Peptide:

Size: Peptides are small: Composed of fewer than 50 amino acids.

Structure: Simple structure: A short chain of amino acids linked
by peptide bonds.
Function: Varied functions: Peptides can have diverse roles,
including signaling (hormones), antimicrobial activity, and
neurotransmission.
Example: Angiotensin I: An example of a peptide involved in
regulating blood pressure.
Polypeptide:
Size: Intermediate size: Composed of more than 50 amino acids
but doesn't fold into a functional structure on its own.
Structure: Linear chain: A longer chain of amino acids linked by
peptide bonds.
Function: Incomplete function: Polypeptides may serve as
intermediates in protein synthesis but often need to fold further
to become functional.
Example: Insulin: Insulin is a polypeptide hormone, and its active
form is a protein.
Protein:
Size: Proteins are large: Composed of more than 50 amino acids
and fold into specific functional structures.
Structure: Complex structure: Typically made up of one or more
polypeptide chains with intricate folding patterns (primary,
secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures).
Function: Diverse functions: Proteins play crucial roles in various
biological processes, including enzymatic catalysis, structural
support, transport of molecules, and immune response.
Example: Hemoglobin: An example of a protein responsible for
oxygen transport in the blood.
Peptide:
Size: Peptides are small:
Composed of fewer than 50 amino acids.
Structure:
Simple structure: A short chain of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds.
Function: Varied functions:
Peptides can have diverse roles, including signalling (hormones),
antimicrobial activity, and neurotransmission.
Example: Angiotensin I:
An example of a peptide involved in regulating blood pressure.
Polypeptide:
Size: Intermediate size: Composed of more than 50 amino acids
but doesn't fold into a functional structure on its own.
Structure:
Linear chain: A longer chain of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds.
Function:
Incomplete function: Polypeptides may serve as intermediates
in protein synthesis but often need to fold further to become
functional.
Example:
Insulin: Insulin is a polypeptide hormone, and its active form is a
protein.
Protein:
Size: Proteins are large:
Composed of more than 50 amino acids and fold into specific
functional structures.
Structure: Complex structure:
Typically made up of one or more polypeptide chains with
intricate folding patterns (primary, secondary, tertiary, and
sometimes quaternary structures).
Function: Diverse functions:
Proteins play crucial roles in various biological processes,
including enzymatic catalysis, structural support, transport of
molecules, and immune response.
Example: Haemoglobin: An example of a protein responsible for
oxygen transport in the blood.

Arrhenius Definition:
Arrhenius Acid: An Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when
dissolved in water, increases the concentration of hydrogen ions
(H⁺) in the solution.
Arrhenius Base: An Arrhenius base is a substance that, when
dissolved in water, increases the concentration of hydroxide ions
(OH⁻) in the solution.
Example:
Acid: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissolves in water to produce H⁺
ions.
HCl → H++Cl−
Base: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissolves in water to produce
OH⁻ ions.
+ −
NaOH → Na +OH
Brønsted-Lowry Definition:
Brønsted-Lowry Acid: A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a substance that
can donate a proton (H⁺ ion) to another substance.
Brønsted-Lowry Base: A Brønsted-Lowry base is a substance that
can accept a proton (H⁺ ion) from another substance.
Example:
Acid: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) donates a proton to water.
HCl+H2O→H3O++Cl−
Base: Ammonia (NH₃) accepts a proton from water.
NH3+H2O→NH4++OH−
Ionic Product of Water (Kw):
The ionic product of water (Kw) is a measure of the extent to
which water ionizes into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions
(OH−) in aqueous solutions. It represents the equilibrium
constant for the autoionization of water. The reaction for the
autoionization of water is:
2H2O⇌H3O++OH−
The expression for the ionic product of water is given by the
equilibrium constant expression:
Kw=[H3O+][OH−]
At 25°C, the value of Kw is considered to be 1.0×10−14 in pure
water.
This equation implies that in pure water, the concentration of
hydrogen ions ([H3O+]) multiplied by the concentration of
hydroxide ions ([OH−]) is always equal to 1.0×10 −14 at 25°C. The
pH and pOH of a neutral solution (like pure water) are each equal
to 7 because the concentration of hydrogen ions equals the
concentration of hydroxide ions in a neutral solution.
The Kw value changes with temperature, but at 25°C, it is
1.0×10−14.

pH and pOH are two important measures of the acidity and

basicity of a solution, and they are related to each other and the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in
the solution.
pH (Potential of Hydrogen):
pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution based on
the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) in the solution.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being considered
neutral. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic, while
solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline.
The relationship between pH and H⁺ concentration can be
described using the formula: pH = -log[H⁺].
pOH (Potential of Hydroxide):
pOH is similar to pH but focuses on the concentration of
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in the solution.
The pOH scale also ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral.
Solutions with a pOH less than 7 are basic, while solutions with
a pOH greater than 7 are acidic.
The relationship between pOH and OH⁻ concentration is
described by the formula: pOH = -log[OH⁻].
The relationship between pH and pOH is straightforward:
pH + pOH = 14
This equation means that the sum of pH and pOH is always
equal to 14 at a given temperature. Therefore, if you know the pH
of a solution, you can easily calculate the pOH and vice versa.
The acidity or basicity of a solution is determined by the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻):
An increase in the concentration of H⁺ ions leads to a decrease in
pH, making the solution more acidic.
An increase in the concentration of OH⁻ ions leads to a decrease
in pOH, making the solution more basic.
If pH is less than 7, the solution is acidic, and as pH increases,
the solution becomes less acidic and more neutral.
If pOH is less than 7, the solution is basic, and as pOH increases,
the solution becomes less basic and more neutral.
In summary, pH and pOH are complementary measures of the
concentration of H⁺ and OH⁻ ions in a solution. They provide a
convenient way to express the acidity or basicity of a solution,
and their sum is always 14, reflecting the nature of the self-
ionization of water and the equilibrium between H⁺ and OH⁻
ions.

Buffer: A buffer is a solution that resists changes in its pH when

an acid or base is added to it. Buffers are composed of a weak
acid and its corresponding conjugate base or a weak base and its
corresponding conjugate acid.
Buffer Capacity: Buffer capacity refers to the ability of a buffer
solution to resist changes in its pH. It is the amount of acid or
base that can be added to a buffer solution before a significant
change in pH occurs.
Types of Buffers:
Acidic Buffer: Composed of a weak acid and its conjugate base.
Basic Buffer: Composed of a weak base and its conjugate acid.
Importance of Buffers:
Biological Systems: Buffers are essential in maintaining the
stable pH required for the proper functioning of biological
systems, including blood and cellular environments.
Chemical and Biological Processes:
Many chemical and biological reactions are pH-dependent.
Buffers help maintain optimal conditions for these processes.
Laboratory and Analytical Procedures:
Buffers are crucial in various laboratory experiments and
analytical procedures, ensuring accurate and consistent results.
Manufacturing Processes:
Buffers play a role in maintaining pH conditions in various
manufacturing processes, including the pharmaceutical and food
industries.
Environmental Systems:
Buffers contribute to the stability of pH in natural water systems,
preventing drastic changes that could harm aquatic life.
Clinical Applications:
Buffers are used in medical settings to stabilize the pH of
medications and physiological fluids.
In summary, buffers are vital in maintaining pH stability in
various contexts, ranging from biological systems to industrial
processes, ensuring optimal conditions for chemical and
biochemical reactions. Buffer capacity is a measure of their
effectiveness in resisting pH changes.

Extracellular Buffers:
1. Bicarbonate Buffer System:
Location: Primarily in the blood plasma.
Components: Carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate ions
(HCO3−).
Function: Maintains blood pH within the normal range by acting
as a crucial buffer against changes in acidity.
2. Protein Buffer System:
Location: Found in blood plasma and other extracellular fluids.
Components: Proteins with amphoteric properties.
Function: Helps stabilize extracellular pH by accepting or
donating protons, preventing drastic changes in acidity.
3. Phosphate Buffer System:
Location: Present in the blood and interstitial fluids.
Components: Dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4−) and hydrogen
phosphate (HPO42−).
Function: Supports the buffering of extracellular fluids and
contributes to the regulation of urinary pH.
Intracellular Buffers:
1. Protein Buffer System:
Location: Abundant in the cytoplasm and other cellular
compartments.
Components: Intracellular proteins with amphoteric properties.
Function: Maintains stable intracellular pH, safeguards against
shifts in acidity, and supports enzymatic activities.
2. Phosphate Buffer System:
Location: Active within the cell, especially in the cytoplasm.
Components: Dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4−) and hydrogen
phosphate (HPO42−).
Function: Assists in buffering intracellular fluids, contributing to
the regulation of cellular pH.
3. Hemoglobin Buffer System:
Location: Primarily within red blood cells (RBCs).
Components: Hemoglobin, an intracellular protein.
Function: Plays a vital role in buffering the pH of red blood cells,
ensuring efficient oxygen transport and maintaining cellular
integrity.
4. Amino Acid Buffer System:
Location: Distributed throughout the cytoplasm and organelles.
Components: Amino acids with amphoteric properties.
Function: Acts as an intracellular buffer, helping to regulate pH
and supporting various cellular processes.
5. Citrate Buffer System:
Location: Active in the mitochondria and cytoplasm.
Components: Citric acid and citrate.
Function: Participates in buffering within cellular compartments
and contributes to the citric acid cycle involved in energy
metabolism.
6. Carbonic Acid Buffer System:
Location: In cellular compartments, particularly within the
cytoplasm.
Components: Carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate ions
(HCO3−).
Function: Helps maintain intracellular pH balance and supports
cellular respiration.
7. Ammonia Buffer System:
Location: Active in various cellular compartments, especially in
the mitochondria.
Components: Ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4+).
Function: Participates in buffering intracellular fluids,
particularly in the renal tubules.
Understanding the interplay between extracellular and
intracellular buffers is crucial for maintaining cellular
homeostasis and ensuring the proper functioning of physiological
processes.

1.Extracellular Fluid (ECF):

Extracellular fluid refers to the fluid outside the cells in
multicellular organisms. It constitutes a significant portion of the
body's total fluid content and is essential for various
physiological functions. Extracellular fluid can be further divided
into two main compartments:
Plasma:
Definition: Plasma is the liquid component of blood and is part
of the extracellular fluid.
Composition: Plasma contains water, electrolytes (such as
sodium, potassium, calcium), proteins (including albumin and
globulins), hormones, nutrients, and waste products.
Function: Plasma plays a crucial role in transporting nutrients,
hormones, and waste products throughout the body. It is also
involved in maintaining osmotic balance and contributing to the
immune response.
Interstitial Fluid:
Definition: Interstitial fluid is the fluid that surrounds and
bathes the cells in the body, filling the spaces between cells in
tissues.
Composition: Interstitial fluid is similar to plasma but lacks the
larger proteins found in blood.
Function: Interstitial fluid facilitates the exchange of nutrients
and waste products between blood vessels and cells. It provides
cells with a medium for nutrient uptake and waste removal.
Intracellular Fluid (ICF):
Intracellular fluid is the fluid contained within the cells of the
body. It is enclosed by the cell membrane and encompasses the
cytoplasm along with various cellular organelles.
Composition: Intracellular fluid contains water, ions (such as
potassium, magnesium, phosphate), proteins, glucose, and other
cellular constituents.
Function: Intracellular fluid is essential for maintaining cell
structure, supporting biochemical reactions, and serving as a
medium for various cellular processes. It plays a crucial role in
energy production, signal transduction, and the synthesis of
biomolecules.
Examples:
Extracellular Fluid Examples:
Blood Plasma: The liquid component of blood.
Interstitial Fluid: The fluid that surrounds and bathes cells in
tissues.
Intracellular Fluid Examples:
Cytoplasm: The gel-like substance within the cell membrane.
Nucleoplasm: The fluid inside the cell nucleus.
The balance between extracellular and intracellular fluids is vital
for the overall health and proper functioning of cells and organs
in the body. This balance is maintained through processes such
as osmoregulation, fluid intake and excretion, and cellular
transport mechanisms.
Extracellular Fluid (ECF) Buffers:
Buffers in extracellular fluid play a crucial role in maintaining
the pH of the body, ensuring that it stays within a narrow and
physiologically optimal range. The primary buffers in the
extracellular fluid are bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and various protein
buffers, such as hemoglobin in the blood.
1. Bicarbonate Buffer System:
Components:
Bicarbonate Ion (HCO₃⁻): Acts as a weak base.
Carbonic Acid (H₂CO₃): Acts as a weak acid.
Mechanism:
When there is an excess of protons (H⁺) in the extracellular fluid
(acidosis), bicarbonate ions combine with protons to form
carbonic acid.
When there is a shortage of protons (alkalosis), carbonic acid
dissociates into bicarbonate ions and protons.
Equation: HCO₃⁻ + H⁺⇌H₂CO₃⇌CO₂ + H₂O
Function:
Acts as a rapid buffer system to regulate pH changes in the
extracellular fluid.
The respiratory system plays a crucial role in controlling the
concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in this system.
2. Protein Buffer System:
Components:
Proteins (e.g., Hemoglobin): Contain ionizable groups, such as
amino and carboxyl groups, which can act as buffers.
Mechanism:
Protein molecules can bind or release protons (H⁺) in response to
changes in pH.
Hemoglobin, for example, can buffer protons in the blood.
Equation: Hemoglobin - H⁺ ⇌ HemoglobinH
Function:
Acts as a more prolonged buffer system compared to the
bicarbonate system.
Important for buffering in the blood.
Functions of Extracellular Fluid Buffers:
pH Regulation:
Buffers help maintain the pH of the extracellular fluid within the
physiological range (around 7.4).
Prevents excessive acidity or alkalinity, which could disrupt
cellular functions.
Acid-Base Homeostasis:
Buffers aid in the regulation of the acid-base balance in the body.
Counteracts changes in hydrogen ion concentration to prevent
acidosis or alkalosis.
Cellular Function Support:
Maintaining an optimal pH is essential for enzymatic activities
and cellular functions.
Respiratory and Renal Coordination:
Buffers work in conjunction with the respiratory and renal
systems to regulate the concentration of carbon dioxide and
hydrogen ions in the body.
Blood Buffering:
Hemoglobin in the blood acts as an essential buffer, contributing
to the overall buffering capacity of the extracellular fluid.
Overall, the bicarbonate and protein buffer systems work
together to ensure that the extracellular fluid maintains a stable
pH, supporting various physiological processes and maintaining
homeostasis.
1. Antibiotics:
Definition: Antibiotics are a class of drugs that inhibit the
growth of or destroy bacteria. They are used to treat bacterial
infections.
Classification:
Based on Mechanism of Action:
Bactericidal: Kill bacteria.
Bacteriostatic: Inhibit bacterial growth.
Based on Spectrum of Activity:
Broad-Spectrum: Effective against a wide range of bacteria.
Narrow-Spectrum: Effective against specific types of bacteria.
Composition:
Antibiotics come from various classes, including penicillins,
cephalosporins, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, macrolides, and
fluoroquinolones.
Mechanism of Action:
Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis: Penicillins and cephalosporins
interfere with the synthesis of bacterial cell walls.
Inhibition of Protein Synthesis: Aminoglycosides and
tetracyclines disrupt bacterial protein synthesis.
Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Synthesis: Fluoroquinolones interfere
with bacterial DNA replication and transcription.
Disruption of Cell Membrane Function: Polymyxins disrupt
bacterial cell membranes.
Uses:
Bacterial Infections: Antibiotics are used to treat various bacterial
infections, such as respiratory, urinary tract, skin, and soft
tissue infections.
Prevention: Prophylactic use before surgeries to prevent
postoperative infections.
Side Effects:
Common side effects may include gastrointestinal disturbances,
allergic reactions, and the development of antibiotic resistance.
Examples:
Penicillins: Amoxicillin, penicillin G.
Cephalosporins: Cephalexin, ceftriaxone.
Tetracyclines: Doxycycline, tetracycline.
Aminoglycosides: Gentamicin, amikacin.
Macrolides: Azithromycin, erythromycin.
Fluoroquinolones: Ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin.
Analgesics:
Definition: Analgesics are drugs that relieve pain.
Composition: Include acetaminophen, ibuprofen, aspirin, and
opioids (e.g., morphine).
Mechanism of Action: Act on the central nervous system to
alleviate pain.
Uses: Pain management for various conditions.
Side Effects: Gastrointestinal issues, potential for addiction with
opioids.
Examples: Acetaminophen (Tylenol), Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin).
Anti-inflammatory Agents:
Definition: Anti-inflammatory agents are drugs that reduce
inflammation.
Composition: Include NSAIDs (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen) and
corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone).
Mechanism of Action: NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin synthesis,
reducing inflammation; corticosteroids modulate the immune
response.
Uses: Treatment of inflammatory conditions like arthritis.
Side Effects: Gastrointestinal issues with NSAIDs; systemic side
effects, especially with prolonged use of corticosteroids.
Examples: Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), Prednisone.
Antipyretics, Analgesics, and Anti-inflammatory Agents:
Antipyretics:
Definition: Reduce fever: Antipyretics are substances that lower
body temperature and reduce fever.
Composition: Commonly include: Acetaminophen (paracetamol),
ibuprofen, aspirin.
Uses: Fever reduction: Used to alleviate fever and associated
symptoms.
Side Effects: Liver toxicity (in excess): Prolonged or high-dose use
of some antipyretics, especially acetaminophen, may lead to liver
damage.
Examples: Acetaminophen (Tylenol): Widely used for fever and
pain relief.
Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin): Also has anti-inflammatory properties.
Analgesics:
Definition:
Pain relief:
Analgesics are substances that relieve pain without causing a
loss of consciousness.
Composition:
Commonly include:
Acetaminophen, ibuprofen, aspirin, opioids (e.g., morphine).
Uses:
Pain management:
Used to alleviate pain from various sources, such as headaches,
injuries, or surgeries.
Side Effects:
Gastrointestinal issues (in some cases):
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen
may cause gastrointestinal discomfort.
Examples:
Acetaminophen (Tylenol):
Used for mild to moderate pain.
Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin):
Provides both pain relief and anti-inflammatory effects.
Anti-inflammatory Agents:
Definition:
Reduce inflammation:
Anti-inflammatory agents are substances that reduce
inflammation, swelling, and redness.
Composition:
Commonly include:
NSAIDs (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen), corticosteroids (e.g.,
prednisone).
Uses:
Inflammation reduction:
Used to treat conditions associated with inflammation, such as
arthritis or injuries.
Side Effects:
Gastrointestinal issues (NSAIDs):
NSAIDs may cause stomach upset; corticosteroids may have
systemic side effects with prolonged use.
Examples:
Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin):
Provides both pain relief and anti-inflammatory effects.
Prednisone:
A corticosteroid used for its potent anti-inflammatory properties.
Antiseptics:
Definition: Antiseptics are substances that inhibit the growth of
microorganisms on living tissues, preventing infections.
Composition: Common antiseptics include iodine, hydrogen
peroxide, and alcohol.
Mechanism of Action: Antiseptics kill or inhibit the growth of
microorganisms on living tissues.
Uses: Applied to living tissues, such as skin, to prevent infection
in wounds, cuts, or surgical sites.
Side Effects: Generally safe for external use; may cause skin
irritation in some individuals.
Examples: Iodine solution, hydrogen peroxide, rubbing alcohol.
Disinfectants:
Definition: Disinfectants are substances that destroy or inhibit
the growth of microorganisms on inanimate objects or surfaces.
Composition:
Common disinfectants include bleach (sodium hypochlorite),
quaternary ammonium compounds, and phenols.
Mechanism of Action: Disinfectants act on surfaces to kill or
deactivate microorganisms, preventing the spread of infections.
Uses: Applied to surfaces, instruments, and objects in
healthcare, homes, or public spaces to control the spread of
pathogens.
Side Effects: Not intended for use on living tissues; can be toxic
if ingested or improperly handled.
Examples: Bleach, Lysol, Dettol.