
and fallacies; and
A: Appreciate the importance of accurate and
firm decision-making in solving real-life problems.

LEARNING COMPETENCY:

▪ Determines the validity of categorical syllogisms

(M11GM-IIi-2).
▪ Establishes the validity and falsity of real-life arguments
using logical propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies
(M11GM-IIi-3).

I. WHAT HAPPENED
PRE-TEST:
Direction: Read and analyze each statement carefully. Write the correct
answer in your activity sheet/notebook.

A. Determine which rule is the basis of each argument below.

1. Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal like Nelly Boustead.

Therefore, Antonio Luna likes Nelly Bousted.
A. Rule of Addition C. Law of Syllogism
B. Rule of Conjunction D. None of the above
2. Antonio Luna is a scientist.
Therefore, either Antonio Luna or Jose Rizal is a scientist.
A. Rule of Addition C. Law of Syllogism
B. Rule of Conjunction D. None of the above

11
 p∧q
3. Which of the following rule of argument does the form implies?
∴p
A. Valid C. either valid or not valid
B. Invalid D. cannot be determined
4. Identify the theorem that is illustrated in the given argument.
Let p: “Antonio and Jose are friends.” and q : “Antonio and Jose are
Facebook friends.”
p→q
___~ q ____
΅ ~q
A. Modus Ponens C. Rule of Simplification
B. Rule of Contradiction D. Modus Tollens
5. Given the theorem on Modus Ponens, the propositional form
[(p → q) ^ p] → q has an equivalent standard form of
A. p ^ q C. p → q
΅ p _ _~ q ____
΅ q
B. p → q D. p → q
__~ q ____ _ p ____
΅~q ΅ q
6. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.
Alvin sang with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin did not dance with Nina.
A. Fallacy of the Inverse C. Fallacy of the Inverse
B. Affirming the Disjunct D. Fallacy on Denying a Conjunct
7. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.
Alvin did not dance with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin sang with Nina.
A. Fallacy on Denying a Conjunct
B. Fallacy of the Inverse
C. Affirming the Disjunct
D. Fallacy of the Converse
8. It is not true that Alvin sings and dances with Nina.
Alvin did not sing with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin danced with Nina.
A. Improper Transposition C. Fallacy on Denying a Conjunct
B. Fallacy of the Inverse D. Fallacy of the Consequent
9. If 9 is less than 4, then 9 is not a prime number. 9 is a prime number.
Therefore, 9 is not less than 4.
A. Modus Ponens C. Law of Syllogism
B. Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism D. Modus Tollens
10. Given an argument,
If there is a limited supply of freshwater, I will conserve water.
I will conserve water.
Therefore, there is limited supply of freshwater.
A. Fallacy of the Inverse C. Fallacy on Denying a Conjunct
B. Affirming the Disjunct D. Fallacy of the Converse

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II. WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
Valid and Sound Arguments
-An argument is said to satisfy the truth condition if its premises are
generally true.
-A sound argument is a valid argument which also satisfies the truth
condition. An argument which does not satisfy either the validity condition
or the truth condition is called a bad argument.
-Fallacies are mistaken beliefs based on unsound arguments. They derive
from reasoning that is logically incorrect, thus undermining an argument's
validity.
-A categorical syllogism is an argument consisting of exactly three
categorical propositions (two premises and a conclusion) in which there
appear a total of exactly three categorical terms, each of which is used
exactly twice.

-A logical proposition is any proposition that can be reduced by

replacement of its constituent terms to a proposition expressing
a logical truth

An argument is valid if it satisfies the validity condition: It is logically

impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

For argument A, we ask: can p→q and p be both true and q be false?
To answer this, we look at the truth table for p→q

p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

The highlighted row shows that both p and p→q are true if and only if q
is true. Based on the truth table, it is not possible for p and p→q to be true and
q to be false. Hence, argument A is valid.

13
 For argument A’, we ask: can p→q and q be both true and p be false?
Looking at the same truth table

p q p→q

T T F
,
T F F

F T T

F F T

the highlighted row shows that it is possible for p→q and be both true
and p be false. Hence, argument A’ does not satisfy the validity condition
and so it is not a valid argument.

Form and Validity

This method of differentiating syllogisms is significant because the validity
of a categorical syllogism depends solely upon its logical form. Remember our
earlier definition: an argument is valid when, if its premises were true, then its
conclusion would also have to be true. The application of this definition in no
way depends upon the content of a specific categorical syllogism; it makes
no difference whether the categorical terms it employs are "mammals,"
"terriers," and "dogs" or "sheep," "commuters," and "sandwiches." If a syllogism is
valid, it is impossible for its premises to be true while its conclusion is false, and
that can be the case only if there is something faulty in its general form.

Example 1.
a. All philosophers are professors.
All philosophers are logicians.
Therefore, All logicians are professors.
b. No geese are felines.
Some birds are geese.
Therefore, Some birds are not felines.
c. All terriers are dogs.
All terriers are mammals.
Therefore, All mammals are dogs.

14
Example 2. Consider the arguments in the previous examples:
Argument A
If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.
My alarm sounded.
Therefore, I woke up.

Argument B
If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is a limited freshwater supply.
Therefore, we should conserve water.

Argument C
If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of
the Americans in 1899.
General Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899.

Note that they are all of the form [p → q ^ p] → q, or in standard form

p→q
___p____
΅q
Hence, by Modus Ponens, all three arguments are valid. However, this
does not mean that the conclusions are true. Asserting that an argument is
valid simply means that the conclusion logically follows the premises.

Example 3. Determine whether the following argument is valid:

If Antonio and Jose are friends, then they are Facebook friends.
Antonio and Jose are not Facebook friends.
Therefore, they are not friends.

Solution. Let p: “Antonio and Jose are friends.” and q : “Antonio and Jose are
Facebook friends.” Then the given argument is of the form
p→q
___~ q ____
΅~q
This is valid by Modus Tollens.

Example 4. Determine whether the following argument is valid:

I would like a career on either teaching or diplomacy. If I teach, then I
would want to study abroad. Therefore, if I would like a career on diplomacy
then I will study abroad.

Solution. We first write the argument in symbolic form using the following
propositions
t : I would like a career in teaching.
d : I would like a career in diplomacy.
s : I would want to study abroad.

15
 The given argument can be written in the following propositional form.
t∨d
t→s
∴d→s
Thus, the argument is not valid.

III. What Have I Learned

POST TEST:
A. MULTIPLE CHOICE
Direction: Read and analye each statement carefully. Write your answer in
your activity sheet/notebook.
1. Which is the correct propositional form of the argument:
If there is a limited supply of freshwater, then I will conserve water.
I will conserve water.
Therefore, there is a limited supply of freshwater
A. [(p→q)˄q]→q C. [(p→q)˄q]→~p
B. [(p→q)˄q]→p D. [(p→q)˄q]→~p
2. Determine what rule is illustrated below:
If the Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna, then he will repent and not join the
revolution.
If Antonio Luna regrets not joining the revolution, then he will go to Belgium
to study the art of war.
Therefore, if the Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna, then he will go to Belgium
to study the art of war.
A. Rule of Addition C. Law of Syllogism
B. Rule of Simplification D. Rule of Contradiction
3. Determine whether each of the following arguments is valid, and if each is
sound.
If I was born poor, then I cannot serve my country.
I was born poor.
Therefore, I cannot serve my country.
A. Valid only C. Sound only
B. Valid and sound D. none of the above
4. Determine whether each of the following arguments is valid, and if each is
sound.
If I study every day, then I will develop a good work ethic.
I study every day
Therefore, I will develop a good work ethic.
A. Sound only C. Valid only
B. Valid and sound D. none of the above
5. Let p: “It rains today” and q: 2 x 2 = 4. In proposition form, the argument
assumes the form [(p → q) ^ p] → q. Hence, the argument is valid by virtue
of __________.
A. Modus Ponens C. Modus Tollens
B. Rule of Proof by Cases D. Rule of Simplification

16
B. COMPLETION TEST.
Direction: Determine whether the argument is valid or not. If it is valid, identify
the rule of inference which justifies its validity. Copy the table and put a
check (/) mark on the corresponding box.

ARGUMENT VALID RULE OF INVALID

INFERENCE
/ Modus Ponens

6.
Fallacy of the /
Converse

7.
/ Modus Tollens

8.
Fallacy of the /
Inverse

9.

17
 SYNOPSIS AND ABOUT THE AUTHOR

This Self Learning Kit ANSWER KEY

(SLK) will enable learners to

PRE-TEST:
apply the key concepts of 1. A 2. C 3. A 4. D 5. D
6. B 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. D
propositional logic and
POST TEST:
judiciously apply it in real A. 1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. A
B.
life arguments. ITEM VALID RULE OF INVALID

Learners are expected 6

NO.
/
INFERENCE
Modus
to illustrate different types 7
Ponens
Fallacy of /
of tautologies and fallacies. the
Converse
Let’s appreciate, 8 / Modus
Tollens
discover, enjoy and create 9 Fallacy of /
the
meaningful learnings in Inverse

(General Mathematics)
through the concepts of
logarithmic functions.

AUTHOR
EVANGELINE K. IJE is currently the Teacher-In-Charge of
the Senior High School of Maloh Provincial Community
High School. She finished a bachelor’s degree in
Education major in Mathematics from Colegio de Santa
Catalina de Alejandria. Meanwhile, she has completed
all her academic requirements for the degree Master of
Arts in Mathematics Teaching in Negros Oriental State
University.

MAE SHERIDA O. MAGALSO is currently teaching in Maria

Macahig Memorial High School as the Teacher-In-
Charge of the Senior High School. She finished her
master’s degree (MAED-Mathematics) in Foundation
University and has completed her academic
requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy major in
Mathematics Education (Ph.D.-Math Ed.) in University of
St. LaSalle – Bacolod City.

18
 REFERENCES

Faylogna, Frelie B., and et.al. General Mathematics for

Senior High School: Vicarish Publications and Trading, Inc. 2017 on
pages 179-180.
General Mathematics Teacher’s Guide First Edition 2016
on pages 277 – 290.
General Mathematics Learner’s Material First Edition 2016
on pages 257 – 260.
https://sites.millersville.edu/bikenaga/math-proof/truth-tables/truth-
tables.html
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-logical-fallacy.html

19
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF NEGROS ORIENTAL

SENEN PRISCILLO P. PAULIN, CESO V

Schools Division Superintendent

FAY C. LUAREZ, TM, EdD, PhD

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Acting CID Chief

NILITA L. RAGAY, EdD

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

ROSELA R. ABIERA
Education Program Supervisor – (LRMS)

ARNOLD R. JUNGCO
Education Program Supervisor – (SCIENCE & MATH)

MARICEL S. RASID
Librarian II (LRMDS)

ELMAR L. CABRERA
PDO II (LRMDS)

EVANGELINE K. IJE
MAE SHERIDA O. MAGALSO
Writers

LITTIE BETH S. BERNADEZ

Lay-out Artist
_________________________________

ALPHA QA TEAM
RICKLEOBEN V. BAYKING
LITTIE BETH S. BERNADEZ
MERCYDITHA D. ENOLPE
RONALD TOLENTINO

BETA QA TEAM
RICKLEOBEN V. BAYKING
LITTIE BETH S. BERNADEZ
GIL S. DAEL
MARIA SOLEDAD M. DAYUPAY
MARIA ACENITH D. PASTOR
JEE LIZA T. INGUITO
MERCYDITHA D. ENOLPE
RONALD G. TOLENTINO

DISCLAIMER

The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide accessible
learning modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The contents of this module
are carefully researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set learning competencies. The writers and
evaluator were clearly instructed to give credits to information and illustrations used to substantiate this
material. All content is subject to copyright and may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written
consent from the division.

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