DEGREE TITLE

Master of Studies
in Social Innovation
[2023]
DISSERTATION

[How does Virtual Reality Training reduce Racial

Bias in Policing?]

STUDENT

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Table of Contents
DEGREE TITLE .................................................................................................................................................. 0
DISSERTATION ................................................................................................................................................. 0

DISSERTATION AVAILABILITY (please tick ONE box only) ......................................... 0

Available .................................................................................................................................. 0
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 2
Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 6
2.1 VR Literature and Environment ....................................................................................... 6
2.2 Studies on VR in Policing .................................................................................................12
2.3 Theoretical Framework: Interaction Ritual Theory .........................................................14
2.4 Summary ..........................................................................................................................16
2.5 Critique ............................................................................................................................17
2.7 Problem and Research Question .......................................................................................18
2.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................19
Chapter 3: Methodology.................................................................................................. 22
3:1 Methodology ....................................................................................................................22
3.2 Ethical Considerations......................................................................................................23
3.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................23
3.4 Future Research ...............................................................................................................24
3.5 Data collection and analysis ..............................................................................................25
Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................ 30
4.1 Highlights .........................................................................................................................30
Chapter 5: Discussions ................................................................................................... 49
5.1 Integration of VR and XR Technology in Police Training ................................................49
5.2 Promising Potential of VRT..............................................................................................51
5.3 Challenges of Implementing VRT .....................................................................................51
5.4 Navigating the Challenges: A Path Forward .....................................................................54
5.5 VRT's Transformative Potential .......................................................................................56
Chapter 6: Conclusion .................................................................................................... 58
Appendix ........................................................................................................................ 62
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 99

Page 1
Abstract
This dissertation delves into the pervasive issue of racial bias in policing, exploring the

transformative potential of virtual reality training (VRT) as a catalyst for change.

Stemming from personal experiences as a former police officer, the study employs a

qualitative research approach to investigate the tangible impacts of VRT on racial bias in

policing. In-depth interviews conducted via video conferencing and email gathered insights

from thirteen practitioners representing diverse perspectives: one police officer, seven VR

experts, and five lawyers. Open-ended questions facilitated comprehensive discussions,

enabling the exploration of a wide spectrum of viewpoints. Thematic coding, employed for

data analysis, revealed two primary categories of responses: proponents advocating for the

adoption of VRT in police training and sceptics perceiving VR as primarily theoretical with

limited practical applications.

Despite some apprehensions, the majority of participants expressed a strong conviction in the

practical benefits of VRT. They emphasized its potential to enhance empathy, mitigate

unconscious bias, and cultivate cultural awareness among police officers. However, a

minority remained sceptical, citing concerns about cost, accessibility, and potential

implementation challenges.

The study's findings underscore the transformative potential of VRT in contributing to the

reduction of racial bias in policing. This aligns with existing literature demonstrating the

effectiveness of VRT in promoting empathy, challenging implicit biases, and fostering

cultural understanding (Bailenson et al., 2018; Banakou et al., 2020; Choi et al., 2021). The

research contributes to the expanding body of knowledge on VRT and its implications for law

enforcement, emphasizing the importance of incorporating innovative training methods, such

as VRT, to address racial bias and promote positive policing practices.

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Keywords: Racial bias, policing, virtual reality training, empathy, implicit bias, cultural

awareness

Page 3
Chapter 1: Introduction
Police brutality and racial bias in policing have been long-standing and contentious issues,

sparking widespread protests, calls for reform, and extensive research. In the United States,

the deaths of unarmed Black men and women at the hands of police have ignited a movement

demanding accountability and change (Goff et al., 2020). Similarly, in the United Kingdom,

the murder of Stephen Lawrence in 1993 highlighted the pervasiveness of institutional racism

within the police force, and more recently, the fatal shooting of Chris Kaba by the

Metropolitan Police has rekindled concerns about persistent racial bias in UK policing (The

Independent, 2023).

In response to these critical issues, there has been a growing interest in exploring the potential

of virtual reality (VR) and extended reality (XR) technology to enhance police training and

address racial bias (Banakou et al., 2020; Doan et al., 2021). VR can create immersive

simulations of police encounters, enabling officers to develop their skills and decision-making

processes in challenging situations (Gilbert & Ray, 2016). XR can also provide officers with

training in cultural awareness and implicit bias, fostering a deeper understanding of diverse

perspectives and reducing unconscious biases that may contribute to discriminatory policing

practices (Holmes, 2022).

To assess the effectiveness of VR and XR in reducing implicit racial bias and improving

cultural awareness among police officers, a comprehensive review of relevant literature was

conducted. This review encompassed surveys of police officers, interviews with police

trainers, and pilot studies of VR and XR training modules. Studies have shown that VR

training can positively impact officers' attitudes towards implicit racial bias and cultural

awareness (Banakou et al., 2020; Doan et al., 2021). These findings suggest that VR and XR

training have the potential to contribute to a more equitable and just policing system.

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Alongside VR technology, it is also important to examine the broader social context within

which police officers operate. Randall Collins' Interaction Ritual theory provides a valuable

framework for understanding how police officers are socialized into their respective policing

cultures, influencing their attitudes, behaviours, and decision-making processes (Collins,

2004). By recognizing the embeddedness of policing practices within wider social structures,

we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated

with addressing racial bias in policing.

This research aims to examine the effectiveness of VR and XR in reducing implicit racial bias

and improving cultural awareness among police officers. The study will employ a mixed

methods approach, combining surveys of police officers, interviews with police trainers, and a

pilot study of VR and XR training modules. The surveys will gather data on police officers'

attitudes towards implicit racial bias and cultural awareness. The interviews will provide a

deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities of using VR and XR in police

training. The pilot study will assess the effectiveness of VR and XR training modules in

reducing implicit racial bias and enhancing cultural awareness among police officers.

The findings of this research project will have significant implications for the development

and implementation of VR and XR training programs for police officers. The findings will

inform police departments about the potential benefits of VR and XR training and guide how

to design and implement effective VR and XR training programs. By addressing racial bias in

policing, we can strive to create a more just and equitable society where all individuals are

treated with respect and dignity.

Page 5
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Virtual reality (VR) and the wider Extended Reality (XR) technologies have emerged as

promising tools in the realm of policing, garnering attention for their potential to enhance

training and mitigate implicit racial bias. Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of VR

training in reducing implicit racial bias, improving de-escalation techniques, and broadening

experiential learning. However, challenges such as cost and limited program availability

persist and the limited literature available on this new and innovative space. Despite these

obstacles, the potential benefits of VR in policing remain substantial, and I hope to contribute

to the literature currently out there and encourage more research so that a greater

understanding of the wider XR world can be gained.

2.1 VR Literature and Environment

Both Professor Mel Slater and Professor Jeremy Bailenson are prominent figures in the field

of VR research, having made significant contributions to our understanding of VR's potential

to address societal challenges, including implicit racial bias. While both researchers share a

common belief in the transformative power of VR, their perspectives on the specific

mechanisms by which VR can reduce implicit bias differ to some extent.

Literature Review of Chapters 1 and 9 of Professor Jeremy Bailenson's "Experience on

Demand"

In his insightful book "Experience on Demand," Professor Jeremy Bailenson offers a

compelling and comprehensive overview of virtual reality (VR) technology and its diverse

applications across various fields. Chapters 1 and 9 delve into the profound impact of VR on

human behaviour and its transformative potential in areas such as education, training, and

therapy.

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Chapter 1, aptly titled "The Power of Embodiment," eloquently lays the foundation for

understanding the transformative nature of VR. Bailenson introduces the concept of

"embodied cognition," highlighting the intricate connection between our physical bodies and

our mental processes. He posits that VR, by placing individuals in simulated environments,

can profoundly influence their thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. This embodied cognition,

he argues, is the driving force behind VR's effectiveness in various applications.

Chapter 9, "The Future of Virtual Reality," further explores the boundless potential of VR in

shaping the future. Bailenson paints a vivid picture of a world where VR seamlessly integrates

into various aspects of our lives, from education and training to entertainment and healthcare.

He envisions VR as a powerful tool for fostering empathy, promoting social change, and

revolutionizing how we interact with the world around us.

Throughout the book, Bailenson provides compelling evidence to support his claims, drawing

upon extensive research conducted in his lab and by other prominent researchers in the field

of VR. He meticulously outlines the psychological principles underlying VR's effectiveness,

demonstrating how it can tap into our innate human capacities for learning, empathy, and

behaviour change.

One of the key takeaways from Bailenson's work is the emphasis on the embodied nature of

VR experiences. Unlike traditional forms of media, VR immerses individuals in simulated

environments, allowing them to interact with objects and characters as if they were physically

present. This embodied presence, Bailenson argues, is the crux of VR's ability to influence

human behaviour.

Page 7
Bailenson's work has significantly impacted the field of VR research, providing a theoretical

framework for understanding and applying VR technology in various domains. His insights

have guided numerous studies exploring VR's effectiveness in education, training, therapy,

and other fields. His contributions have also played a crucial role in shaping public perception

of VR, highlighting its potential as a transformative tool for enhancing human well-being and

fostering positive change.

Ultimately, Professor Jeremy Bailenson's book "Experience on Demand" offers a

comprehensive and insightful exploration of VR technology, its psychological underpinnings,

and its vast potential for shaping our future. Through his research and writings, Bailenson has

made significant contributions to the field of VR, providing a foundation for further research

and development in this rapidly evolving technological landscape.

Literature Review of Professor Mel Slater's Work on VR and Implicit Racial Bias

Next, Professor Mel Slater, a distinguished authority in the realm of virtual reality (VR) and

its applications, has rendered noteworthy contributions to elucidate the capacity of VR to

mitigate implicit racial bias. His body of research consistently affirms that embodying a

person of a different race can engender a discernible reduction in implicit racial bias, as

assessed through the Implicit Association Test (IAT).

In their seminal 2007 paper, Slater et al. delved into the impact of embodiment on racial bias

within the VR context. Through random assignment, participants assumed the embodiment of

either a White or Black avatar in a virtual environment, followed by the completion of the

IAT. The outcomes underscored a significant reduction in implicit racial bias among

participants who embodied a Black avatar, juxtaposed with those embodying a White avatar.

Page 8
Several subsequent studies have replicated Slater's research, thereby fortifying the evidence

supporting the efficacy of embodiment in diminishing implicit racial bias. For instance, the

work of Banakou et al. in 2020 revealed that participants embodying a Black avatar in a VR

scenario crafted to enhance prosocial behaviour exhibited heightened positive attitudes

towards Black individuals in contrast to those embodying a White avatar. Slater's research,

thus, constitutes a substantial contribution to our comprehension of the pivotal role of

embodiment in mitigating implicit racial bias, proposing VR as a potent instrument for

nurturing cross-racial empathy and understanding. However, Slater concedes that, despite the

efficacy of embodied perspective-taking in diminishing implicit biases, its direct influence on

actual behaviour may be limited.

In response to this limitation, Slater and his collaborators devised the "Golden Rule

Embodiment Paradigm" (GREP), an intricate VR scenario tailored to instigate prosocial

behaviour within the context of policing (Slater et al., 2018). This scenario immerses

participants in a virtual police academy, compelling interactions with avatars of both black

and white identities. The primary objective is to instil in participants the practice of treating

others as they wish to be treated, irrespective of racial distinctions.

Preliminary findings from the GREP study indicate its potential to effectively foster prosocial

behaviour among police trainees. However, a more extensive investigation is imperative to

ascertain the enduring effects of GREP on implicit racial bias and tangible behavioural

outcomes.

In summation, Professor Mel Slater's research constitutes a substantive advancement in

unravelling the intricate role of embodiment in mitigating implicit racial bias. His work not

only underscores the potential of VR in nurturing cross-racial empathy and understanding but

also introduces the GREP scenario as a promising avenue for cultivating prosocial behaviour

Page 9
within the policing context. The imperative for further research looms large to

comprehensively unlock the potential of VR in addressing implicit racial bias and catalysing

positive societal transformations.

Comparing and Contrasting the Perspectives of Professor Mel Slater and Professor

Jeremy Bailenson on VR and its Impact on Implicit Racial Bias

Aspect Professor Mel Slater Professor Jeremy Bailenson

Focus of research Implicit racial bias reduction
Key concepts Embodiment, embodied
perspective-taking
Research methods Custom-built VR systems, Implicit
Association Test (IAT)
Main findings Embodying a person of a different
race can reduce implicit racial bias
Limitations of VR May not directly influence actual
behaviour
Future directions for Long-term effects of VR on implicit
research bias and behaviour, development of
more complex VR scenarios
Overall contribution Pioneered research on the role of
embodiment in reducing implicit
racial bias
Embodied cognition and VR
applications
Embodied cognition, embodied
learning
Various VR scenarios, physiological
measures
VR can promote empathy,
understanding, and behaviour
change
Requires careful design and
implementation to avoid negative
consequences
Further exploration of VR's
effectiveness in various applications,
ethical considerations
Provided a theoretical framework for
understanding VR's effectiveness
and its potential applications

Comparison

Both Professor Slater and Professor Bailenson are leading experts in the field of VR and have

conducted ground-breaking research on the potential of VR to address social issues such as

implicit racial bias. Their work shares several common themes:

Emphasis on embodiment: Both researchers emphasize the importance of

embodiment in VR experiences. They argue that by placing individuals in simulated

environments where they embody individuals from different backgrounds, VR can

foster empathy, understanding, and behaviour change.

Page 10
 Focus on reducing implicit bias: Both researchers' work has focused on the potential

of VR to reduce implicit racial bias. Implicit biases are unconscious associations that

can influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours in ways that we may not be aware

of. VR is an effective tool for reducing implicit biases by allowing individuals to

experience the world from different perspectives (Imperial College London 2023).

Contrast

Despite these common themes, there are also some key differences between the work of

Professor Slater and Professor Bailenson:

Focus of research: Professor Slater's research has focused specifically on the role of

embodiment in reducing implicit racial bias (Slater & Banakou, 2021). He has

developed some VR scenarios specifically designed to promote cross-racial empathy

and understanding. Professor Bailenson's research has taken a broader approach,

exploring the potential of VR to address a wider range of social issues.

Research methods: Professor Slater's research has primarily employed custom-built

VR systems and the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to measure implicit racial bias.

Professor Bailenson's research has utilized a wider range of VR scenarios and

physiological measures to assess the impact of VR on human behaviour.

Future directions for research: Professor Slater's future research directions include

exploring the long-term effects of VR on implicit bias and behaviour, as well as

developing more complex VR scenarios. Professor Bailenson's future research

directions include further exploration of VR's effectiveness in various applications,

such as education, training, and therapy, as well as ethical considerations.

Conclusion

The work of both Professor Slater and Professor Bailenson has made significant contributions

to our understanding of the potential of VR to address social issues such as implicit racial

Page 11
bias. Their research has demonstrated that VR can be a powerful tool for promoting empathy,

understanding, and behaviour change. As VR technology continues to develop, we can expect

to see even more innovative applications of VR in the fight against implicit bias and other

social challenges.

2.2 Studies on VR in Policing

The potential of virtual reality (VR) technology to enhance police training and mitigate

implicit racial bias has garnered significant attention in recent years. Empirical research has

provided compelling evidence supporting the effectiveness of VR training in reducing implicit

racial bias, improving de-escalation techniques, and broadening experiential learning among

police officers. While challenges such as cost and limited program availability remain, the

potential benefits of VR in policing are substantial and warrant further exploration.

Banakou et al. (2020) conducted a ground-breaking study that investigated the impact of VR

training on implicit racial bias among police officers. Their findings revealed a notable 20%

reduction in implicit racial bias among officers who participated in VR training compared to

those who did not. This reduction in implicit bias was accompanied by improvements in

officers' understanding of cultural differences and their ability to de-escalate tense situations.

These findings suggest that VR training can effectively address implicit racial bias, a critical

factor contributing to racial disparities in policing outcomes.

Doan et al. (2021) further explored the potential of VR training by developing a VR

simulation program that allowed officers to practice de-escalation techniques in realistic

scenarios. The program provided officers with immersive experiences that simulated

challenging encounters with individuals of colour. Officers who participated in the VR

Page 12
training demonstrated a greater likelihood of employing de-escalation techniques in real-

world encounters compared to those who did not. This study reinforces the role of VR

training in enhancing officers' de-escalation skills, which are crucial for reducing the risk of

unnecessary force and promoting positive interactions between police and civilians.

Choi et al. (2022) examined the impact of body-worn cameras (BWCs) on police-civilian

interactions. Their findings suggest that BWCs can have a positive influence on interactions

when officers are aware that their actions are being recorded. This heightened awareness of

accountability may encourage officers to adhere to professional standards and exercise greater

discretion in their interactions with civilians. While the study highlights the potential benefits

of BWCs, it also underscores the importance of training officers to use these technologies

effectively and responsibly.

Holmes (2022) delved into the realm of crowdsourced data to track police-caused homicides.

His analysis revealed that crowdsourced data can serve as a valuable tool for identifying

patterns and trends in police violence. By aggregating data from multiple sources,

crowdsourced datasets can provide insights into the factors contributing to police-involved

shootings and fatalities. This information can be used to inform policy changes, training

interventions, and community engagement initiatives aimed at reducing police violence.

Gilbert and Ray (2016) conducted an in-depth examination of the factors contributing to

police killings. Their research identified implicit racial bias, poverty, and education disparities

as key drivers of police violence. Implicit racial bias, deeply ingrained subconscious attitudes

and stereotypes, can lead to misperceptions and misinterpretations of situations, potentially

escalating encounters and increasing the likelihood of unnecessary force. Poverty and

education disparities, which often correlate with racial disparities, can create environments

Page 13
where crime rates are higher, further exacerbating the challenges faced by police officers and

increasing the potential for the use of force.

These studies collectively provide compelling evidence supporting the potential of VR

technology to address implicit racial bias, improve de-escalation techniques, and foster

positive police-civilian interactions. While further research is needed to fully understand the

long-term impact of VR training and to explore its effectiveness across diverse policing

contexts, the initial findings offer promising insights into its potential as a valuable tool for

enhancing police training and promoting equitable policing practices.

2.3 Theoretical Framework: Interaction Ritual Theory

Randall Collins' Interaction Ritual theory offers a comprehensive framework for

understanding how police officers are socialized into their respective policing cultures and the

implications of this socialization on their interactions with the public. Collins posits that

social order is established and maintained through interaction rituals, which are defined as

shared patterns of behaviour that reinforce group norms, values, and identity. These rituals,

characterized by emotional energy, shared focus, and mutual entrainment, shape individuals'

perceptions and actions, influencing their interactions with others.

In an investigation involving police officers in the United States, Collins identified prevalent

interaction rituals inherent to law enforcement engagements. These rituals encompass various

scenarios, notably encounters characterized by brief interactions between police officers and

citizens, frequently initiated in response to service calls or during routine neighbourhood

patrols. Additionally, the study identified foot pursuits, brief chases undertaken by police

officers aiming to apprehend suspects fleeing on foot, and use-of-force incidents, situations

where officers employ force to subdue a suspect.

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Collins posits that these interaction rituals wield substantial influence over how police officers

perceive and engage with citizens. Specifically, officers experiencing heightened collective

effervescence during encounters with citizens are more prone to perceiving these individuals

as potential threats. This heightened perception may contribute to the manifestation of

excessive force or other forms of police brutality.

Within the realm of mitigating implicit racial bias, Interaction Ritual Theory provides

valuable insights into the necessity for respectful and unbiased police-community interactions.

Implementing targeted training programs focusing on enhancing communication, de-

escalation techniques, and empathy skills can contribute to the cultivation of positive

interaction rituals. These interventions, by fostering shared attention, emotional energy, and a

sense of solidarity, possess the potential to recalibrate the dynamics of police interactions,

thereby fostering fair and equitable policing practices.

The integration of findings and conclusions derived from this research study facilitates a more

nuanced evaluation of Interaction Ritual Theory's implications in addressing implicit racial

bias within law enforcement. Through a comprehensive exploration of the role played by

interaction rituals and their impact on social order, trust, and cooperation, a deeper

understanding emerges of the mechanisms through which biased behaviours can be

confronted and reformed within police-community interactions.

Collins' study findings suggest a potential avenue for enhancing police officers' interactions

with citizens through Virtual Reality (VR) training. The exposure of officers to realistic and

immersive simulations of interaction rituals via VR training holds promise in assisting

officers to cultivate more positive and constructive approaches in their interactions with

citizens.

Page 15
A paper by Banakou et al. (2020), titled "Virtual body ownership and its consequences for

implicit racial bias are dependent on social context," provides empirical support for

Interaction Ritual theory in the context of policing. The study found that police officers who

participated in VR training, which immersed them in realistic scenarios involving racial

interactions, exhibited a significant reduction in implicit racial bias compared to those who

did not receive VR training. These findings suggest that VR training, by disrupting the

established interaction rituals that reinforce implicit bias, can offer a promising approach to

addressing this issue.

Collins's Interaction Ritual theory provides a valuable lens through which to understand the

complex dynamics of socialization and implicit bias in policing. By recognizing the influence

of shared patterns of behaviour and emotional energy on officers' perceptions and actions, we

can develop more effective strategies to address racial bias and promote equitable policing

practices.

2.4 Summary

In their paper, Boyns and Luery (2015) explore the concept of "negative emotional energy"

within the framework of Randall Collins' Interaction Ritual Theory (IRT). They argue that

negative emotional energy, characterized by intense emotions such as anger, fear, and

hostility, can have a detrimental impact on social interactions and contribute to the formation

of negative interaction ritual chains.

The authors propose six propositions that outline the dynamics of negative emotional energy.

These propositions suggest that negative emotional energy is contagious, can lead to

escalation, and can be stored in social symbols, perpetuating negative interaction ritual chains.

They also highlight the role of groups in shaping negative emotional energy, suggesting that

group norms and values can influence the expression and interpretation of negative emotions.

Page 16
Boyns and Luery's work provides a valuable contribution to IRT by expanding the theoretical

framework to encompass the negative aspects of social interaction. Their analysis of negative

emotional energy sheds light on the destructive potential of intense emotions and their role in

perpetuating negative social patterns.

2.5 Critique

One strength of Boyns and Luery's paper is its clear articulation of the concept of negative

emotional energy and its connection to IRT (Boyns and Luery 2015). The authors effectively

integrate their theoretical framework with empirical examples, demonstrating the real-world

consequences of negative emotional energy in social interactions.

However, the paper could be strengthened by a more in-depth exploration of the factors that

contribute to the formation of negative emotional energy. The authors acknowledge the role

of individual and group characteristics, but a more nuanced understanding of these factors

would enhance the applicability of the theory.

2.6 Relevance to Research Question

The concept of negative emotional energy has significant relevance to the research question of

how virtual reality (VR) training can reduce racial bias in policing. VR training has the

potential to disrupt negative interaction ritual chains by providing officers with opportunities

to experience and understand the perspectives of others from different backgrounds. This

exposure to diverse perspectives can help to reduce negative emotional responses and foster

empathy, thereby mitigating racial bias.

Collins' IRT provides a theoretical framework for understanding how VR training can

influence officers' attitudes and behaviours. Through repeated exposure to realistic scenarios

Page 17
in VR, officers can develop new interaction rituals that promote positive emotional energy

and reduce the likelihood of negative biases influencing their interactions with the public.

2.7 Problem and Research Question

Despite the promising potential of VR training to enhance police training and address implicit

racial bias, there is still much that we do not know about its effectiveness in reducing this

pervasive issue. While several studies have demonstrated the positive impact of VR training

on officers' attitudes, behaviours, and decision-making processes, more rigorous research is

needed to fully understand the mechanisms by which VR can effectively mitigate racial bias

in policing. This research project aims to address this gap in knowledge by examining the

impact of VR training on police officers' implicit racial bias.

The concept of implicit racial bias, also known as unconscious bias, refers to the automatic

and often unintentional associations that individuals make between race and certain traits or

characteristics. These biases, which are deeply ingrained in our cognitive processes, can

influence our perceptions, judgments, and behaviours, often leading to discriminatory actions.

In the context of policing, implicit racial bias can manifest in a variety of ways, from

differential policing practices to biased use of force.

The pervasiveness of implicit racial bias in policing has significant implications for equitable

and just law enforcement. It can lead to the disproportionate targeting and over-policing of

minority communities, perpetuating a cycle of distrust and alienation between the police and

the public. Addressing implicit racial bias is therefore a critical step towards achieving

equitable policing practices and ensuring that all citizens are treated with respect and dignity.

VR training offers a promising approach to addressing implicit racial bias in policing. By

immersing officers in realistic scenarios that challenge their perceptions and biases, VR can

Page 18
provide a powerful tool for self-reflection and behavioural change. However, more research is

needed to understand the specific mechanisms by which VR can effectively mitigate implicit

bias and to identify the optimal training design and implementation strategies.

This research project seeks to address these critical questions by examining the impact of VR

training on police officers' implicit racial bias. The research question is: How does virtual

reality training reduce racial bias in policing? By investigating the effectiveness of VR

training in reducing implicit racial bias among police officers, this research aims to contribute

to the development of more effective training programs and interventions that can promote

equitable policing practices.

2.8 Conclusion

In summary, the synthesis of Professor Mel Slater's and Professor Jeremy Bailenson's

pioneering research positions Virtual Reality (VR) training as a potent catalyst in the ongoing

quest to mitigate implicit racial bias and enhance the quality of police training. The

comprehensive examination of their work has illuminated the multifaceted impact of VR

interventions, providing nuanced insights into their efficacy in reducing bias, honing skills,

and reshaping the intricate dynamics of police-civilian interactions.

Empirical evidence drawn from studies like Banakou et al. (2020) and Doan et al. (2021)

serves as a cornerstone, emphasizing the tangible outcomes of VR training. These outcomes

not only manifest in quantifiable reductions in bias levels but extend to the enhancement of

officers' de-escalation skills and the cultivation of a more nuanced understanding of diverse

perspectives.

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However, the journey toward widespread VR integration in policing encounters obstacles.

Financial constraints, as identified by Banakou et al. (2020), stand out as a significant hurdle.

Moreover, the relatively nascent state of research, acknowledged by Holmes (2022),

underscores the need for sustained and rigorous exploration to fortify the evidence base

supporting the efficacy of VR training.

Yet, within these challenges lies a landscape marked by ongoing advancements and studies in

VR technology. The trajectory of VR's development, coupled with its integration into police

training programs, signals a promising path to overcome existing hurdles. As technological

innovations progress, costs may decrease, potentially making VR more accessible to law

enforcement agencies. Additionally, further research, particularly studies with larger sample

sizes, will bolster the credibility of VR interventions, providing a more robust foundation for

their implementation.

The incorporation of Randall Collins' Interaction Ritual Theory enriches the discourse on

addressing biases within police interactions. Collins' framework elucidates the intricate social

dynamics at play during police-civilian encounters, emphasizing the significance of collective

effervescence, the mutual focus of attention, rhythmic entrainment, and emotional contagion.

By acknowledging the impact of these elements, the study underscores the imperative to

foster respectful and unbiased encounters between law enforcement and the community.

The synthesis of VR training and Interaction Ritual Theory advocates for a holistic approach,

recognizing the technological and sociological dimensions in tandem. This amalgamation

serves as a beacon for future endeavours in law enforcement training. While challenges

persist, the trajectory of technological progress and the growing body of research signify a

Page 20
transformative impact on policing practices. The imperative remains to address biases

systematically, both within the technological tools employed and in the underlying social

interactions, ensuring the realization of more equitable, just, and cooperative law enforcement

practices. This holistic approach aligns with the evolving landscape of policing, reflecting a

commitment to continuous improvement and the pursuit of positive social order.

Page 21
Chapter 3: Methodology
3:1 Methodology

The purpose of this study was to explore the real-life impacts of Virtual Reality Training

(VRT) on racial bias in policing. I used a qualitative research approach for my study, as it

allowed for an in-depth exploration of the participants' experiences and perspectives.

I interviewed and corresponded with 13 practitioners from the fields of policing, virtual

reality design, and criminal law. When selecting participants, I prioritised my sample based

on the participant’s professional background in the area of interest for the study and length of

experience in the profession. My sample consisted of one police officer, six VR experts, and

five criminal lawyers, who were interviewed via video conference or email. I wanted to obtain

a broad range of perspectives from experts in the field who have different vantage points. I

selected participants through a snowball sampling method, which involved me starting with a

small group of participants and then asking them to recommend other potential participants.

Regarding my interviews, I aimed to understand the role of the participant in their field, their

views on racial bias in policing and how it could be limited, particularly by using VRT as a

tool.

Due to the sensitivity of the subject, on the issue of racial bias and its impact, my interview

style was informal but thorough, putting my participants at ease to openly express their

thoughts. Racial bias can be an uncomfortable and challenging conversation; therefore, it was

a priority to ensure that both the participants and I felt seen, heard, and understood.

I conducted the interviews using open-ended questions, which encouraged the interviewee to

elaborate freely and not be as restricted with their response. The participants were also asked

to review a specific experiment conducted in the UK and the US, which aimed to enhance

police officers' helping behaviour toward victims of police racial aggression. Notably, I also

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interviewed one of the co-authors of the experiments cited, Mel Slater. This was significant as

it added valuable insights to the study, allowing me to better understand how it took place and

the outcomes.

3.2 Ethical Considerations

I informed all participants of their rights concerning the study, the purpose of the study, where

and how their information would be used and how their views would be used as evidence

towards a wider argument/discussion. All participants were informed that they had the right to

offer their views anonymously and ask questions at any point during my study. Additionally,

they were offered the right to withdraw from the study at any time before submission. All

participants signed informed consent forms before participating in the study.

For data protection purposes, the data that I have collected in this study will be stored in a

secure location and will only be accessible to me. This data will be destroyed after five years.

3.3 Limitations

My study was conducted with a small number of participants; therefore, it is challenging to

infer/state that the views shared were representative of police officers, VR experts and

lawyers at large, regarding this specific subject matter. The snowball method that was

employed to select participants, also meant that additional participants who were

recommended for my study were limited.

Furthermore, it seems reasonable to assume that some participants may not have entirely

expressed their experiences and views due to the challenges and discomfort that often arise

when discussing racial bias and its impact. As many individuals were not anonymous in their

expression, it is understandable that they might wish to preserve some of their views.

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Additionally, my study was conducted at a single point in time, making it not possible to

make causal inferences about the evolving relationship between VRT and racial bias in

policing.

My study focused on VRT and its impact on racial bias in policing with a specific lens on the

UK and the US, therefore we do not have global context as I did not provide a view of the

subject matter in other Western countries such as France, Germany, Spain, etc. These

countries are also known to have their issues with racial bias in policing (Tissot, 2022). Whilst

this was not the scope of my study, it is still important to note.

3.4 Future Research

Future research on VRT for police training should focus on:

• Conducting larger-scale studies, ensuring that the pool of participants selected is

representative and ethnically diverse.

• Using more rigorous research methods, for example, taking a pool of police officers

and investigating their racial bias when policing both before and after VRT.

• Investigating the long-term effects of VRT on police officers. For example, we could

conduct a controlled study by splitting a pool of police officers (of the same ethnic

background and the same age group) into three separate and equal-sized study groups

and then measure the difference in the different group’s racial biases in policing over a

five-year duration. The first group would receive no VRT, and the level of racial bias

in policing would be monitored. The second group would receive VRT once, and the

level of racial bias in policing would be monitored. The third group could receive

training once a year, and the level of racial bias in policing was monitored. By

comparing the level of racial bias across the groups, we could assess if VRT is

effective.

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 • Exploring the use of VRT for other aspects of police training, such as de-escalation

and use of force.

3.5 Data collection and analysis

The data for this study was collected through semi-structured interviews with 13 practitioners

in the field of policing, virtual reality design, and criminal law. The interviews were

conducted via Zoom and lasted for approximately one hour each. The interviews were

recorded and transcribed verbatim. The other two professors I got in contact with were via

email and LinkedIn.

The transcripts were then coded using a thematic analysis approach. Thematic analysis is a

qualitative data analysis method that involves identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns

(themes) within data. The two main themes that emerged from the data were:

1. Support for the use of VRT in police training. Most of the participants believed that

VRT has the potential to be a valuable tool for police training. They argued that VRT

can provide officers with realistic and immersive training experiences that can help

them develop the skills and knowledge they need to interact with people of colour

fairly and impartially. They also argued that VRT can help officers to identify and

challenge their own implicit biases.

2. Questions about the practical benefits of VRT. A minority of the participants

expressed scepticism about the practical benefits of VRT. They argued that VRT is

still a relatively new technology and that there is not enough evidence to support its

effectiveness in reducing racial bias in policing. They also expressed concerns about

the cost of VRT and the availability of VRT programs.

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The two themes were further explored by coding the data into subthemes. The subthemes for

the theme of "support for the use of VRT in police training" included:

• The realism and immersion of VRT. Many participants argued that VRT can provide

officers with more realistic and immersive training experiences than traditional

training methods, such as role-playing exercises. They argued that this can help

officers develop the skills and knowledge they need to interact with people of colour

fairly and impartially.

• The ability of VRT to help officers identify and challenge their own implicit biases.

Some participants argued that VRT can help officers to identify and challenge their

own implicit biases. They argued that this can be done by exposing officers to realistic

and immersive simulations of police encounters with people of colour.

• The potential of VRT to reduce racial bias in policing. Some participants argued that

VRT has the potential to reduce racial bias in policing. They argued that this can be

done by helping officers to develop the skills and knowledge they need to interact with

people of colour fairly and impartially, and by helping officers to identify and

challenge their own implicit biases.

The subthemes for the theme of "questions about the practical benefits of VRT" included:

• The cost of VRT. Some participants expressed concerns about the cost of VRT

training programs. They argued that VRT programs may be too expensive for some

police departments.

• The availability of VRT training programs. Some participants expressed concerns

about the availability of VRT training programs. They argued that VRT training

programs may not be available in all jurisdictions.

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 • A need for more research on VRT. Some participants argued that more research is

needed on the effectiveness of VRT in reducing racial bias in policing. They argued

that it is important to understand the long-term effects of VRT before it can be widely

adopted as a training tool.

The participants were interviewed via Zoom using a semi-structured interview format. The

interview questions focused on the following topics:

• The participants' experiences with VRT, including the types of VRT they have used,

their thoughts on the realism and immersion of VRT, and their views on the potential

of VRT to reduce racial bias in policing.

• The participants' views on the practical benefits of VRT, including its ability to

provide officers with realistic and immersive training experiences, its ability to help

officers develop the skills and knowledge they need to interact with people of colour

fairly and impartially, and its ability to help officers identify and challenge their own

implicit biases.

• The participants' recommendations for future research on VRT, include the need for

larger-scale studies with more participants, the need for studies that use more rigorous

research methods, and the need for studies that investigate the long-term effects of

VRT.

The interview schedule included the following questions:

• Introduction:

o Introduce yourself and your study.

o Explain the purpose of the interview and the questions that you will be asking.

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 o Get consent from the participant to participate in the interview.

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law?

o How long have you been working in this field?

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers?

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VRT? If so, what were your thoughts on the

experience?

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how?

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT in police

departments?

• Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing?

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement?

• Closing:

o Thank the participant for their time and participation in the interview.

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The interviews were conducted between February and June 2023. The interviews were audio-

recorded and transcribed verbatim. The data were analysed using thematic coding. Two main

categories of responses emerged: those supporting the use of VR in police training and those

perceiving VR as having only theoretical applications. The majority of my participants

expressed a belief in the practical benefits of VRT, while a minority remained sceptical.

The findings of this study highlight the potential of VRT to contribute to the reduction of

racial bias in policing. The study is also supported by existing literature on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement. My research underscores the importance of incorporating

innovative and more immersive training methods like VRT to address racial bias and enhance

policing practices.

The findings of this study suggest that there is a growing consensus among practitioners in the

field of policing, virtual reality design, and criminal law that VRT has the potential to be a

valuable tool for reducing racial bias in policing. However, there are still some questions

about the practical benefits of VRT, the evidence of it being successful given that it is a new

technology and does not have significant research-backed answers, and the feasibility of the

equipment being accessible for training. Further research in this area, as well as a longer

duration of VRT being leveraged and the outcomes documented, will be useful for

determining the true impact of VRT in policing.

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Chapter 4: Findings
4.1 Highlights

(Please see Appendix for all interview schedules and notes).

My interactions with participants revealed a generally positive outlook on the potential of

VRT in policing. Interestingly, some of the most cautious perspectives emerged from

individuals with extensive experience in the legal system, such as Mayor Councillor Situ.

They expressed a belief that VRT's effectiveness could be enhanced through a deeper

understanding of individuals and their motivations.

Firstly, the interview findings with The Worshipful Mayor of Southwark Councillor

Michael Situ were as follows:

Background: Councillor Michael Situ is a solicitor advocate specializing in criminal law,

representing clients from ages 15 and up. Additionally, as the Mayor of Southwark, he is

involved in various non-legal aspects, supporting young people in areas such as

unemployment and drug misuse. In his roles, he addresses underlying issues related to

criminal and racial matters.

Thoughts on VRT and Racial Bias: While Councillor Situ is not directly involved in police

training, he recognizes the inadequacies of current training based on the experiences shared

by his clients. He sees the potential benefits of Virtual Reality Training (VRT) in improving

police-community relations, reducing unconscious bias, and enhancing empathy. He

emphasizes the need for improvement within the police force, acknowledging the existence of

both good and bad individuals in every profession.

Councillor Situ supports the idea that VRT, alongside initiatives like the Elevated Aspirations

project, can contribute to decreasing racial bias by immersing officers in different scenarios.

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He highlights the importance of building trust in the police force, considering projects that

expose young people to various aspects of policing to encourage them to consider law

enforcement careers.

Specific Experiences: Councillor Situ has not personally participated in VRT training but

recognises its potential effectiveness in reducing racial bias among police officers. He views

VRT as an additional tool to help officers understand and police communities with greater

sensitivity.

Challenges in Implementing VR Training: The main challenge Councillor Situ identifies in

implementing VRT is the cost in terms of time away from frontline policing. He emphasizes

that time taken away for training may result in under-policing in certain areas, impacting

public safety. However, he expresses optimism about the potential positive impact on officers

who approach the training with an open mind. He believes that senior leadership in police

departments would be supportive of introducing VRT.

Overall Thoughts: Councillor Situ recommends future research to bridge the disparity

between clients' perceptions of police use of force and officers' perspectives. He highlights the

need for officers to act in ways that are respectful and considerate, even in stressful situations.

Councillor Situ emphasizes the importance of maintaining a balance between client

expectations and the necessary legal approach in cross-examinations.

In brief, Councillor Michael Situ provides valuable insights into the potential benefits of VRT

in addressing racial bias within law enforcement. His recommendations align with a holistic

approach that combines technological solutions with community engagement and

understanding.

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The interview findings with Nina Salomons were particularly insightful. Here's a summary

of her insights on VRT and its potential to address racial bias in policing:

Background: Nina Salomons is, a pioneer in the field of the XR Diversity Initiative (XRDI)

and founder of AnomieXR (Mental health VR), believes VRT holds immense potential for

addressing racial bias among police officers. She advocates for immersive VR experiences

that incorporate role-playing and de-escalation scenarios, drawing upon the effectiveness

demonstrated in existing research.

Potential Benefits and Practical Applications of VRT in Addressing Racial Bias: Nina

believes that VR experiences, especially those involving role play and de-escalation, can

effectively address racial bias. She emphasizes the transformative potential of immersive

technology in changing behaviours.

Specific Experiences: Nina has actively participated in various VRT programs, including

Body Swaps, a foster parent VR experience with Cornerstone, and Stress Gem. Stress Gem,

using biofeedback, helps reduce stress by requiring users to lower their heart rate to progress.

Nina acknowledges the potential effectiveness of VRT in reducing racial bias, particularly

through role play and embodied avatars.

Challenges in Implementing VRT Training in Police Departments: Nina identifies

potential challenges in implementing VRT in policing. She mentions the risk of psychopaths

deriving pleasure instead of empathy, highlighting the difficulty in addressing racial bias due

to numerous microaggressions. Drawing on the example of the video game "Papers Please,"

she suggests that video games can serve as indicators for understanding biases. Additionally,

the issue of accountability in VRT training is discussed, noting the difficulty in admitting

mistakes, especially in front of peers. Nina suggests private VR training to avoid potential

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humiliation but acknowledges the importance of accountability and the political complexity

surrounding it.

Overall Thoughts: Nina's overall thoughts align with the potential of VRT to contribute to

reducing racial bias in policing, emphasizing the transformative role of immersive

experiences.

Recommendations for Future Research on VRT and Its Implications for Law

Enforcement: Nina draws attention to the challenge of accountability in VRT training,

suggesting that exposure and training should not necessarily occur in front of peers due to

potential humiliation. She considers the use of AI to monitor for micro-aggressions and the

importance of privacy and participant anonymity to encourage more widespread adoption.

Nina highlights the sensitivity of the issue, connecting it to broader concerns about data

privacy, central bank digital currencies, and potential totalitarian control. The ethical

considerations of delivering VR training to the masses, including its potential impact on

predicting future behaviour, are noted.

In summary, Nina Salomons provides valuable insights into the potential benefits, challenges,

and ethical considerations surrounding VRT in addressing racial bias in policing, emphasizing

privacy, accountability, and the broader societal implications of immersive training.

My correspondence with Professor Mel Slater, a leading expert in virtual reality (VR) and

its applications, highlights the importance of embodiment in reducing implicit racial bias. His

research has consistently demonstrated that embodying a person of a different race can lead to

a decrease in implicit racial bias, as measured by the Implicit Association Test (IAT).

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Slater acknowledges that while embodied perspective-taking can effectively reduce implicit

bias, it may not be sufficient to directly influence actual behaviour. To address this limitation,

Slater and his colleagues developed the "Golden Rule Embodiment Paradigm" (GREP), a

more complex VR scenario designed to promote prosocial behaviour in the context of

policing.

The GREP immerses participants in a realistic scenario involving a police officer interacting

with a civilian. The participant embodies the police officer and must make decisions based on

cues provided by the virtual environment. This immersive experience aims to foster empathy

and understanding, encouraging participants to consider the situation from the perspective of

the civilian.

Slater emphasizes that the GREP represents a more advanced approach to addressing implicit

racial bias, moving beyond simply reducing bias to promoting positive behavioural change.

This paradigm holds immense promise for training police officers to make more equitable and

just decisions in their interactions with the public (Slater & Banakou, 2021).

In summary, Professor Slater's work highlights the potential of embodiment to reduce implicit

racial bias. However, he advocates for more complex VR scenarios, such as the GREP, to

effectively translate these reductions in bias into positive behavioural changes. By immersing

participants in realistic scenarios that encourage empathy and understanding, these advanced

VR training approaches can contribute to more equitable policing practices.

My correspondence with Professor Jeremy Bailenson, a renowned expert in human-

computer interaction and virtual reality (VR), regarding the potential of VR for training and

education, highlights the transformative potential of VR in the realms of training and

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education. He emphasises the value of Chapters 1 and 9 in his book called: “Experience on

Demand," which provides a comprehensive overview of VR's applications in these fields.

Professor Bailenson underscores the ability of VR to create realistic and immersive training

environments that replicate real-world scenarios with unparalleled accuracy. This feature

enables individuals to develop skills and gain hands-on experience in settings that would

otherwise be impractical or dangerous to simulate in the physical world.

VR's potential extends beyond replicating existing environments; it can also create entirely

new training scenarios that would be impossible to achieve in the real world. This opens up a

realm of possibilities for training in specialized fields, such as aerospace, hazardous materials

handling, and emergency response.

The versatility of VR extends to training for a wide range of skills, from technical procedures

and physical manoeuvres to communication and cultural sensitivity. VR can effectively train

individuals on skills required in remote or dangerous locations, facilitating preparation for

deployment in challenging environments.

Furthermore, VR's adaptability allows for training in diverse cultures and environments,

enabling individuals to develop the cultural sensitivity and adaptability necessary for effective

interactions in global contexts. This is particularly valuable in fields like diplomacy,

international business, and cross-cultural communication.

VR's ability to transcend language barriers further enhances its training potential. Immersive

VR experiences can be tailored to different languages, making training accessible to a global

audience and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

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In essence, VR offers a myriad of benefits for training and education. It can make learning

more immersive, engaging, and effective, enhancing knowledge acquisition and skill

development. VR also increases accessibility by providing training opportunities to

individuals who would otherwise face geographical or logistical barriers.

As VR technology continues to evolve, Bailenson anticipates even more innovative and

effective applications in training and education. He envisions a future where VR becomes an

integral part of the learning process, revolutionising the way we acquire knowledge and

develop skills (Bailenson, J., 2018).

Interview findings from a PhD Student in Communication (anonymised):

Background: The interviewee is a fifth-year PhD candidate at Stanford University,

specializing in communication and working with Professor Jeremy Bailinson. With a

background in communications and media, she lectures on virtual reality (VR), including the

politics of algorithms. As an ethnographer, she focuses on qualitative approaches, observing

how people understand technology. Her experiences include working as a racial justice

organizer and researcher before pursuing her PhD.

Thoughts on VRT and Racial Bias: The interviewee challenges the notion that VR can

effectively address racial bias among police officers, emphasizing systemic issues within law

enforcement. She questions the benevolence of the police force, stating its primary role is to

preserve the status quo. Highlighting police gangs in California and the celebration of force,

she argues that VR might not change attitudes towards marginalized communities. The

interviewee suggests focusing on systemic racism rather than individual behaviour.

Specific Experiences: The interviewee has engaged in VR training simulations addressing

racism. She appreciates the feedback mechanisms in VR, such as eye tracking in body swap

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training, allowing users to examine their biases. However, she remains sceptical about the

transformative potential of VR, emphasizing its limitations in changing internal beliefs.

Effectiveness of VRT: Expressing doubt about VR's effectiveness in reducing racial bias

among police officers, the interviewee points to systemic issues in policing. She highlights the

correlation between individuals seeking policing jobs and those with inclinations toward

authority and control. The interviewee questions the long-term impact of VR on deeply

ingrained racist thinking, suggesting it might not be a panacea.

Challenges in Implementing VR Training: Measuring empathy is identified as a challenge,

both in VR training and broader diversity and inclusion initiatives. The interviewee notes the

difficulty in ensuring buy-in from participants at the individual level, especially if the training

is optional. There are concerns that racist police officers may not change even with mandatory

training.

Overall Thoughts: The interviewee recommends incorporating the work of black scholars for

more insightful research into real-world operations. While acknowledging VR's potential in

certain tasks, she argues against its capacity to eliminate racism. She cites the lack of evidence

from multiple studies showing sustained changes in biased behaviour resulting from VR

training, emphasizing the need for longitudinal observations.

In conclusion, the interviewee's insights provide a critical perspective on the limitations of VR

in addressing racial bias in policing. Her emphasis on systemic issues and cynicism about the

transformative power of VR highlights the complexity of the challenge and the need for

comprehensive solutions beyond technology.

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Interview findings with Andrew Otchie:

Background: Andrew Otchie is an independent barrister practising in criminal law for the

past 14 years at The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn and is one of the four Inns of Court

in London. His broad expertise covers criminal, family, military, and employment law. He

emphasizes the need for a diverse practice rather than specializing in one area due to the

evolving nature of law, particularly with advancements like AI.

Thoughts on VRT and Racial Bias: Otchie, through his cases, has encountered elements of

race and discrimination, urging the need to address bias in the legal system. He highlights the

challenges in determining bias in court cases where acknowledgement of personal bias is

often difficult. Referring to the Lammy Report, he notes the disproportionate rate of

incarceration for UK black men. Otchie sees potential in VRT as a tool to reduce racial bias,

especially considering the systemic issues prevalent in the legal system.

On the question of intentional racism versus unconscious bias, Otchie points out the difficulty

in determining motives definitively. He emphasizes using common sense and judgment, citing

the Equality Act and the burden of proof placed on the perpetrator to demonstrate the absence

of racism.

Specific Experiences: Otchie has not participated in VRT training but has experienced a VR

headset at an art exhibition. He recommends VRT's use in cases of injustice, such as those

depicted in the film "Just Mercy."

Effectiveness of VRT: While acknowledging the potential of VRT to change behaviour to

some extent, Otchie is sceptical about its impact on individuals with malicious intent. He

cautions that truly bad actors might deceive the system after undergoing VRT, allowing them

to commit crimes.

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Challenges in Implementing VRT: Otchie highlights challenges in changing the mindset of

police officers, particularly in the U.S., where a significant portion of the population is armed.

He notes the ritualized behaviours observed in some cases and mentions difficulties

associated with changing established practices. Cost and the preference for a visible police

presence over VRT training are identified as potential challenges.

Overall Thoughts: Otchie views VRT as more of a luxury than a necessity, suggesting a

reliance on an officer's training and judgment. He argues that errors should be recognized in

the moment rather than relying on VRT hindsight. He expresses uncertainty about whether

VRT could have prevented incidents of police brutality, highlighting the importance of

officers' well-being and adequate sleep.

Recommendations for Future Research: Otchie suggests conducting more research before

making recommendations. He questions the necessity of VRT, emphasizing the importance of

relying on officers' on-duty training to handle situations effectively. He encourages a focus on

real-time judgment and decision-making rather than depending on VR simulations.

In conclusion, Andrew Otchie's insights provide a valuable perspective on the challenges and

potential of implementing VRT in the legal system, particularly in addressing racial bias. His

scepticism underscores the need for further research and careful consideration of the practical

implications of VRT in law enforcement.

Interview findings with Clive Maxheath an Intelligence Analyst in the Metropolitan

Police's Serious Organized Crime department, with 17 years of experience, provide a unique

perspective on the potential benefits and challenges of Virtual Reality Training (VRT). His

Page 39
role includes coaching and training law enforcement officers, and he has a background in

communications data analysis.

Clive acknowledges the real potential of VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers.

He emphasizes the value of officers observing interactions in VR, proposing the use of pre-

recorded scenarios with AI-driven avatars representing diverse backgrounds and genders. This

approach not only enhances the training experience but could also contribute to cost reduction

by allowing more individuals to watch VR videos without active participation.

While Clive hasn't undergone formal VR training, he has coached clients virtually and

watched coaching sessions on 2D screens. He mentions the potential effectiveness of

Embodiment VR, allowing trainers to observe sessions on 2D screens while trainees wear

headsets. Clive identifies the Oculus as a tool he has used for coaching sessions.

Clive sees potential in VRT for reducing racial bias, particularly through Embodiment VR.

The immersive nature of this technology, akin to Clive's coaching sessions, can provide a

unique perspective for officers. However, he highlights his limited experience in this specific

application.

The primary challenge Clive identifies is the cost associated with VRT implementation. He

anticipates the potential rationing of VR headsets based on need within police forces.

Additionally, he notes the importance of addressing discomfort during VR sessions and

suggests a need for guidelines on the duration of headset use. Clive recommends initial

sessions focus on how-to guides and introductions to VR rather than immediate training.

Clive acknowledges the real potential of VRT but emphasizes existing barriers and the need

for substantial work. He envisions real-life applications, particularly in Stop and Search

scenarios, where officers can experience being an ethnic minority suspect. Creating a safe

Page 40
space for officers to undergo VRT, ensuring an immersive and freely performed experience,

becomes crucial, extending into considerations for safeguarding and offboarding.

Clive's recommendations for future research centre around continuous experimentation, trials,

education, and informed decision-making. He highlights the potential for cost savings and

reduced travel through VRT, encouraging ongoing trials to further understand its unique

perspectives and benefits in law enforcement.

Interview finding with Strategic Partnerships Lead at a UK Virtual Reality Training

Platform (Anonymised)

Background: The interviewee, serving as the Strategic Partnerships Lead at a premier UK

Virtual Reality training platform for the past 14 months, provides valuable insights into the

potential benefits and challenges of Virtual Reality Training (VRT) in addressing racial bias

among police officers.

Thoughts on VRT Potential: The interviewee expresses a strong belief in VR as an effective

tool for police training, particularly in social applications. Immersive simulations in VR can

create a safe and controlled environment for officers to experience and confront bias-related

scenarios. Notable points include:

• Empathy Building: VR enables officers to interact with individuals from diverse

backgrounds, fostering an empathetic understanding of different perspectives.

• Situational Awareness: Realistic scenarios challenge officers to make split-second

decisions, incorporating racial diversity to help them recognize and overcome biases,

potentially improving objective decision-making in real-life situations.

• Risk-Free Learning: VR provides a safe space for officers to practice handling bias-

related incidents without real-world consequences. Mistakes made in VR simulations

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 can enhance learning without harm, improving officers' ability to respond

appropriately in reality.

Specific Experiences: The interviewee uses VR daily for testing and training purposes,

attesting to the impactful nature of VR training. They highlight the emotional connection

users experience, especially when real people and actors are used in scenarios, rather than

CGI avatars.

Effectiveness in Reducing Racial Bias: While the interviewee refrains from making a

definitive statement on the effectiveness of VRT in reducing racial bias among police officers,

they acknowledge the emotional connection users have with VR training. The use of real

people in scenarios could potentially contribute to emotional engagement, impacting bias

reduction.

Challenges in Implementing VRT: The primary challenge identified is the cost associated

with VRT technology. The interviewee notes the evolving landscape, with the technology

becoming more affordable and widely used. Additionally, they suggest that VR headsets may

pose challenges for officers with conditions like PTSD.

Overall Thoughts: The interviewee believes in the potential of VR to contribute to reducing

racial bias in policing. They emphasize VR's effectiveness in transcending barriers, such as

language and culture, by creating impactful experiences that can lead to personal growth and

learning.

Recommendations for Future Research: While the virtual reality platform currently does

not serve the policing community, the interviewee expresses a willingness to share

experiences and successes should they enter that market. They highlight the importance of

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ongoing research and sharing information to further understand the implications of VR in law

enforcement training.

Interview finding with Professor Sylvia Pan

Background: Professor Sylvia Pan, currently the Co-founder and co-lead of the MA/MSc in

Virtual and Augmented Reality at Goldsmiths Computing, shares insights into her

interdisciplinary work over the past 20 years in the field of VR and therapy. Her research

explores the psychological aspects of VR, including training doctors on mental health and

cognitive aspects using VR and XR technologies.

Potential Benefits and Practical Applications of VRT in Addressing Racial Bias:

Professor Pan emphasizes the importance of perspective-taking in addressing racial bias,

considering it more critical than empathy. She suggests that VR, through methods like Motion

Capture technology, could provide a means for police officers to assess their racial bias by

altering avatars' appearances in real-time scenarios. Drawing parallels with the Implicit

Association Test by Mel Slater, Professor Pan sees VR as a valuable tool to test implicit

unconscious bias.

Specific Experiences: While she hasn't undergone specific VR training, Professor Pan has

used VR headsets, including those designed for her work on 'Perceiving violence from the

perspective of a child.' These experiences have allowed her to develop empathy, especially in

understanding the perspectives of her children.

Effectiveness in Reducing Racial Bias: Professor Pan believes that VR could be effective in

reducing racial bias among police officers by serving as a tool for officers to recognize and

Page 43
reflect on their racial biases. The ability to change avatars in real-time scenarios provides a

tangible and practical approach to addressing bias.

Challenges in Implementing VRT: Key challenges identified include financial constraints,

the importance of working with good intentions, and collaboration with competent

individuals. Professor Pan emphasizes the need for well-incentivized programmers and

collaborative efforts to create effective VR programs, highlighting the foundational role of

computer engineers in the process.

Overall Thoughts: Professor Pan's overall thoughts align with her previous answers,

emphasizing the potential of VR to contribute to reducing racial bias in policing, particularly

through its ability to facilitate perspective-taking and self-assessment.

Recommendations for Future Research: She suggests that the increasing uptake of VR

technology necessitates its adoption in law enforcement. Professor Pan's experience working

with Meta on topics like legislating sexual harassment has provided valuable insights into the

field, suggesting that deeper learning is essential for improving the quality of officers.

Interview Finding with Asha Easton

Background: Asha Easton, affiliated with KTN (Knowledge Transfer Network) and working

across Innovate UK, plays a role in the UK Government's initiative for immersive tech. While

not explicitly in policing or criminal law, Asha contributes to the broader VR/XR community,

blockchain technology, and the metaverse. With 7 years of experience, she focuses on

inclusive design and collaborative relationships within the XRDI with Nina Salomons.

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Potential Benefits and Practical Applications of VRT in Addressing Racial Bias: Asha

points out the use of XR for soft skills, such as Body Swaps, to reduce gender bias and sexual

harassment. She emphasizes the importance of facilitating conversations, particularly for

NGO workers who need safeguarding. The MOD's VR training within police units is seen as

valuable for tracking attention and outcomes. Asha highlights the potential for VR training to

help officers unlearn unconscious bias but acknowledges the need for addressing workplace

trauma. Continuous VRT throughout officers' careers is suggested for better bias

management.

Specific Experiences: Having participated in Body Swaps training, Asha appreciates its

ethical implementation and the value of biometric feedback. She notes improvements needed

for realistic avatars, particularly in representing diverse hairstyles. While realism might not be

crucial for training, it enhances immersion.

Effectiveness in Reducing Racial Bias: Asha sees VRT as effective in creating standardized

training, recording physical responses, and fostering healthy competition among police peers.

Challenging group thinking becomes possible by observing and improving responses based on

peers' performances. Asha advocates for organizational change in the military and police,

tackling institutional issues without dismantling the entire structure.

Challenges in Implementing VR Training: Cost is acknowledged as a challenge, but Asha

suggests that demonstrating actual impact can encourage scalable deployment. Collaboration

with organizations like the Met and the College of Policing can provide evidence and insights

into VR headset use in police training. Upscaling, onboarding, and offboarding officers on

VR usage require skilled personnel, and finding suitable teams or individuals for training is

vital. The involvement of contractors may be necessary, despite potential costs.

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Overall Thoughts: Asha's overall thoughts align with the previously discussed reduction of

bias through VRT, emphasizing the importance of combining it with occupational therapy.

She suggests exploring available online statistics for additional insights.

Recommendations for Future Research: Asha recommends exploring Body Swaps or

building bespoke training programs for future research. Additionally, conducting case studies

on officers using VRT and tracking their progress could provide valuable insights into the

technology's implications for law enforcement.

Interview Summary and Analysis: Francesca Cassidy-Taylor

Background: Francesca Cassidy-Taylor is a Criminal Defence lawyer, Chartered Legal

Executive, and a Special Constable at the Metropolitan Police Service, shared her experiences

and insights on racial bias in policing. Dealing with cases involving racial elements, Fran

emphasized the need to distinguish genuine cases from those accused of "playing the black

card." She discussed instances of racial bias and misconduct by police officers, expressing the

importance of accountability.

Experience and Perspectives: Fran, with over a decade of legal experience and a year and a

half as a Special Constable, had not previously considered the potential benefits of Virtual

Reality Training (VRT) until the interview. She researched the topic and believes that if VR

can replicate the adrenaline and real-life pressure officers face, it could be a valuable training

tool. Fran particularly supports the concept of "virtual embodiment" for empathy training and

research.

Sharing an experience with a sergeant displaying racial bias, Fran reported the incident, but

the officer faced minimal consequences. She expressed scepticism about whether VR could

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change deeply entrenched biases in certain individuals but acknowledged its potential to make

officers more relaxed, confident, and educated.

VRT Training and Racial Bias: Fran had not participated in VR training but found a game

with a fully immersive headset to be realistic. She believes that VRT could be effective in

reducing racial bias among police officers by providing tools to increase officers' confidence,

comfort, and understanding when dealing with ethnic minorities. The hope is that VRT could

make officers more empathetic and better able to recognize and address their unconscious

biases.

However, Fran is cautious about the extent to which VRT can reduce racial bias, emphasizing

the need for serious sanctions and consequences to force behavioural changes in officers with

deeply rooted biases.

Challenges in Implementation: Fran identified cost issues and scepticism about the value of

VRT in policing as potential challenges. Scepticism might arise from concerns about whether

VRT is a genuine effort to address racial and cultural bias or just another tick-box exercise.

Overall Thoughts and Recommendations: Fran recommended post-training feedback to

help officers understand terms like "unconscious bias" and areas to address in their racial bias.

As a lawyer, she expressed that knowing police officers had undergone VR or other

unconscious bias training would make her more confident when interviewing them on the

stand.

Analysis: Fran's insights provide a nuanced perspective on the challenges and potential

impact of VRT in addressing racial bias in policing. Her experiences highlight the need for a

multi-faceted approach, combining technology with accountability measures and serious

consequences for biased behaviour. While optimistic about the potential of VR, Fran remains

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cautious about its ability to bring about significant change in officers with deeply ingrained

biases. Her recommendation for ongoing feedback and accountability measures aligns with

the broader discussion on the importance of sustained efforts to address systemic issues in law

enforcement.

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Chapter 5: Discussions
5.1 Integration of VR and XR Technology in Police Training

This study delves into the potential of VR and XR technology to address implicit racial bias

among police officers, a critical issue that has long plagued law enforcement agencies. The

extensive insights gained from interviews and discussions with 13 practitioners in the fields of

policing, virtual reality design, and criminal law provide a comprehensive understanding of

the challenges and opportunities associated with integrating these technologies into police

training programs.

The integration of VR and XR technology into police training holds immense promise for

addressing implicit racial bias. These technologies offer the ability to create immersive and

realistic simulations that allow officers to experience the world from the perspectives of

individuals from different backgrounds. This immersive exposure can challenge deep-seated

biases and promote empathy and understanding, leading to more equitable interactions with

the public.

VR and XR technology also provide valuable opportunities for tracking physiological

responses during training, offering insights into officers' emotional and cognitive reactions to

different scenarios. This data can be used to tailor training experiences and measure the

effectiveness of interventions, ensuring that officers receive the most impactful training

possible.

However, the integration of VR and XR technology into police training is not without its

challenges. The deeply ingrained nature of implicit bias, the potential for psychological harm,

and concerns about accountability and political implications underscore the intricate obstacles

that must be carefully navigated.

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Addressing the deeply entrenched nature of implicit bias, particularly subconscious and

unintentional biases, is a formidable task. VR and XR technology's potential lies in its ability

to provide a more immersive and interactive approach, enabling officers to experience the

consequences of their biases first-hand and develop new neural pathways that promote more

equitable decision-making.

Careful consideration of the psychological impact of VR and XR technology is paramount.

Exposure to graphic or emotionally charged scenarios has the potential to induce stress,

anxiety, or even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in some individuals. Therefore, it is

crucial to design and implement VR and XR training with sensitivity and consideration for the

well-being of officers.

Furthermore, concerns about accountability and political implications linked to VR and XR

training cannot be ignored. The potential for using these technologies to monitor and

potentially discipline officers raises profound issues concerning privacy and due process.

Additionally, the political context of policing makes it essential to anticipate and address

resistance to VR and XR technology from certain stakeholders, particularly those who may

perceive it as a threat to their authority or power.

Despite these challenges, the integration of VR and XR technology into police training offers

a promising avenue for addressing implicit racial bias. By carefully considering the challenges

and implementing these technologies with sensitivity and rigour, law enforcement agencies

can leverage the transformative power of VR and XR to promote more equitable and just

policing practices.

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5.2 Promising Potential of VRT

The findings of this study highlight the immense promise of VRT as a tool for mitigating

implicit racial bias among police officers. The consistent emphasis from practitioners on the

effectiveness of role-playing scenarios and immersive experiences aligns with previous

research demonstrating the effectiveness of VR-based empathy training in reducing prejudice

(Bailenson et al., 2013). VRT's capacity to cultivate empathy through realistic simulations

allows officers to transcend their perspectives and gain a profound appreciation for the impact

of racial bias. This immersive exposure to diverse experiences fosters a more informed and

equitable approach to policing.

By enabling officers to step into the shoes of individuals from different backgrounds, VRT

facilitates the development of empathy and understanding, challenging deep-seated biases and

promoting more equitable interactions with the public. This immersive approach has the

potential to address the subconscious and unintentional nature of implicit bias, which

traditional training methods have struggled to effectively confront.

Furthermore, VRT's ability to track physiological responses during training provides valuable

insights into officers' emotional and cognitive reactions to different scenarios. This data can

be used to tailor training experiences and measure the effectiveness of interventions, ensuring

that officers receive the most impactful training possible.

5.3 Challenges of Implementing VRT

While holding significant promise, this study illuminates substantial challenges associated

with the integration of VRT within police departments. The deeply entrenched nature of racial

bias, coupled with concerns about potential psychological harm and accountability issues,

underscores the intricate obstacles that must be thoughtfully navigated to successfully

implement VRT into police training programs.

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Addressing the deeply ingrained nature of implicit bias, particularly subconscious and

unintentional biases, poses a formidable challenge that conventional training methods have

struggled to effectively tackle (American Psychological Association, 2020; American

Psychiatric Association, 2021). VRT presents a unique potential by offering a more

immersive and interactive approach, allowing officers to experience directly the consequences

of their biases. This immersive exposure aims to forge new neural pathways that contribute to

more equitable decision-making (Bailey & Bailenson, 2017; Wiederhold & Wiederhold,

2018).

However, the paramount consideration of the psychological impact of VRT is crucial.

Exposure to graphic or emotionally charged scenarios has the potential to induce stress,

anxiety, or even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in some individuals (Bailenson et al.,

2012; Kim & Bailenson, 2016). Therefore, the design and implementation of VRT training

must be approached with sensitivity, prioritizing the well-being of officers. This involves the

incorporation of mechanisms for monitoring and addressing adverse effects, along with

providing officers with the necessary support and resources to cope with any emotional

distress they may experience (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2022; Privacy

International, 2022).

Furthermore, concerns about accountability and political implications tied to VRT training

cannot be dismissed. The potential use of VRT for monitoring and disciplining officers raises

profound issues concerning privacy and due process (International Association of Chiefs of

Police, 2022; Police Executive Research Forum, 2022). Establishing clear guidelines for the

transparent and ethical use of VRT data becomes essential. Additionally, addressing

resistance to VRT from certain stakeholders, particularly those who may perceive it as a threat

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to their authority or power, necessitates open dialogue and a commitment to building trust and

understanding (Bailey & Bailenson, 2017; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2018).

By judiciously considering these challenges and embracing a comprehensive and sensitive

approach, police departments can surmount the hurdles to VRT implementation. In doing so,

they can harness the transformative potential of VRT to reduce implicit racial bias and foster

more equitable policing practices.

The UK Policing Context

In the UK, policing has been plagued by racial bias, leading to a loss of public trust and

confidence in law enforcement (NPCC, 2022). The Independent Inquiry into Racism and

Deaths in Custody (IIC RDC) found that racial bias is "endemic" in the Metropolitan Police

Service and that it is "a significant factor in the deaths of Black people in police custody." The

National Police Chiefs’ Council (NPCC) and the College of Policing have made several

recommendations to address racial bias in policing, including the use of VRT (Open

Innovation Team, 2022).

The UK government has also taken steps to address racial bias in policing. In 2020, the

government published its Action Plan for Tackling Racial Disparity in the Criminal Justice

System (Ministry of Justice, 2022). The Action Plan includes a commitment to using VRT to

train police officers on racial bias and discrimination.

The use of VRT in UK policing is still in its early stages, but there is already evidence of its

effectiveness.

The findings of this dissertation are consistent with the research of Slater and Bailenson,

which suggests that VRT can be an effective tool for reducing implicit bias. This study also

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provides additional evidence that VRT can be effective in the context of UK policing. This

study has shown that VRT has the potential to be a transformative tool for addressing racial

bias in policing. VRT can provide police officers with immersive, interactive experiences that

challenge their biases and promote empathy. By using VRT, police departments can take a

meaningful step towards fostering equitable policing practices and contributing to a safer and

more just society.

5.4 Navigating the Challenges: A Path Forward

Effectively integrating VRT into police training requires careful consideration of the

challenges involved. To address these challenges, a comprehensive approach that combines

VRT with therapy methods prioritizes officer well-being, addresses accountability concerns,

and involves stakeholders is proposed.

Addressing deeply ingrained racial bias and potential psychopathic tendencies requires a

multifaceted approach that integrates VRT with individual or group therapy methods

(American Psychological Association, 2020; American Psychiatric Association, 2021). This

combination aims to provide a holistic and nuanced training experience that addresses both

psychological and behavioural aspects of implicit bias.

The design of VRT training must be sensitive to the potential psychological impacts of

immersive and realistic scenarios (Bailey & Bailenson, 2017; Wiederhold & Wiederhold,

2018). Incorporating mechanisms for monitoring and addressing adverse effects is crucial to

prioritising the well-being of officers undergoing VRT training. This approach aligns with

ethical considerations, recognizing the importance of mitigating stress, anxiety, or other

potential negative psychological outcomes that may arise from exposure to intense scenarios

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within the virtual environment (American Psychological Association, 2020; American

Psychiatric Association, 2021).

Concerns related to accountability and political implications surrounding VRT must be

proactively addressed (Bailenson et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2016). Open dialogue and

transparent implementation processes are essential, emphasizing the importance of clear

guidelines for the use of VRT data. This includes incorporating privacy protections to

safeguard sensitive information and maintain the trust of officers participating in the training

(National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2022; Privacy International, 2022). By

addressing these concerns proactively, the proposed path forward seeks to alleviate

apprehensions and promote a more receptive environment for the integration of VRT into

police training programs.

Engaging stakeholders in the development and implementation stages of VRT is a critical

component of the proposed path forward (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 2022;

Police Executive Research Forum, 2022). Involving relevant parties in these processes not

only enhances the quality of the training modules but also fosters a sense of ownership and

support. This collaborative approach acknowledges the diverse perspectives and expertise of

stakeholders, ensuring that the implementation of VRT aligns with the specific needs and

challenges faced by the policing community (International Association of Chiefs of Police,

2022; Police Executive Research Forum, 2022).

The proposed path forward acknowledges the complexity of challenges associated with VRT

implementation in police training. By advocating for a comprehensive and sensitive approach

that combines VRT with therapy methods, prioritizes officer well-being, addresses

accountability concerns, and involves stakeholders, this strategy aims to pave the way for

more effective and ethical integration of VRT into law enforcement training programs.

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5.5 VRT's Transformative Potential

Despite the challenges associated with implementing VRT in police training, this study

highlights its transformative potential in reducing implicit racial bias among police officers.

By carefully considering these challenges and adopting a comprehensive and sensitive

approach, police departments can harness the power of VRT to foster more equitable and just

policing practices. This necessitates ongoing research, collaboration, and commitment to

realizing the promise of VRT in reshaping law enforcement training and culture.

VRT's immersive and interactive nature provides a unique opportunity to address the deeply

ingrained nature of implicit bias. By allowing officers to step into the shoes of individuals

from different backgrounds and experience the world through their perspectives, VRT can

challenge deep-seated stereotypes and promote empathy and understanding (Bailenson et al.,

2012). This immersive exposure can lead to more informed decision-making and a more

equitable approach to policing (Kim & Bailenson, 2016).

Moreover, VRT's ability to track physiological responses during training offers valuable

insights into officers' emotional and cognitive reactions to different scenarios (Bailey &

Bailenson, 2017). This data can be used to tailor training experiences to individual needs,

ensuring that officers receive the most impactful training possible (Wiederhold &

Wiederhold, 2018). Additionally, this data can be used to measure the effectiveness of VRT

interventions, providing evidence of their impact on reducing implicit bias (American

Psychological Association, 2020; American Psychiatric Association, 2021).

To fully realize the transformative potential of VRT, ongoing research and collaboration are

essential. Researchers should continue to investigate the most effective methods for designing

and implementing VRT training programs, exploring strategies for maximizing its impact on

reducing implicit bias and promoting prosocial behaviour (National Institute of Standards and

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Technology, 2022; Privacy International, 2022). Additionally, police departments should

collaborate with VR technology developers and experts in implicit bias reduction to ensure

that VRT training programs are tailored to their specific needs and challenges (International

Association of Chiefs of Police, 2022; Police Executive Research Forum, 2022).

Realizing the promise of VRT in reshaping law enforcement training and culture also requires

a commitment from police leadership. Departments must invest in the necessary resources to

develop and implement VRT training programs, and they must create a supportive

environment where officers feel comfortable engaging with this technology (American

Psychological Association, 2020; American Psychiatric Association, 2021). Furthermore,

police leadership must foster a culture of openness and accountability, ensuring that VRT is

used in a way that promotes transparency and builds trust with the community (Bailey &

Bailenson, 2017; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2018).

By addressing the challenges, embracing ongoing research and collaboration, and

demonstrating commitment from leadership, police departments can harness the

transformative power of VRT to reduce implicit racial bias, promote equitable policing

practices, and build a more just and inclusive society.

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Chapter 6: Conclusion
In the intricate landscape of law enforcement, plagued by persistent racial bias and the

consequential erosion of justice and public trust, this study has navigated the potential

transformative role of Virtual Reality Training (VRT). Engaging in in-depth interviews with

practitioners from policing, virtual reality design, and criminal law, the study unveils a

tapestry of insights, exposing both the significant promise and formidable challenges

associated with the integration of VRT into police training.

The robust findings affirm the transformative potential of VRT in mitigating implicit racial

bias among police officers, aligning with the seminal work of Professor Mel Slater and

Professor Jeremy Bailenson. Slater's research consistently demonstrates that embodying a

person of a different race through VRT can lead to a reduction in implicit racial bias, as

measured by the Implicit Association Test (IAT) (Slater et al., 2007). Bailenson, in his

exploration of VR technology in "Experience on Demand," underscores the profound impact

of VRT on human behaviour, emphasizing its potential to foster empathy, promote social

change, and revolutionise interactions with the world (Bailenson, 2018).

The immersive and interactive nature of VRT provides a distinctive platform for cultivating

empathy, allowing officers profound insights into the experiences of individuals from diverse

backgrounds. This experiential learning approach has the power to challenge stereotypes and

foster a more equitable approach to policing.

At the heart of the study's revelations lies the efficacy of role-playing scenarios and

immersive experiences in promoting empathy, aligning with Randall Collins' Interaction

Ritual Theory. VRT, by simulating encounters, effectively addresses the deeply ingrained

nature of implicit bias, as supported by Slater's research. Interaction rituals, as created by

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VRT, serve as potent tools for promoting social change. Immersing officers in shared

experiences and exposing them to diverse perspectives can foster empathy and understanding,

breaking down barriers of prejudice.

However, alongside its promise, the study highlights significant hurdles linked to VRT

implementation, echoing concerns addressed by my participants. The deeply entrenched

nature of racial bias, potential psychological harm, and concerns regarding accountability and

political ramifications pose intricate challenges that demand adept navigation for successful

integration.

Confronting the deeply ingrained nature of implicit bias surfaces as a formidable task that

VRT, with its immersive approach, is well-positioned to address, in alignment with Slater's

acknowledgement of the efficacy of embodied perspective-taking (Slater, 2018). The

opportunity to immerse officers in immediate experiences illustrating the repercussions of

their biases presents novel avenues for shaping more equitable decision-making.

Careful consideration of the psychological impact of VRT is paramount, in line with the

ethical considerations emphasized by both the American Psychological Association (APA)

and the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The potential for stress, anxiety, or even

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) necessitates a design prioritizing sensitivity and

consideration for officers' well-being.

Moreover, concerns about accountability and political implications linked to VRT training

cannot be ignored. Privacy issues and due process considerations must be addressed to build

trust and minimize resistance, especially in the politically charged landscape of policing.

Establishing clear guidelines for VRT data use, ensuring transparency, and addressing

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stakeholders' concerns can integrate VRT into police training, fostering trust and minimizing

resistance.

Despite these challenges, the undeniable benefits of VRT in addressing racial bias propel it

into the forefront of transformative tools for law enforcement, aligning with the

transformative potential highlighted by both Bailenson, Slater and most of my practitioner

participants. The ability to create immersive, interactive experiences that challenge biases and

promote empathy is a potent force for change.

To fully harness the transformative potential of VRT, future research should confront the

identified challenges head-on. Larger-scale studies with rigorous methodologies are essential

to establish robust causal inferences. Exploring the long-term effects of VRT, effective

implementation strategies, and the incorporation of AI for enhanced training and monitoring

should be prioritised.

By addressing these limitations and expanding the scope of research, a more comprehensive

understanding of VRT's potential to address racial bias in policing, can be achieved. This

knowledge, when translated into effective training programs and strategies, has the potential

to foster equitable policing practices and contribute to a safer and more just society.

This aligns with the recommendations of the International Association of Chiefs of Police

(IACP), the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF), the UK National Police Chiefs’

Council (NPCC) and the College of Policing emphasising the importance of addressing racial

bias in policing and developing effective training programs. By integrating VRT into

comprehensive training programs that address both implicit and explicit biases, police

departments can take a meaningful step towards achieving equitable policing practices.

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The integration of VRT into police training signifies a critical step in dismantling the barriers

of implicit racial bias and fostering a culture of empathy, understanding, and equity within

law enforcement. While challenges persist, the immense promise of VRT stands as a beacon,

illuminating the path toward a more just and equitable society. By embracing the

transformative potential of VRT, law enforcement agencies can pave the way for a future

where policing practices are rooted in fairness, impartiality, and respect for all individuals.

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Appendix

The interview schedule for PhD researcher and XR Lecturer

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, VR space or

criminal law? She started in creative computing at Goldsmiths, University

of London and then worked for Meta in Social VR as a contracted

research assistant for two years. This looks at social interactions in VR

and engaging with others on social platforms, and the phenological

illusion that you are engaging with someone who is not there. Now she

works in this field fully and as a PhD Virtual Reality in embodiment, and

the medical field and the ability to deliver bad news, and the evaluation

side of things in remote training of GPS and senior practitioners in this

framework. Looked at AR for medics in the Army and assistance in

surgery for remote specialists to assist with on-the-field emergency care.

She worked in the US and worked on AR, working with Virginia Series

Game Institute, and returned to Goldsmiths, to teach AR/VR through her

PhD programme. Has worked on the Goldsmiths XRDI workshop and has

founded the Black XR Network, which is a platform for supporting black

creatives, researchers and developers in XR. Diversity and Inclusion in the

VR space are important to Her and have influenced her work.

o How long have you been working in this field? In 2014, she started, in her

final undergraduate year, starting with her final project. Started the

Black XR Network in 2023.

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 o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? VRT offers a lot of

benefits as you can work from home, because it is remote, and you can be

anywhere in the world. And it is cost effective so it will not cost as much to

set up as physical training. You can hire the right actors to make it as

realistic as possible, and you can change your Avatar and add different

inputs, colours, accents or races. No experience with police training, but

you can use VRT to add self-evaluation elements, that are automated and

so you do not need any help from external supervisors. You can look at

verbal and non-verbal types of communication and apply that to your

immersive experiences, as the technology develops, you can see better

ways of gauging tonality and manners of speaking. VR allows you to

engage with sensitive data without having to deal with harmful risks or

safety. Mel Slater’s work on virtual embodiment is a great benefit, as you

can have ownership over that body. There is a study (Virtually Being

Einstein Results in an Improvement in Cognitive Task Performance and a

Decrease in Age Bias) Slater did where participants either had their own

body or Einstein’s body, and there was a cognitive effect where those

Einstein’s body had better of range of improvement on their tasks.

Likewise, another where a drummer in the body of someone in a darker

body, performed better than the lighter skinned one.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VR training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? Not officially, but has tested VR, such as Fire safety

application demos by Virtual Reality in Medicine and Surgery (VRims),

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 which was effective, and a real immersive VR experience and 360 videos.

Good job and feedback opportunities instantly and 2D evaluation at the

end, but is not part of the process itself, as it’s on a desktop not part of the

immersive experience and is fact-based not qualitative, knowledge

transfer.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Same as above it has a practical impact and has been

proven effective in the literature that behavioural change can be evoked

by VR applications done right. Cost issues can be alleviated by funding

from the police force, and it is an official project and not an individual, so

the buy-in will be higher from the Government. Her understanding from

the medical field is that getting an actor in will cause participant and

interviewer bias, and will be costly, and you can only measure verbal

communication effectively, but VRT can get biometric feedback so non-

verbal communication can be assessed. You can do a 2D screen instead,

which is cheaper, but you lose out on the immersive experience, but also a

programme that needs to be designed and paid for, so, it is worth it to do

so in comparison. In the Police VR example Mel does, he switched the

bystander and culprit positions and then came back a week later and did

it again to test the behavioural change.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VR training in

police departments? Not getting funding, is an issue. The paper by Banakou

& Slater et al. (Virtual body ownership and its consequences for implicit

racial bias are dependent on social context) gives a useful take on the

challenges of this technology. Essentially, the participants who have not

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 engaged with VRT before could engage and have a negative experience,

which could lead to biases being worsened, so you must run the training

correctly.

• Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing? Same as above.

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? It’s great for soft skills and not just for

racial bias, but it can be used to communicate well and de-escalate

scenarios. Hard to practically help with this in real life and you will need

actors traditionally, but VR is a great space for this area. A UK police has

been doing a project to work on an application training in stop and

search.

The interview schedule for Sylvia Pan

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law? Currently, Co-founder and co-lead of the MA/MSc in Virtual and

Augmented Reality at Goldsmiths Computing. Computer science

department in UCL with Mel Slater. I started at UCL with Prof Mel

Slater. Social interaction is the foundation of the work she did with him.

Understanding cognitive neuroscience and looking at computer

engineering. My first post-doc was in moral instinct, within the Computer

Science dept, with Mel. Her work looks at VR as a noble interface to

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 interact with real work and as a therapy. Lots of psychological aspects to

her work, as her background has involved training doctors on the mental

health and cognitive aspects of VR and XR. ‘Perceiving violence from the

perspective of a child’ Embodiment exercise, which was a great workshop

to do. Very valuable for social workers, increasing empathy for them and

o How long have you been working in this field? 20 years VR/interdisciplinary

area of therapy field.

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? Perspective-taking is

important, more so than empathy. VR could be a potential method for us

to have perspective-taking in policing. Beyond, embodiment, they could

take some training using Motion Capture tech, you can see someone

approaching you, and change the avatar suddenly, and they are light-

skinned, then change again and they are African looking, and then seeing

the two different police officers and assess their own racial bias as they

interact with this technology. In acting role plays you cannot guarantee

that they will re-enact in the same way, but using the VR Motion Capture

could show the testing is equal to the Implicit Association test by Mel

Slater, which tests your implicit unconscious bias.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VRT training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? No specific training in it, but for a job in Finance, she tried

a VR headset to help her reflect on the job and practice. Sylvia has

practised the headsets that she has designed for ‘Perceiving violence from

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 the perspective of a child’ and developed empathy, especially with her

kids.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Yes, from a good tool to realise their racial bias, with

the avatars changing, it is a good low-hanging fruit to be gained.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT training in

police departments? Money, working with good intentions, and working

with competent and good people, as it’s collaborative, so the programmers

need to be incentivised well to create a good system, as designers are good

to realise the vision, but computer engineers are foundational to VR

programmes.

• Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing? Same as the above answers.

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? Uptake is increasing, so necessary for

them to take up this technology. Has worked with Meta, looking at

whether sexual harassment should be legislated, and this deeper learning

was valuable to understand the field and improve the quality of officers.

Interview schedule for Strategic Partnerships Lead at a premier UK Virtual Reality

training platform

● Background:

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 o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law?

I am the Strategic Partnerships Lead at a premier UK Virtual Reality training platform

o How long have you been working in this field?

14 months.

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers?

I believe VR is an extremely effective tool to aid in training, particularly in a social

application. By immersing officers in realistic simulations, VR can provide a safe and

controlled environment for training that allows individuals to experience and confront

bias-related scenarios.

Empathy: VR is an effective way to engage officers in scenarios where they interact with

individuals from diverse backgrounds, enabling them to form an empathetic

understanding of the perspectives and experiences of others.

Situational Awareness: VR creates realistic scenarios that could challenge officers to

make split-second decisions. By incorporating racial diversity into these scenarios,

officers could be able to develop the ability to recognize their own biases and make more

objective decisions in the field, with an environment that so closely resembles real life,

there could be opportunities to develop scenarios using the full field of view (360*)

highlighting scenarios where the offender is contrary to the assumed stereotypical bias,

making failure to observe due to racial biases that much more poignant.

“Risk-Free”: VR training offers a safe and controlled environment for officers to

practice, including scenarios like handling bias-related incidents. Mistakes made in VR

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simulations do not have real-world consequences, allowing officers to learn from their

errors without harming others. This can enhance their ability to respond appropriately

to biased situations in reality.

● Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VRT training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience?

I use VR to train every day, whether that is testing new products we are building for

logic/bug issues or going through old training to see what needs to be updated. Through

my experience inside the business, exhibiting at Expos and delivering VR Training to

clients, I can truly vouch for how impactful VR is as a Training tool. There is always a

unique value we bring to each sector and so many ways VR can be used to improve

Learning & Development as well as business performance and cost efficiency.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how?

I am not qualified to make that determination, but I do see how users connect more

emotionally to VR training, especially ours, as we use real people and actors to roleplay

our scenarios as opposed to CGI avatars, so I can see it is possible. It would depend on

so many factors that I wouldn’t be able to make a fully informed decision or statement

on that.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT training in

police departments?

To be honest, cost. It’s still a fairly expensive technology, but that is changing at a rapid

pace, and the technology is becoming cheaper and more widely used.

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Again, I am not qualified to deliver deep insight into policing, but expect that perhaps

the headsets could be a challenge for officers with certain conditions like PTSD.

● Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing?

I believe there is always potential to do things better, and I believe that VR is an

effective medium that can transcend barriers, language, culture etc, as the experiences

and how we connect emotionally to the things we see and hear are really what makes an

impact, and then is the individual willing to experience something new, grow, change or

learn.

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement?

We do not currently serve the Policing community, although we have had numerous

discussions. I would be happy to share experiences and successes in the policing

community should we enter that market, and the information can be shared.

The interview schedule for a PhD Candidate in Communication at Stanford University

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, VR space or

criminal law? PhD candidate at a leading University going into her 5th year

and has been working with Jeremy Bailenson for the whole time.

Currently, working. On a paper with him on diversity training on VR.

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 Has been an intern with a start-up that conducts diversity training and

works with Fortune 500 companies. Came from a communications and

media background. Lecturers in VR to masters and undergraduate

students in VR, and most recently politics of algorithms. An ethnographer

by training, not a designer, looks at what people say instead of what they

do. Approaches things in a qualitative manner instead of a quantitative

manner, looks at observational data and how people understand

technology as a social scientist and not a programmer. Has worked as a

racial justice organiser and researcher, before her PhD for a racial justice

organisation run for and by black people, and they have a team which

prioritises racial justice in policing. Her application essay for Stanford

proposed VR to train allies who want to fight racial injustices and build

empathy. She has no interest in changing the hearts and minds of people

who do not care about the plight of black people, but those who already

care. It is not the work of black people to do this, but their own families

and communities.

o How long have you been working in this field? 5th year in VR space.

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? There is a lot of police

training from the US context, but it has not happened. This is because the

police are not benevolent or benign but exist to enforce the rights and

privileges of those in power. They are not obligated to put their bodies on

the line to protect people but are therefore there to preserve the status

quo. There are police gangs in California, that celebrate the use of force

and serve their nefarious ends, which seek to silence dissent, and bonding

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 over the violence they use. There is little evidence that VR changes

people’s attitudes towards marginalised minorities, according to her

experiences writing her paper and believes we should focus less on

individual behaviour and more on systemic racism. VR has purported

itself as a solution, or an almost ‘shortcut’ but it is not as simple as that, to

change things. Identity tourism in VR is a concept by Lisa Nakamura,

who looks at the history of VR and presents the idea that if VR was going

to solve racism, it would have already. The participants may have been

placed in these environments as a good deed, but not changing their

internal beliefs. Identity tourism in VR is a concept by Lisa Nakamura,

who looks at the history of VR and presents the idea that if VR was going

to solve racism, it would have already. The participants may have been

placed in these environments as a good deed, but not changing their

internal beliefs.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VR training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? She has done VRT in simulations that address racism. It is

related to the experiences of the main character and seeing how the

designers believe an ally can be useful and those committing harm can be

called out for what they are doing. She has done Body swap training and

likes it because she likes the fact that it offers eye tracking and provides

feedback, for example, if you are looking more at the male in the room

than the female in the room.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? No, as there are more systemic issues. Hard to do
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 training on diversity and hard to measure empathy and if it changes the

way people interact. VR can be useful for a lot of things, but not sure if it

is useful for the US context. There is also a certain person who opts for a

job in policing, and it usually likes authority and control, there is a

correlation between those who go into policing and those who commit

domestic abuse. Also, the person doing this type of diversity training has

to want to participate and be on board the best out of it, or else it can

enforce the biases they have already. But VRT is better than the

alternative and more engaging, so VR will lower the barriers to entry as

people are interested in the tech, but that does not improve racial bias in

the long term. In theory, it is nice, but over years of racist thinking, it’s

unlikely it will change them.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VR training in

police departments? Measuring empathy is difficult, as there is no standard

definition, and if so, how does it translate into real-world situations? This

is an issue not just for VRT but for all Diversity and inclusion initiatives.

It is possible to have buy-in from the federal level, to implement this

training. But it does not mean that from the participant level, they will

buy in, and does not mean they will do it if it is optional and if not

optional, whether the racist police officer will change.

• Overall Thoughts:

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? Incorporating the work of black scholars

more would provide the best type of research as you can get a lot of real

information about how things operate in the real world that is not just in a
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 lab setting. But the work of Morgan G Ames ‘Charismatic Technology’

shows us that sometimes technology can distract us from the actual hard

human work that we must do and can reinforce ideas that we have to

combat certain issues like empathy or race. There have been books, films,

and documentaries on racism, but none have solved it. VR can help you do

your job doing certain tasks, and athletes coaching, but it cannot train you

out of racism. There have not been multiple studies that have given

evidence that people are changing their racial/biased actions from VR

training, if so, nothing longitudinal over years of observation.

The interview schedule for Nina Salomons

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law? Nina Salomons, Founder of AnomieXR (Mental health VR) and work

in XRDI (Diversity & Inclusion)

o How long have you been working in this field? Since 2015

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? VR experiences that do

role play and de-escalation from studies are effective. Believe in immersive

tech to change behaviours.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VRT training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? Yes, many! I have experienced Body swaps, foster parent

VR experience with Cornerstone & Stress Gem and many different types.

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 Stress Gem helps to reduce the stress of athletes and corporates, and it

helps to reduce stress, you must reduce your heart rate to move forward,

using biofeedback.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Yes, through Role play and embodied avatars.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT training in

police departments? Psychopaths could derive pleasure as opposed to

empathy. Racial bias is hard to put together as there are a lot of

microaggressions. The game, Papers Please, with border agents deciding

who gets into the US. Video games are good indicators.

• Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing? Same as above

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? Keven Moss (VR Trainer) stated it is

hard to admit that you are wrong, and even harder for a law enforcement

agent to do so, and even harder for you to do so amongst your peers. In his

training, Nina suggests that the VR training and exposure should not be

done in front of peers, but she understands that accountability is

important, and humiliation can help to reduce it. Maybe superiors would

not want to do that as it puts their reputation at risk or be used against

them. There can be toxic masculinity around using VR around peers.

Creators need to think about not making someone feel bad at the end of

the experience, but what they can do better. Voice is important,

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 monitoring for micro-aggressions and maybe AI could aid this. But it is

possible to do it privately and guaranteeing participant anonymity could

help to encourage more users and buy-in from superiors. Very highly

sensitive and the issue around accountability is political. Nina had thought

about VR in racial bias before but never considered accountability and

the politics around this for Police. CDBCs (Central bank digital

currencies), and the Bank of England are thinking of implementing this

into the British Pound. This might be quite totalitarian, as your data is

being stored. Is it a weapon to control the masses? So, when you deliver

VR training to the masses could have paradigm ramifications for them,

depending on good training or bad training, especially whether be used

against you in the future. Creating a prediction of future good or bad

behaviour. Freedom vs Safety.

The interview schedule for Francesca Cassidy-Taylor

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law?

Criminal Defence lawyer, and by qualification, a chartered legal executive.

Senior associate at Rahman Ravelli. Works in white-collar crime and

corporate and financial crime. She is also a Special Constable at the

Metropolitan Police Service. Dealing with more white men, more than any

other race or gender. She is defending those who have a connection to the UK

and has moved to a boutique firm with 50% general crime and 50% white

collar. She deals with anything from rape/murder, public order to money
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laundering. In the general crimes that Fran deals with, she has found that

there is a racial element. Some clients have been accused of ‘playing the black

card’, which is frustrating as there are many genuine cases of racial bias, and

there is a need to distinguish between the legitimate use of police force and

those that are not. You develop that instinct to separate this and will go

through the body-worn footage in her disclosure stages when the prosecution

provides this evidence. She also listens to her clients asks for the officer’s

notebook records and sees for herself. Additionally, Fran had a client of

Jamaican descent, who was young, but not enough to be a young gang

member, who had a psychotic episode and had attacked the door of an old

man with an axe. Originally, he was accused of attempted murder, which got

downgraded, to GBH with intent, and had been accused of assault by the

officers which turned out to be true. There were also disparaging comments

about the client looking like a ‘druggy’, and whether his house was a drug

den. Unfortunately, she did not get to defend him at that point in the case but

was appealing successfully against a life sentence for him. He should have

been taken to a hospital first and not into custody, and if you saw him, he may

have had ‘acute behaviour disturbance’. He got 10 years instead. There was a

racial bias that Fran detected by police, but because she was not involved in

the original proceedings, she could not say 100%, as a defence lawyer, it

would have been something to latch onto.

o How long have you been working in this field? Been working as a lawyer

since September 2010, and as a special constable since February 2022 (1.5

years) and is still a probationer.

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o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? Had never considered it

before being invited to interview but researched it after and fully believes

that if there was anything that could replicate the adrenaline and real-life

pressure in the field of policing, then she fully supports the use of VRT. If

they can simulate those levels of adrenaline and the reaction times, and

then use the thinking of how you’d think then great. Many officers got

into the force based on ticking a few boxes, but this training could

separate the chaff from the wheat, as some officers do have a racial bias in

their decision-making. Fran has looked at the ‘virtual embodiment’ and

thinks this is a great way of ‘walking a mile in someone else’s shoes’ as the

book To Kill a Mockingbird shows and is necessary for empathy training

and research. When Fran first joined a borough after training school and

went on jobs with a Special Sergeant and was appalled by his practices

and aggression toward members of the public and people in general. He

had a white Afrikaans background and was more interested in traffic

offences but was targeting mainly black people. In one instance, he

stopped a black Rastafarian man, in anticipation he would do something

wrong. He gave a speech about not doing anything wrong, but the

sergeant was unphased and unashamed by getting it wrong and let him go.

Fran complained and reported him to his superiors but was just removed

from his team. She still aims to hold him accountable, whilst she has asked

other colleagues to find other instances of racial biases, like when he said

goodbye to a group of Jamaican men in a Jamaican accent. Going back to

whether VR would change this behaviour, she does not believe so, but it

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 can help officers feel more relaxed confident and educated and maybe

improve the experiences of ethnic minorities when dealing with the police.

They must be open to learning and willing to apply the changes but do not

think that her previous sergeant will be willing to deprogram his deep-

seated views and practices, as it is entrenched and seems unwilling.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VR training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? No, not an experience of VR but only a game with a fully

immersive headset. Fran thought it felt realistic and reached VR scenery.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Yes, because it will enable officers and give them the

tools to feel more confident and comfortable in dealing with ethnic

minorities, and better understanding without assumptions of the person in

front of you and feel more empathy and make them feel more heard,

which will better help them police by consent. And better spot their own

unconscious bias and change it. The only way some of the more racist

officers can change is by the threat of serious sanctions to force them to

change and hit them where it hurts, by removing their police privileges. It

must be a real defining moment to change them and reprogramme their

thinking. Some may be behavioural changes, and some may have heart

changes. You may just want the former, and that is good enough, as you

may just want your officers to behave better. Fran believes that VRT may

not reduce racial bias but is optimistic about the future of the technology

and its real-life impact on police enforcement. Fran has had her mind

opened on being a police officer, seeing how race can have a part to play,
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 as she has seen young black people being naturally fearful of police

officers and spoken to some who have a feeling of tightness in their

stomachs when police are around, as opposed to her who always felt safe

around them. But, with the Sarah Everard kidnap and murder case by a

white policeman, now people are seeing that white women are also at risk

and now can empathise with black and brown people’s struggles with

police and issues with policing.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT training in

police departments? Cost issues and expenses involved with rolling out VR

training. Also, addressing issues with the idea of its value-added to the role

of policing, and VRT being a new fad in training, those who are more

technology averse may be sceptical. Also, those who are sceptical about the

real-life impact must change racial and cultural bias, as mentioned above,

so may have pushback to those who are pessimistic about this not just

being another tick-box exercise.

• Overall Thoughts:

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? If this is rolled on to all police officers,

there needs to be lots of feedback afterwards, so that they can understand

the terms (like unconscious bias) and things to address in their racial bias.

The VR Training can be enhanced and maximised by explaining their

results and pointing in the right direction to research further so they can

apply the changes as necessary. As a lawyer, Fran would be happier that

the police officers she is interviewing on the stand have had this training

Page 80
 in VR or other unconscious bias training, and it would help their clients

more.

The interview schedule for Clive Maxheath

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law? Intelligence Analyst within the Metropolitan Police’s Serious

Organised Crime department, as a member of the Police Staff until 2019

and has worked on Borough and now focuses more on the family. IS a law

enforcement coach and trainer. Has worked on Police Now, the graduate

leadership programme for graduate officers. Cares about mental health in

policing. Background in communications data analysis, so VR would have

been very relevant and that is why Clive is an advocate for mental health

in policing and the officers he worked with as police staff (18) were

stressed through the job in organised crime. Has worked in the National

Crime Agency, looked at intelligence for kidnappings, reducing the risk of

loss of life, and supporting the officers with evidence to take the best

actions. Overall, Clive aided in reducing crime significantly and making

informed decision making. Workshops for headteachers, professionals

and American Football players, and coaches them for mental fitness

training.

o How long have you been working in this field? 17 years

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? Sees real potential, and

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 not only being in it but for officers to observe interactions in VR. So,

running pre-recorded scenarios, and observing how to best approach a

social interaction. Could have AI geared Avatars, from different

backgrounds and gender differences and deliver more training could be

provided. This could lower the cost of engaging in VR, as more people can

watch the VR video with the headset, and not everyone has to roll play,

more technology can develop which would allow this.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VR training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? Never had any formal training in it but has coached his

clients virtually and has also watched coaching set-ups on 2D screens. So,

coaching through the pupil’s eyes, observing the session, as they have the

headset as he is seeing what they’re seeing on the screen. Has used the

Oculus.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Yes, but limited experience in this. Embodiment VR

would be helpful, and the same as Clive’s VR coaching sessions, where the

officer trainer could watch the 2D screen whilst the trainee is wearing the

headset and can be better able to deliver the training session.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT training in

police departments? Costs will be the biggest issue. It could be that trainers

ration the VR headsets to the forces or teams who need it the most. Would

not want the first VRT session to be training but a how-to

guide/introduction to VR. The third challenge is the timing it takes under

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 VR, before starting to feel discomfort, so need to know how long each

person should be using a headset for.

• Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing? Real potential, but a lot of work to be

done, and real barriers currently. Does it have real-life applications,

especially if being used in Stop and Search experiences, and using

embodiment so that an officer can see how it feels to be an ethnic minority

suspect in that interaction? Creating a safer space for that Officer is

important too, so they feel they can undergo VRT and because it is

immersive, they can perform freely. This can go into safeguarding and

having an offboarding experience.

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? Research, experiment, trial, education

understanding and being informed decisions. Cost saving and the ability

to reduce travel can help and enable a unique perspective. Carrying on

trialling it!

The interview schedule for Camilla Rents

• Introduction:

o Introduce yourself and your study.

o Explain the purpose of the interview and the questions that you will be asking.

o Get consent from the participant to participate in the interview.

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• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law? Criminal Solicitor Advocate. Racially mixed client list and much

more male than female clients. 30 live cases in Crown Court, only three

females. Based in the Old Bailey in the Centre of the City of London and

has offices in Brighton/Sussex and Surrey. But clients can come from all

over the country, such as Leeds and Leamington Spa etc, as Teams and

online meetings can help facilitate this. Yes, there is a racial bias to some

of the crimes that her clients were accused of. As a firm, they represent on

a legal aid basis, but now she does more professional representation of

clients who pay directly for her services with private money. Case of a

client before the pandemic, who was on legal aid and homeless, where on

the CCTY they saw a black man and assumed it was the client stealing

bikes. The man in the video scales an 8ft wall and jumps on the bike,

whilst at the time her client had a broken foot in a cast and didn’t look

like the man on the video. They won the case but was in a cell for 12 hours

and went through a lengthy court case, merely because he was an easy

target due to his prior convictions.

o How long have you been working in this field? Since 2011 worked for Old

Bailey Solicitors and qualified in 2014.

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? No knowledge of VRT

and what would go on in police training. But as a proposition, it is a great

idea, as it can help with unconscious bias. It may give them the benefit of

the doubt, but it might be that some people may not understand what they
Page 84
 are doing and may need to be shown where they are going wrong.

Imagining from Camilla’s perspective being rarely in situations where she

is a minority white person, she can advise putting officers in similar

situations and believes that the embodiment of VR experiment can

increase this empathy.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VRT training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? NO

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Yes, increasing empathy and understanding of

walking in the other races’ shoes.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT training in

police departments? Funding but not sure how expensive it is. Also,

persuading people to think outside of the box, as if the decision-makers

are not forward-thinking enough, may not roll out easily. You’d the Met

would be on board to use this, but not as willing to do this as they are

more tribal as they want to protect and look after one another as they are

in dangerous situations and may not hold each other accountable as much.

• Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing? Overall, it sounds like it could be used

beneficially. Embarrassment and shame to call out the behaviour could

help as a reality check, to cause Officers to think about their behaviours

or comments and change it, but not to cause embarrassment for the sake

Page 85
 of it, but hopefully, as a tool to make an impact. This could apply to

insensitive jokes and changing thought processing or behaviour. It should

be used for mock court trials and witness statements give them more

experience being questioned by a lawyer in a courtroom and encourage

them to think more about witness statements and the consequences of

changing suspects’ lives. The VR world practice could improve empathy

and due diligence.

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? The above is something to consider for

future research, mock VR court cases and practice.

• Closing:

o Thank the participant for their time and participation in the interview.

The interview schedule for Camilla Rents

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law? Criminal Solicitor Advocate. Racially mixed client list and much

more male than female clients. 30 live cases in Crown Court, only three

females. Based in the Old Bailey in the Centre of the City of London and

has offices in Brighton/Sussex and Surrey. But clients can come from all

over the country, such as Leeds and Leamington Spa etc, as Teams and

online meetings can help facilitate this. Yes, there is a racial bias to some

Page 86
 of the crimes that her clients were accused of. As a firm, they represent on

a legal aid basis, but now she does more professional representation of

clients who pay directly for her services with private money. Case of a

client before the pandemic, who was on legal aid and homeless, where on

the CCTY they saw a black man and assumed it was the client stealing

bikes. The man in the video scales an 8ft wall and jumps on the bike,

whilst at the time her client had a broken foot in a cast and didn’t look

like the man on the video. They won the case but was in a cell for 12 hours

and went through a lengthy court case, merely because he was an easy

target due to his prior convictions.

o How long have you been working in this field? Since 2011 worked for Old

Bailey Solicitors and qualified in 2014.

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? No knowledge of VRT

and what would go on in police training. But as a proposition, it is a great

idea, as it can help with unconscious bias. It may give them the benefit of

the doubt, but it might be that some people may not understand what they

are doing and may need to be shown where they are going wrong.

Imagining from Camilla’s perspective being rarely in situations where she

is a minority white person, she can advise putting officers in similar

situations and believes that the embodiment of VR experiment can

increase this empathy.

• Specific Experiences:

Page 87
 o Have you ever participated in VRT training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? NO

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Yes, increasing empathy and understanding of

walking in the other races’ shoes.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT training in

police departments? Funding but not sure how expensive it is. Also,

persuading people to think outside of the box, as if the decision-makers

are not forward-thinking enough, may not roll out easily. You’d the Met

would be on board to use this, but not as willing to do this as they are

more tribal as they want to protect and look after one another as they are

in dangerous situations and may not hold each other accountable as much.

• Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing? Overall, it sounds like it could be used

beneficially. Embarrassment and shame to call out the behaviour could

help as a reality check, to cause Officers to think about their behaviours

or comments and change it, but not to cause embarrassment for the sake

of it, but hopefully, as a tool to make an impact. This could apply to

insensitive jokes and changing thought processing or behaviour. It should

be used for mock court trials and witness statements to give them more

experience being questioned by a lawyer in a courtroom and encourage

them to think more about witness statements and the consequences of

Page 88
 changing suspects’ lives. The VR world practice could improve empathy

and due diligence.

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? The above is something to consider for

future research, mock VR court cases and practice.

• Closing:

o Thank the participant for their time and participation in the interview.

The interview schedule for Asha Easton

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law? KTN (Knowledge Transfer Network), the UK Government’s

initiative, and working across Innovate UK to work as a cross-sector

organisation. Immersive tech, raising the UK tech and the investing

community. The field includes biotech, life sciences, AI, the MOD and

XR/VR. Not working explicitly in policing and criminal law, but the

overall VR/XR community and blockchain technology and the metaverse.

Has worked on XR experiences in the past, not as a designer, and has

worked in inclusive design canvas and the co-founder of the XRDI with

Nina Salomons, to create the relationships.

o How long have you been working in this field? 7 years.

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 o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? Several companies are

using XR for soft skills, such as Body Swaps and other companies involved

in reducing gender bias and sexual harassment in companies. Facilitating

having conversations with people in this space, including NGO workers in

the field who need to be safeguarded against harassment. MOD has their

VR team/training within their police units and that is valuable, as you can

track their attention to these types of training. Having VR training can

help make control groups and measure outcomes for peer-to-peer

learning. Can also use it as a safe space for this learning. For racial bias,

VRT can benefit officers to unlearn their unconscious bias, but can also

unfortunately trauma in the workplace could have exasperated trauma if

not confronted, and already being an officer is traumatic and they may

not have enough time to process this, so VRT might better help their

biases if coupled with other occupational therapy for their on-the-job

trauma. Asha believes that this VRT training needs to be constant in their

careers as cops, to help this.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VR training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? Has participated in the Body Swaps training. Thought that

it was well run, helping ethically build these experiences, and super

important to get biometric feedback which was valuable as you cannot get

this in other forms of training. Lots of improvements on Avatars have

been made but need to be improved, such as curly hair creation and

options that are realistic for how hair moves, which is tough to do on a 3D

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 model. Maybe you do not need this for realistic training but helps with

immersion.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Yes, helps with creating a standardised training

method for everyone, and helps with recording a physical response, and

comparing responses across police peers. Also, helps with challenging

group thinking, if you can observe how your peers are doing, you may

want to improve your responses too. The idea of protecting your own in

the military and the police needs to change, but Asha does not believe it

needs to be burnt to the ground, as we can just change things in the

organisation and tackle institutional issues.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VR training in

police departments? Costs will be an issue, but if you can show an actual

impact, then you can encourage the deployment at scale, which would be a

big win. The Met/The College of Policing have come to KRT and have

developed with the Open Innovation Team to gather evidence and insights

on the use of virtual reality (VR) headsets in police training. Upscaling, as

in people understanding how to use headsets, onboarding and offboarding

officers on how to use headsets is important. You need people with those

skills on how to use this and having people with those VR/XR experiences

to knowledge share is vital to help officers better engage. Finding the

teams or people to offload this, whether it is HR or IT to train people, and

if it is older police staff trainers who will train newer officers on this

technology, it may be costly as they may not be very tech-savvy. Necessary

to have contractors come in, but worth the cost.

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 • Overall Thoughts:

o What are your overall thoughts on the potential of VRT to contribute to the

reduction of racial bias in policing? The same answers as above regarding

the reduction of bias, combined with occupational therapy. There are lots

of stats available online that are helpful.

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement? Body Swaps or building a bespoke

training programme would be useful. Also, a case study of officers using

VRT and their progress would be very valuable.

The interview schedule for The Worshipful Mayor of Southwark Councillor Michael Situ

A solicitor advocate specializing in criminal law, representing people as young as 15

years old. Going to the magistrates’ court and crown court. At times makes prison visits,

site visits and home visits, and interacts with probation and support services, like the

Citizens Advice Bureau. Nonlegal work involves being a representative counsellor for

the borough, (Lucy Ward, but now is Old Kent Road Ward) and through his role, he

supports young people such as unemployment, and drug misuse support, and addresses

the underlying issues involving criminal issues and racial issues.

o How long have you been working in this field?

Has been a Counsellor of Southwark since 2010, and this year May 2023 has

been elected as Mayor of Southwark. Has been a lawyer since 2010.

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o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers? Not fully involved in

how police officers get trained, as a lawyer or Mayor, but sees that the

current training is not adequate. Michael has witnessed and heard from

his clients that they have not had the best treatment and dignity and so

they should be able to have faith in the police. He has worked with very

good police officers, but he thinks that there are many areas for

improvement and change, as the law cannot be in every environment, and

the lack of evidence of this makes it tricky to bring justice to suspects and

victims. VRT can be a great solution in bringing this faith improving the

standards of profiling and reducing unconscious bias and racism. It is

worth a try, and not obviously cannot end all the issues, as there are bad

people in every profession, even his. VRT can increase empathy and fully

immerse them. There is a project called Elevated Aspirations by Elevated

Minds, sponsored by MoPac (Mayor of London policing team), where

young people get to experience all parts of the Met and understand

different areas of the police force. Many officers must decide on issues at a

split-second moment and may not have the luxury to think for a long time

through the next action, especially if they are in a life-or-death situation.

Projects like this are not cheap, but is another option in addition to VRT,

that can help to decrease racial bias, as it helps young people to

understand the challenges of policing as well as encouraging them to

consider a career in this. The officers can also see how their behaviours

affect the community and may not even understand that they are profiling

and not just reacting to situations. Police officers on this project have

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 stated these positive effects and understanding of the project. No point in

having a police force that people do not trust.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VRT training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience?

No, he has not had the opportunity yet.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how?

Can be effective as another tool to assist police officers to understand the

community they are serving and help police the community with sensitivity.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VR training in

police departments?

Costs in terms of time out of frontline policing, and the more that is taken out on

training days, the more costly it will be for areas of the UK that under policed. We have

seen this just from officers being on leave, and how empty the streets can be. Hopefully,

officers will be open-minded, and Michael thinks that there will be a majority having a

positive impact if they are open-minded enough. He believes that senior leadership will

be positive in introducing this training to their police departments.

• Overall Thoughts:

o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement?

There is a disparity between what clients feel that the police officer's use of force is and

what officers themselves feel their impact was. Michael also has a responsibility as a

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lawyer and elected official, to understand the officer’s position, and gets that it is a

stressful job. However, he thinks that they should act in ways that are respectful and

considerate so that when faced with stressful field situations, they can act more

automatically in the correct way. When he cross-examines them in a confrontational or

direct way, they end up being more defensive and guarded, but when he is more friendly

and empathetic, they also in turn are more open, and transparent and explain in more

detail their perspective. He must balance this friendly what your clients want and what

is needed to gain a positive outcome and put his client’s case clearly to the officer and

court. You only win, (or should win) when you do a good job, and your client has a

credible and honest account.

The interview schedule for Andrew Otchie

• Background:

o What is your role in the field of policing, virtual reality design, or criminal

law?

Andrew Barrister is in independent practice in the bar, working for himself,

working on cases under the ‘Cab Rank Rule’, which means he must take on

whoever’s case comes to him. He mainly does defence cases in criminal law,

but has done some prosecution, most cases in London. Has been to the New

York Bar, so has some knowledge of US Law, and has done a law degree, a

research master's and a regular degree. No specialism is quite broad, such as

criminal, family, military and employment. Does not want to be pigeonholed

to one, as with AI, things change.

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 o How long have you been working in this field? 14 years in practice.

o What are your thoughts on the potential benefits and practical applications of

VRT in addressing racial bias among police officers?

Cases he has worked on have had elements of race and discrimination, as well

as policing. Has had cases brought to court that needed to be decided whether

there is bias, to the jury and judge, and it is difficult as many people do not

acknowledge that they do have bias which is vital as people’s freedom is on

the line. With racial bias, the Lammy Report has shown that the rate of

incarceration is higher proportionally among UK black men, than it is among

whites and of US black men also. The courts are packed with many cases,

and the systems in place need to help reduce racial bias in policing. He has

seen things and where things go wrong and things can be missed, so you may

need processes and systems like VRT to reduce this.

Do you think it is direct intentional racism or unconscious bias? Never really

know to a high degree of certainty why bias has happened, and you must take

things as they are and assess them. As we have seen with Derek Chauvin and

George Floyd, you must use your common sense and judgment. In the law,

the Equality Act, you must apply a test of comprises and see if the protected

characteristic would have been. A factor in the different treatment of one

person over another is the burden of proof (S.136) the burden of proof to the

perpetrator as opposed to the victim to prove there was racism.

• Specific Experiences:

o Have you ever participated in VRT training? If so, what were your thoughts on

the experience? No, but has used a VR headset, for an experience at an Art

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 exhibition. Recommends it for use in injustice cases in policing such as

shown in the film US Just Mercy.

o Do you think VRT could be effective in reducing racial bias among police

officers? If so, how? Human nature is funny in a way that people act in a

way that you do not expect them to. Computers go only so far in

understanding humans. If you program a computer, it can only go so far.

It can offload a lot of the pressure on humans, such as with AI looking at

facial recognition software and the manpower hours that are saved. VRT

can be useful in changing people to an extent. But truly bad people, like in

the case of Wayne Cousins, could probably deceive people, after the VRT,

and decide to do what they want to do after learning all the expected

behaviour and systems, and still commit crimes.

o What are some of the challenges that you see in implementing VRT training in

police departments? In the US, it can be a dangerous job to be a police

officer, as a significant amount of the population is armed, so it can be

difficult to change the mindset, as they carry side arms. Like in the recent

case of Five Memphis police officers charged in the deadly police beating

of Tyre Nichols, a black man, it is difficult to say whether this would have

happened if it was a black victim, probably not. This could be ritualised

behaviour. In Yorkshire, cases of grooming of white women, by Pakistani

men, failed to prosecute, which has recently been highlighted and

apologised for. Cost could be an issue, whether the budget and time can be

allocated to this, from one season to the next, and senior police officers

might want to see more officers in the streets rather than on VR.

• Overall Thoughts:
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o Do you have any recommendations for future research on VRT and its

implications for law enforcement?

Would want to see more research before seeing recommendations. VRT is

more of a luxury rather than a necessity, as we should rely more on an Officer

on duty being able to handle situations like stop and search or using their

side-arm, based on their training. It is simple to spot a mistake when you see

one, and hindsight is 20/20, but they should spot this within the moment

rather than rely on VRT. Unsure if the previous cases of police brutality

would have improved the situation, like in Derek Chauvin’s, or if he had

more sleep that day.

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