Notes in Sociology

AIRA ISABELLE PEJO

Joshua 1:9

"…Have I not commanded you? Be strong and courageous. Do not be frightened, and do not be dismayed, for the Lord your God is
with you wherever you go."

1. Talcott Parsons
 served as the 39th President of the
American Sociological Society

 was an educator and scholar of sociology. He

contributed to the field of SOCIOLOGICAL
THEORY, particularly through his development of
 was one of the most influential structural a "general theory of action, May 8, 1979
functionalists of the 1950s. While
his contributions were numerous,  In sociology, action theory is the theory of social
two contributions are of particular interest: his action presented by the American theorist Talcott
ideas about the sexual division of labor and also role Parsons. Parsons established action theory to
theory as it relates to illness and the elderly.May 13, integrate the study of social order with the
2015

 structural and voluntaristic aspects of macro and the affected. It is a concept created by American
micro factors. sociologist Talcott Parsons in 1951.

 American sociologist of the classical tradition, best  The social action theory was founded by Max
known for his social action theory and structural Weber. There are two main types of
functionalism. Parsons is considered one of the sociological theories; the first is the structural or
most influential figures in sociology in the 20th macro theory while the other is social action,
century. interpretive or micro perspectives. As the 'micro'
name suggests, social action perspectives examine
 was the most important figure in the smaller groups within society. May 25, 2015
structural functionalist school of sociological
thought. He dominated sociology in the United  In sociology, social action, also known as
States for many years, coming into disfavor in the Weberian social action, refers to an act which takes
1960 and 1970s. (NOV 2 1999) into account the actions and reactions of individuals
(or 'agents'). According to Max Weber, "an Action is
 Sick role is a term used in medical sociology 'social' if the acting individual takes account of the
regarding sickness and the rights and obligations of behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its
course".
 designed and set up. Theories of Change have
 A Theory of Action is the delivery model for become a standard tool for identifying how a
a Theory of Change. Typically, a Theory of program will lead to the desired outcomes.
Action describes how a project or a program is

 The term functional fit was coined by applied psychology. Functionalism also influenced
Talcott Parsons. Meaning the process of change the educational system, especially with regards to
from pre-industrial society and extended family to John Dewey's belief that children should learn at the
industrial family and the nuclear family. Functional level for which they are developmentally prepared
Fit Definition. functional fit is when one theory 'fits'
inside another without either of the theories being  The primary concepts within Functionalism are

compromised. Jan 31, 2014 collective conscience, value consensus, social order,
education, family, crime and deviance and the
media. The concept of
 As a structural theory, Functionalism sees social
function: Functionalist sociologists like Parsons and
structure or the organization of society as
Durkheim have been concerned with the search for
more important than the individual. Functionalism is
functions that institutions may have in society.
a top down theory. ... There is a relationship between
all these parts and agents of socialisation and
 was one of the most influential structural
together they all contribute to the maintenance of
functionalists of the 1950s. While
society as a whole
his contributions were numerous,
two contributions are of particular interest: his
 Functionalism was an important influence
ideas about the sexual division of labor and also role
on psychology. It influenced the development of
theory as it relates to illness and the elderly. May 13,
behaviorism and
2015

sociology and of positivism. Comte gave the science

2. Auguste Comte
 was a French philosopher who founded sociology, or
the scientific study of society. He believed in
positivism, which is the idea that only scientific truth
is the real truth. Sep 18, 2015
 Auguste Comte, in full Isidore-Auguste-Marie-
François-Xavier Comte, (born January 19, 1798,
Montpellier, France—died September 5, 1857,
Paris), French philosopher known as the founder of
of sociology its name and established the new
subject in a systematic fashion
 This lesson focuses on the theories of Auguste
Comte. Specifically, Comte suggested that global
society has gone through three stages, called the
theological stage, the metaphysical stage, and the
scientific stage. It also covers Comte's theory of
'positivism' and how science and society interact.
Jan 8, 2013
 The French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–
1857)—often called the “father of sociology”—first
used the term “sociology” in 1838 to refer to the
scientific study of society. He believed that all
societies develop and progress through the following
stages: religious, metaphysical, and scientific.
 Auguste Comte was the first to develop the concept
of "sociology." He defined sociology as a positive
science. Positivism is the search for "invariant laws
of the natural and social world." Comte identified
three basic methods for discovering these invariant
laws, observation, experimentation, and comparison.
 Positivism - Comte's ideas about society
were closely related to what he called positivism, or
the idea that the truth only comes from scientific
knowledge. According to Comte, societies start in
the theological stage of development, where society
is based on the laws of God, or theology. Sep 18,
2015
3. Emile Durkheim
 was a well-known sociologist famous for his views
on the structure of society. His work focused on
how traditional and modern societies evolved and
function. Durkheim's theories were founded on
the concept of social facts, defined as the norms,
values, and structures of society.
 It is important to look at the starting point
of Durkheim's analysis, his definition of religion:
“A religion is a unified system of beliefs and
practices relative to sacred things, that is to say,
things set apart and forbidden--beliefs and
 Through his study of sociology and
positivism, Comte developed three stages of social
evolution, which included the theological stage, the
metaphysical stage, and the positive, or scientific,
stage.
THE LAW OF 3 STAGES
- is an idea developed by Auguste Comte in his work
The Course in Positive Philosophy. It states that
society as a whole, and each particular science,
develops through three mentally conceived stages:
1. Theological stage
2. Metaphysical stage
3. Positive stage.
 Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that
certain ("positive") knowledge is based on natural
phenomena and their properties and relations.
Thus, information derived from sensory
experience, interpreted through reason and logic,
forms the exclusive source of all certain
knowledge.
practices which unite in one single moral
community called a Church, all those
 Durkheim considered himself to be
a functionalist. Functionalism is the view that
society is a system of interdependent parts whose
functions contribute to the stability and survival of
the system.
 In sociology, social facts are values, cultural
norms, and social structures that transcend the
individual and can exercise social control. The
French sociologist Émile Durkheim defined the
term, and argued that the discipline of sociology
 should be understood as the empirical study of
social facts.
 Durkheim defined religion as. A religion is a
unified system of beliefs and practices relative to
sacred things, i.e., things set apart and forbidden—
beliefs and practices which unite in one single
moral community called a Church, all those who
adhere to them.
 Anomie, also spelled anomy, in societies or
individuals, a condition of instability resulting
from a breakdown of standards and values or from
a lack of purpose or ideals.
term was introduced by the French sociologist
Émile Durkheim in his study of suicide.
 Sociologist George Herbert Mead believed that
people develop self-images through interactions
with other people. He argued that the self, which is
the part of a person's personality consisting of self-
awareness and self-image, is a product of social
experience.
4. George Herbert Mead
 (1863-1931) was an American sociologist best
known as a founder of American pragmatism, a
pioneer of symbolic interaction theory, and as
one of the founders of social psychology. Jan 22,
2018
 Social Self Theory - George Herbert Mead, a
sociologist from the late 1800s, is well known
for his theory of the social self, which includes
the concepts of 'self,' 'me,' and 'I.' In this lesson,
we will explore Mead's theory and gain a better
understanding of what is meant by the terms 'me'
and 'I.'
 George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self and Society.
Self-consciousness involves being conscious
of others. it involves "participation in
the other"--"the appearance of the other in the
self" taking the role of the other means putting
yourself in another person's place to think/reflect
about yourself.
 Mead theorized that there are three stages
of self-development that we pass through
during childhood: Preparatory Stage (about age
two or less): Children copy, or imitate, the
The behaviors of others around them without
sophisticated understanding of what they are
imitating. Jan 11, 2016
 Symbolic interaction was conceived by George
Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. Mead
argued that people's selves are social products,
but that these selves are also purposive and
creative, and believed that the true test of any
theory was that it was "useful in solving
complex social problems".
 There are three main components of the
looking-glass self:
1. First, we imagine how we must appear to
others.
2. Second, we imagine the judgment of that
appearance.
3. Finally, we develop our self through the
judgments of others.
 In particular, Mead's theory of the emergence of
mind and self out of the social process of
significant communication has become the
 foundation of the symbolic interactionist school
of sociology and social psychology.
 In psychology, a significant other is any person
who has great importance to an individual's life
or well-being. In sociology, it describes any
person or persons with a strong influence on an
individual's self-concept.
 The generalized other - is a concept introduced
by George Herbert Mead into the social
sciences, and used especially in the field
of symbolic interactionism.
5. Morris Ginsberg
 FBA (14 May 1889 – 31 August 1970) was a
British sociologist, who played a key role in the
development of the discipline. He served as
editor of The Sociological Review in the 1930s
and later became the founding chairman of
the British Sociological Association in 1951 and
its first President (1955–1957). He was president
of the Aristotelian Society from 1942 to 1943,
and helped draft the UNESCO 1950 statement
titled The Race Question.
 He was born in Kelmė, a small town in the
Province of Kaunas in Lithuania (at the time
occupied by the Russian Empire). He was given
an education considered good according to the
standards adopted by a small, isolated and
intensely religious little community. His
knowledge of Hebrew and religious principles
 Self develops through a three stage role-taking
process. These stages include the preparatory
stage, play stage, and game stage. Jan 11, 2016
 There are three phases in the assimilation
process: Anticipatory Socialization,
Organizational Encounter, and
Metamorphosis.
 Symbolic interactionism is a sociological
perspective on self and society based on the
ideas of George H. Mead (1934), Charles H.
Cooley (1902), W. I. Thomas (1931), and other
pragmatists associated, primarily, with the
University of Chicago in the early twentieth
century.
was adequate but of secular learning he was
absolutely ignorant
 At 13 he was sent away from home to Telšiai and
then to Vilijampolė, where were situated two of
the well-known Yeshivot or academies for the
study of Talmud. There he remained until the age
of 15 and studied rabbinical lore with great zeal.
 About this time there was a revival of Hebrew
literature and an attempt was made by many
Jewish writers to introduce the learning of the
Western peoples to the Jews of Russia. It was in
this way that he was brought into contact with
European ideas and inspired with a great desire
for secular knowledge.
 His father had previously emigrated to Liverpool,
England and established a tobacco factory, and at
the age of 15 he rejoined him together with his
mother and sisters. He made up his mind to
 study, but at the time he was ignorant of any
European language except Yiddish and, although
he knew a great deal about religious matters and
Hebrew lore, he knew nothing whatever of even
the rudiments of secular education. He worked in
his father's business and could only study in his
spare time.
 He succeeded, however, in preparing for
the Matriculation Examination of the University
of London which he passed in January 1907.
Unfortunately the stress of circumstances made it
impossible for him to continue. For some years
he was employed as a clerk in a clothing factory,
and later in an engineering shop.
 Eventually he obtained a post as a teacher in a
small college at Margate, where he remained
until about 1910. While there, he prepared for the
Inter BA examination which he passed in July of
that year. As a result, he was awarded the Martin
White Scholarship in Sociology which enabled
him to study at University College London for
two years.
 During these two years he took all the first-class
prizes offered for Modern and Ancient
Philosophy. In 1912 he passed the BA Honours
examination with a First Class in Philosophy and
Sociology. The professors under whom he had
worked were Dawes Hicks of University College
London, and Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse of
the London School of Economics. Hobhouse
invited him to do research work in sociology and
in 1913 he became Hobhouse's assistant, the
result of their joint investigations being published
in 1915 (see below).
 At the London School of Economics his work
was largely on sociology and political science. At
the same time he continued his work in
philosophy. He won the John Stuart
Mill studentship three times in succession.
Ginsberg incidentally acquired a good working
knowledge of French and German, and outside
his main sphere of studies, he took courses in
biology, chemistry and physics. In 1914 he
passed the MA examination with special
distinction. His thesis consisted of a dissertation
on the philosophy of Malebranche and was
accompanied by a translation of his Discourses
on Metaphysics (1923).
 he had been appointed Lecturer in Philosophy at
University College London, where he gave
courses on the history of modern
philosophy, logic, and social philosophy. At the
London School of Economics he lectured on
sociology, ethics and the history of political
ideas. During World War I the London School of
Economics requested that his military service be
postponed as he was standing in to give the
courses which had previously been given by R.H.
Tawney, Clement Attlee and Charles Mostyn
Lloyd.
 In 1921 he was reappointed Assistant at the
London School of Economics, and full Lecturer
in 1923. A year later he was appointed to the
Readership in Sociology, being supported by
recommendations from Bronisław
Malinowski and C.G. Seligman as well as Dawes
Hicks from University College London. He
published The Psychology of Society in 1921 and
by 1964 it had reached its ninth edition and had
been translated into many languages ranging
 from Spanish to Japanese. In 1930 he succeeded
Hobhouse to the Martin White Professorship of
Sociology at the London School of Economics.
 His Sociology, written in 1934, was described
by The Guardian in their obituary as "probably
the best introduction to the subject ever written".
(Guardian, 1 September 1970).
systematization and control of impulse and
feeling, and the discovery of means to their
fulfilment. He contended that reason and feeling
should not be held to be in opposition, or reason
as the slave of the passions, but that reason
could play a significant role in motivating action
and directing feeling and conation. He sums up
his view as follows:

 In his thesis on Malebranche, Ginsberg mainly

a. "We have not to choose between
argued against Mario Novaro's criticisms of
Hume's view of reason as the
Malebranche's theory of occasionalism, claiming
slave of the passions and Kant's
that Novaro "entirely ignored the main difference
view of it as independent and
between Hume and Malebranche in regard
over-riding them. We may
to causality. Malebranche does not, in truth, deny
conceive of it rather as that in our
a necessary connection between cause and
personality which strives for
effect."[1]
integration, deeper than

 Some of the major themes of his work were conscious thought, but the more

concerned with effective the more it uses

thought, working within and
through the basic impulses and
The social responsibility of sociologists
interests and deriving its energy
- which he saw as part of the more general
from them".
problem of the ethics of knowledge. He
believed that there was an urgent need to
~ from: "Is Reason the Slave of
undertake fuller investigation of the relations
the Passions" – in The Plain
between questions of fact and questions of
View" Feb. 1955 [2]
value particularly in the face of relativistic
views that maintain that social conflicts have
 Morris Ginsberg was continually preoccupied
their origin in fundamental differences of
with examining the role of reason in ethics. His
moral outlook.
position on this has sometimes been
misunderstood – occasionally strategically
"Reason and Unreason"
misunderstood.
- in human nature and society. He
 He charted and analyzed the diversity of morals
criticized the traditional view widely propagated
among societies, and between groups and
from Aristotle through Hume to Bertrand
individuals, but made a clear distinction between
Russell, that the main functions of reason in
that recognition and assumption that ethics must
human affairs lie in the clarification,
be entirely relative. In consequence he was ready
 to take issue with those who propounded in "On Justice in Society" (1965), where he
emotive theories of ethics, and those who were concludes as follows:- 'Three questions have to
influenced, for example, by the work of cultural be asked (a) Is the use of force necessary or can
anthropologists to adopt the relativistic the end aimed at be secured by suasion or
standpoint. voluntary agreement? (b) Can the end in
question be attained by compulsion or does its
 Cultural relativism, however, does not value depend on its being freely or
entail moral relativism, as its opponents often spontaneously pursued? These questions have to
claim in a straw-man argument. be faced in any effort to distinguish between the
rights and duties which require and permit of
 Ginsberg manifested an 'objectivist' theory of legal reinforcement and rights and duties which
ethics in the tradition are best assured by moral means; that is, by
of Plato, Aristotle, Mill, Sidgwick and Hobhouse inner conviction and free acceptance.'
. This led him to maintain that 'value' and
'obligation', 'good' and 'bad' are terms not further Another pervading theme in his work was the
reducible or analyzable into each other or into advocacy of the liberal disposition of mind as a
terms not implying them. He also deals desideratum.
positively with the notion of levels of moral - He opposed this to fanaticism,
development, and suggests criteria for assessing impulsiveness, 'totalitarianism'. He was for
these. Using these criteria it is possible to detect sanity, coolness, reflection and restraint in
unmistakable differences of level between judgement. His approach to problems was
different societies in the modern world. He saw fundamentally Apollonian, and he
clearly that there is no finality in these matters, mistrusted the Dionysian temperament,
and that conditions, circumstances and societies though understanding its nature and its
change, involving advances and regressions. potency. As he said ("The Idea of Progress"
1953 pp 72–73) 'The liberal mind is
He was inevitably also concerned with the nature of characterised by an abhorrence of
Justice and its relationship to equality, and the fanaticism, a greater readiness to count the
associated question of Law as an increasingly cost in terms of human happiness and
important agent of social change and reform. human lives, a profounder awareness of the
- The ethics of punishment and the complex effects of violence, both on those who
nature of individual moral freedom and its employ it and those who suffer it.'
involvement with legal compulsion is examined

6. George Douglas Howard Cole

  Cole was born in Cambridge, to George Cole, a
jeweller who later became a surveyor, and his
wife, Jessie Knowles.

 Cole was educated at St Paul's School and Balliol

College, Oxford, where he achieved a double
first.

 As a conscientious objector during the First

 (1889–1959), English historian, economist,
and sociologist, was the son of a small builder in
Ealing (West London). He had a brilliant career
at Oxford, where he was known as a classical
scholar and a minor poet, as well as an advanced
social thinker.
 Born: 25 September 1889 - Cambridge, England
 In 1915 Cole became an unpaid research officer
 Died: 14 January 1959 (aged 69) in London,
England
 Spouse: Margaret Postgate (m. 1918)
World War, Cole's involvement in the campaign
against conscription introduced him to a co-
worker, Margaret Postgate, whom he married in
1918. The couple both worked for the Fabian
Society for the next six years before moving
to Oxford, where Cole started writing for
the Manchester Guardian
at the Amalgamated Society of Engineers. He
advised the union on how to respond to wartime
legislation including the Munitions Act. This role
enabled him to escape conscription on the

 Institutions: University College, Oxford & grounds that he was conducting work of ‘national

Nuffield College, Oxford importance’.

 Field: Co-operative economics  Having secured exemption from military service,

during the war years Cole developed a political
 School or tradition: Libertarian socialism theory of guild socialism.

 Alma-matter: Balliol College, Oxford  Cole authored several economic and historical
works including biographies of William
 Influences: Sidney Webb
Cobbett and Robert Owen.

 was an English political theorist, economist,

 In 1925, he became reader in economics
writer and historian. As a libertarian socialist he
at University College, Oxford.
was a long-time member of the Fabian
Society and an advocate for the co-operative  In 1929 he was appointed to the National
movement. Economic Advisory Council when it was set up
by the second Labour government. In 1944, Cole
became the first Chichele Professor of Social and
 Political Theory at Oxford. He was succeeded in
the chair by Isaiah Berlin in 1957.
 Cole was initially a pacifist; however, he
abandoned this position around 1938: "Hitler
[6]
cured me of pacifism". During the 1930s Cole
sought to construct a British popular front
against fascism. He identified the extent of the
military threat before many of his colleagues had
abandoned their pacifism. Cole lent strong
 I became a Socialist because, as soon as the case
for a society of equals, set free from the twin
evils of riches and poverty, mastership and
subjection, was put to me, I knew that to be the
only kind of society that could be consistent with
human decency and fellowship and that in no
other society could I have the right to be content.
 Neither a Marxist nor a social democrat, Cole

support to the republican cause in Spain. envisioned a socialism of decentralized

association and active, participatory democracy,
 He was listed in the 'Black Book' of prominent whose basic units would be sited at the workplace
subjects to be arrested in the case of a successful and in the community rather than in any central
invasion of Britain. apparatus of the state.

 In 1941 Cole was appointed
of Nuffield College, Oxford. He was central to
the establishment of the Nuffield College Social
Reconstruction Survey, which collected a large
amount of demographic, economic, and social
data. This information was used to advocate for
sub-warden  In 1936 Cole began calling for a Popular
Front movement in Britain, where the Labour
Party would ally with other parties against the
threat of fascism.
 Cole was a powerful influence on the life of the

an extensive programme of social reform.
 Cole became interested in Fabianism while
studying at Balliol College, Oxford. He joined
the Fabian Society's executive
sponsorship of Sidney Webb. Cole became a
young Harold Wilson, whom he taught, worked
with and convinced to join the Labour Party.
Before him, Hugh Gaitskellwas a student of
Cole's
under the
 Cole wrote at least seven books for the Left Book

principal proponent of guild socialist ideas, Club, all of which were published by Victor

a libertarian socialist alternative Gollancz Ltd. These are marked with LBC in the

to Marxist political economy. These ideas he put list of his books given below. He and his

forward in The New Age before and during wife, Margaret Cole, together wrote 29 popular

the First World War, and also in the pages of The detective stories,[11] featuring the investigators

New Statesman, the weekly founded by Superintendent Wilson, Everard Blatchington and

the Webbs and George Bernard Shaw Dr Tancred. Cole and his wife created a
partnership, but not a marriage. Cole took little

 Cole said his interest in socialism was kindled by interest in sex and he regarded women as a

his reading News from Nowhere, distraction for men. Margaret documented this

the utopian novel by William Morris. He wrote,

 comprehensively in a biography she wrote of her
husband after his death.  Co-operative studies

 Although Cole admired the Soviet Union for - Cole was also a theorist of the co-operative
creating a socialist economy, he rejected its movement, and he made a number of contributions
dictatorial government as a model for socialist to the fields of co-operative studies, co-operative
societies elsewhere. In a 1939 lecture, Cole stated economics and the history of the co-operative
movement. In particular, his book "The British Co-
 If I do not accept Stalin's answer, it is because I
operative Movement in a Socialist Society"
am not prepared to write off Democratic
examined the economic status of the English CWS
Socialism, despite all its failures and vacillations
(the predecessor of the modern Co-operative Group),
of recent years, as a total loss...Democratic
evaluated its possibility of achieving a Co-operative
Socialism offers the only means of building the
Commonwealth without state assistance and
new order on what is valuable and worth
hypothesised what the role the co-operative might
preserving in the civilisation of to-day.
have in a socialist state.

 In his book Europe, Russia and the - A second book, A Century of Co-operation,

Future published in 1941, Cole claimed that examined the history of the movement from the very

however immoral the new Nazi-dominated first co-operatives, to the contribution of

Europe was, in some ways it was better than the the Chartists and Robert Owen, through to

"impracticable" system of sovereign states that the Rochdale Pioneers, as well as the movement's

had preceded it. In economic terms it could be development (in Great Britain) over the following

said that "it would be better to let Hitler conquer century.

all Europe short of the Soviet Union, and - Cole contributed to An Outline of Modern

thereafter exploit it ruthlessly in the Nazi interest, Knowledge, ed. William Rose (Victor Gollancz,

than to go back to the pre-war order of 1931) along with other leading authorities of the

independent Nation States with frontiers drawn time, including Roger Fry, C. G. Seligman, Maurice

so as to cut right across the natural units of Dobb and F. J. C. Hearnshaw.

production and exchange".[14] Cole also stated

 would much sooner see the Soviet Union, even
with its policy unchanged, dominant over all
Europe, including Great Britain, than see an
attempt to restore the pre-war States to their futile
and uncreative independence and their petty
economic nationalism under capitalist
domination. Much better be ruled by Stalin than
by the destructive and monopolistic cliques
which dominate Western capitalism.
 Personal life
- In August 1918 Cole married Margaret Isabel
Postgate (1893–1980). Margaret was the daughter of
the classical scholar John Percival Postgate.
- The couple had one son and two daughters in a
marriage that lasted forty-one years. The marriage,
however, does not seem to have been especially
happy. Cole expressed little interest in actual
romantic attachment and even less in sexual
relations. Friends observed that emotional
 attachments tended to be with men rather than of any homosexual encounters either before or
women. Cole was very fond of some of his male during his marriage.
students. They included the future leader of the - Cole and his wife jointly wrote a number of books
Labour Party, Hugh Gaitskell. There is no evidence and articles, including twenty-nine detective stories.

7. Robert Maclver the University of Aberdeen. He left Aberdeen in

1915 for a post at the University of
Toronto where he was Professor of Political
Science and later Head of Department from
 was born in Stornoway, Isle of
1922 to 1927. MacIver was vice chairman of
Lewis, Scotland on April 17, 1882 to Donald
the Canada War Labor Board from 1917 to
MacIver, a general merchant
1918. In 1927 he accepted an invitation
and tweed manufacturer, and Christina MacIver
from Barnard College of Columbia
(née Morrison). His father was
University in New York City, where he became
a Calvinist, specifically, Scottish Presbyterian.
professor of Social Science from 1927 to 1936.
On 14 August 1911 he married Elizabeth
He was subsequently named Lieber Professor of
Marion Peterkin. They had three children: Ian
Political Science and Sociology at Columbia
Tennant Morrison, Christina Elizabeth, and
University and taught there from 1929 to 1950.
Donald Gordon.
He was president, beginning in 1963 until 1965,
and then chancellor of The New School for
 He received degrees from the University of
Social Research from 1965 to 1966.
Edinburgh (M.A. 1903; D.Ph. 1915),
the University of Oxford (B.A. 1907),
 He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of
and Columbia University (Litt.E. 1929 and
Canada, the American Academy of Arts and
Harvard (1936). In his rather long period of
Sciences, and the American Philosophical
formal education, he had never made any
Society. He was a member of the American
academically supervised study of sociology. His
Sociological Society, and was elected as its 30th
work in that field was distinguished by his
President in 1940.[6] He was a member of
acumen, his philosophical understanding, and
the Institut International de Sociologie and
extensive study of the major pioneering works
of Phi Beta Kappa.
of Durkheim, Levy-Bruhl, Simmel and others in
the British Museum Library in London, while
resident as a student in Oxford.  Sociologist, political theorist, philosopher,
university administrator, and humanist, Robert
Morrison Maclver was born in Stornoway,
 He was a university Lecturer in Political
Scotland, in 1882. He will be remembered in
Science (1907) and sociology (1911) at
 the history of Western thought for having set
forth systematically the fundamental moral,
sociological, and philosophical principles of
democratic institutions and processes.
 Although he sought answers to the perennial
theoretical problems of social, political, and
moral philosophy that seem to defy ultimate
solution, Maclver did not eschew concern for
the mitigation of immediate social problems.
 Maclver’s contributions to sociology may be
 He attempted to demonstrate by precept that
sociological insights can be practicably applied
to such pressing problems as labor relations,
economic reconstruction, internationalism and
peace, intergroup conflicts, religion, academic
freedom, social work, juvenile delinquency, and
effective utilization of manpower resources.
 He was vice-chairman of the Canadian War
Labor Board in World War I and director of the
City of New York Juvenile Delinquency
Evaluation Project from 1956 to 1961, and he
contributed effectively to the leadership of the
Social Science Research Council, the Russell
Sage Foundation, and the National Manpower
Council.
 Maclver’s very important contribution to
political theory is his view of the state as an
agency of human purpose. The state, he
argued, is an association established by the
 Especially important in Maclver’s sociological
community for the regulation of the external
conditions of the social order.
 It is thus an instrumentality within a more
inclusive unity. Its essential tasks are to
establish order and to respect personality,
but it is a creature of society and is bound
by the value systems that men live by and
for. Maclver revealed the intimate relations
between political structures and processes,
on the one hand, and human values, on the
other.
viewed as fourfold. First, he systematically
developed and fruitfully exploited an impressive
net-work of fundamental sociological concepts.
Second, he helped stem the tide of excessive
positivism and raw empiricism in American
sociology, especially through his insistence on
theory as a methodological tool. The progress of
science, he suggested, is the progress of
thought. Every scholar should be at the same
time a specialist in his own field and a thinker
about a larger one (1960, p. 30). Third, he
reaffirmed the view of man as a creative human
being with subjective hopes, feelings,
aspirations, motives, ideals, and values. Life, he
insisted, is expansively creative. Finally, he
demonstrated that sociological writing can be
clear, artistic, and literate. To an area of
confusion and literary and intellectual chaos,
Maclver brought both clarity of thought and
felicity of expression.
system are his classification of social interests,
the distinction between community and
association, the concept of social evolution, the
 harmony theory of the relation between society
and individuality, and the differentiation
between the institutions concerned with means
(civilization) and the world of ends (culture).
 The classification of social
particularly the distinction between like and
common interests, has proved of immense value
in clarifying the nature of interindividual
relationships, the bases of group organization,
and the nature of the social bond. The
distinction between community as the matrix of
social organization and associations as specific
organizations which grow and develop within
that matrix is the keystone of Maclver’s
political doctrines. To sociologists
distinction has proved significant in permitting
a more precise definition of the problem of
social solidarity and in providing a framework
for a deeper understanding of the nature of a
pluralistic or multi-group society.
 Maclver’s reaffirmation of the validity of the
concept of social evolution, in the face of the
bitter attacks upon it by anthropologists such as
Golden-weiser, anticipated by many years the
resurgence of interest in and the defense of the
concept by Julian Steward and other American
anthropologists, as well as by sociologists such
as Talcott Parsons (1964), Robert
(1964), S. N. Eisenstadt (1964).
 Numerous insights have stemmed
Maclver’s tracing of a pattern of social change
from the primitive type of functionally
undifferentiated society, wherein life is of a
communal nature, to the more evolved,
functionally diverse, and institutionally and
associationally differentiated social entity,
wherein the basis of individual relationships is
less communal and more associational and
wherein personality becomes more developed
interests,
and more expansive.
 Important, too, is Maclver’s resolution of the
timeworn controversy of the relationship
between the individual and society. Rejecting
both social contract theories and organismic
theories, he stressed the fundamental harmony
between individuality and society, recognizing,
at the same time, that this harmony is far from
the perfect. Sociality and individuality, he asserted
in one of his most successful formulations,
develop pan passu.
 Also significant is the distinction between the
world of means (civilization) and the world of
ends (culture). The terms are unfortunate
because of the more traditional connotations of
“civilization” and “culture,” but the emphasis
on the difference between means and ends
provides numerous analytical insights into the
processes of social change and a better
understanding of the functions of various social
institutions. It indicates the areas of social life to
Bellah which one may properly apply the concept of
progress.
from  Maclver was an inspiring teacher. He had an
impact on students at Aberdeen University, the
University of Toronto, Barnard College,
and Columbia University. At Columbia he held
 for more than twenty years the chair of Lieber
professor of political philosophy and sociology.
He served as president of the New School for
Social Research in 1963/1964. He received
advanced degrees from the universities of
Edinburgh and Oxford and numerous honorary
degrees.
 In his Kurt Lewin memorial award address of
1961, Maclver stated: “In every area of
scientific research we have often to depend on
degrees of probability, on approximations, on
indirect approaches, and such procedures can
yield results of considerable importance.
 There are many ranges between certitude and
ignorance, and nearly all we know about human
beings and human activities lie within these
ranges” (1962a, pp. 89-90). He has not been
afraid to face “the paradox of knowledge,”
namely, that “the only things we know as
immutable truths are the things we do not
understand,” while “the only things
understand are mutable and never fully known”
(1938, p. 124).
 Works:
 (1917) 1935 Community: A Sociological Study;
Being an Attempt to Set Out the Nature and
Fundamental Laws of Social Life. 3d ed.
London: Macmillan.
 1919 Labor in the Changing World. New York:
Dutton. (1921) 1956 The Elements of Social
Science. 9th ed., rev. London: Methuen.
 (1926) 1955 The Modern State. Oxford Univ.
Press.
 1930a Jean Bodin. Volume 2, pages 614–616
in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. New
York: Macmillan.
 1930b The Trend to Internationalism. Volume 1,
pages 172–188 in Encyclopaedia of the Social
Sciences. New York: Macmillan.
 193l a The Contribution of Sociology to Social
Work. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
 1931 b Society: Its Structure and Changes. New
York: Long & Smith.
 1932 Interests. Volume 8, pages 144–148
in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. New
York: Macmillan.
 1933 Maladjustment. Volume 10, pages 60-63
in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. New
York: Macmillan.
 1934a Social Pressures. Volume 12, pages 344–
348 in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences.
New York: Macmillan.
 1934b Sociology. Volume 14, pages 232–246
in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. New
York: Macmillan.
 1935 Graham Wallas. Volume 15, pages 326–
we 327 in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences.
New York: Macmillan.
 1937 Society: A Textbook of Sociology. New
York: Farrar & Rinehart. → A rewriting of
Maclver 1931b;.
 1938 The Social Sciences. Pages 121–140 in On
Going to College: A Symposium. New York:
Oxford Univ. Press.
 1939 Leviathan and the People. University:
Louisiana State Univ. Press.
 1942 Social Causation. Boston: Ginn. → A
paperback edition was published in 1964 by
Harper.
 (1947) 1961 The Web of Government. New
York: Macmillan.
  1948 The More Perfect Union: A Program for  SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
the Control of Inter-group Discrimination in
 Alpert, Harry (editor) 1953 Robert M. Maclver:
the United States. New York: Macmillan.
Teacher and Sociologist. Northampton, Mass.:
 (1949) 1961 Maciver, Robert M.; and Page,
Metcalf Printing and Publishing Company. →
Charles H. Society: An Introductory Analysis.
An evaluation by eight former students.
New York: Holt. → Book 3 (Chapters 22-29) is
 Alpert, Harry (1954) 1964 Robert M. Maclver’s
an unusually extensive treatment of social
Contributions to Sociological Theory. Pages
change in a general textbook.
286–292 in Morroe Berger, T. Abel, and C. H.
 1952 Democracy and the Economic Challenge.
Page (editors), Freedom and Control in Modern
New York: Knopf.
Society. New York: Octagon Books.
 1955a Academic Freedom in Our Time. New
 Bellah, Robert N. 1964 Religious
York: Columbia Univ. Press.
Evolution. American Sociological
 1955b The Pursuit of Happiness: A Philosophy
Review 29:358–374.
for Modern Living. New York: Simon &
 Columbia University, Commission ON
Schuster.
Economic Reconstruction 1934 Economic
 1960 Life: Its Dimensions and Its Bounds. New
Reconstruction: Report. Robert M. Maclver,
York: Harper.
Chairman. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
 1962a Disturbed Youth and the
 Eisenstadt, S. N. 1964 Social Change,
Agencies. Journal of Social Issues 18, no. 2:88-
Differentiation and Evolution. American
96.
Sociological Review29:375–386.
 1962n The Challenge of the Passing Years: My
 Parsons, Talcott 1964 Evolutionary Universals
Encounter With Time. New York: Stmon &
in Society.American Sociological
Schuster. → A Paperback edition was published
Review 29:339–357.
in 1963 by Pocket Books.
 Spitz, David (1954) 1964 Robert M. Maclver’s
 1964 Power Transformed. New York:
Contributions to Political Theory. Pages 293–
Macmillan.
313 in Morroe Berger, T. Abel, and C. H. Page
 1966 The Prevention and Control of
(editors), Freedom and Control in Modern
Delinquency: A Strategic Approach. New York:
Society. New York: Octagon Books.
Atherton.

8. Charles Harrison Page


 (July 19, 1843 – July 21, 1912) was a U.S.
Representative from Rhode Island.
 Born in Glocester, Rhode Island, Page attended
public schools. During the Civil War Page
enlisted in the Union Army as a private at the
age of nineteen in Company A, 12th Rhode
Island Infantry, and was mustered out July 29,
1863. He resumed his studies in the Illinois
State Normal School at Bloomington and at
Southern Illinois College at Carbondale.
 He returned to Rhode Island in 1869 and taught
in a school in Scituate until the spring of 1870,
when he enrolled at the law department of the
University of Albany, New York. He graduated
in 1871. Page was admitted to the bar the same
year and started his practice in Scituate, and
in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1872. Later, he
served as member of the State house of
representatives in 1872 and 1873.
 He also served in the State senate in 1874,
1875, 1884, 1885, and 1890. He was an
unsuccessful candidate for election in 1876 to
the Forty-fifth Congress. He also contested for
the post of attorney general in 1879. He served
as a delegate to the Democratic National
Conventions in 1880, 1884, and 1888. He also
contested as a Democrat in the election of
William A. Pirce to the Forty-ninth Congress,
but the seat was declared vacant. Page was
subsequently elected at a special election to fill
the vacancy and served from February 21 to
March 3, 1887.
 Page was elected to the Fifty-second Congress
(March 4, 1891 – March 3, 1893). He was
reelected to the Fifty-third Congress at a special
election (no candidate receiving a majority at
the regular election), and served from April 5,
1893, to March 3, 1895. He served as a
chairman of the Committee on Manufactures
(Fifty-second and Fifty-third Congresses). He
was not a candidate for renomination in 1894.
 He resumed the practice of law until his death
in Providence, Rhode Island, July 21, 1912. He
was buried in the Swan Point Cemetery.
 Charles H. Page, a noted sociologist and
educator, died Feb. 9 at his home in
Northhampton, Mass. He was 82 years old. He
died of cancer, his wife said. Dr. Page was born
in Tonawanda, N.Y., and grew up in Chicago.
He earned a bachelor's degree from the
University of Illinois and a doctorate from
Columbia University. During World War II he
served as a lieutenant commander with the
Navy in the Philippines.
 He taught sociology 14 years at Smith College,
where he became chairman of the sociology
department, and 8 years at Princeton University,
where he was the first sociology chairman.He
also taught at City College of New York,
Columbia and the University of California at
Santa Cruz, where he became the first provost
of Adlai Stevenson College. He retired in 1975
after teaching for seven years at the University
of Massachusetts
 He was a former president of the Eastern
Sociological Society and a former editor of the
American Sociological Review. For 30 years he
was a consulting editor for Random House,
overseeing more than 100 books on sociology.
He was also the author or editor of numerous
articles and books in the field.