Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

Structural behavior of reinforced concrete one-way slabs

voided by polystyrene balls
Thaar S. Al-Gasham*, Ali N. Hilo, Manal A. Alawsi
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Wasit, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: In the last two decades, the use of voided (bubbled) slabs in constructions has been
Received 1 July 2019 increased because of several advantages such as light self-weight, cost-saving, and
Received in revised form 13 October 2019 accelerated construction schedules. However, the structural behavior of such slabs has not
Accepted 14 October 2019
been adequately inspected, especially for one-way slabs. Therefore, this paper presented an
experimental investigation to assess the effect of voids’ size on the structural behavior of
Keywords: one-way slabs. Four slabs were fabricated using self-compacting concrete. Three of them
Voided slab
were bubbled slabs, containing 68 polystyrene balls with different sizes (60 mm, 70 mm,
Polystyrene balls
One-way slab
and 90 mm); these balls were regularly distributed inside the slabs. The fourth slab was
Ultimate strength conventional solid without balls and assigned as a control slab. The presence of balls led to
Ductility reducing the self-weight of slabs, by about 6.4%–21.6%, compared with the solid slab. The
Stiffness slabs were subjected to the four-point loading up to collapse. The results stated that the use
Toughness of balls with a size of 60 mm, which is equal to half thickness of slab, was the optimum
where the reduction in the strength, compared to the control slab, was approximately
nonexistent and the drops in stiffness, ductility, and toughness were relatively slight,
smaller than 11.1%. For other sizes, the influence of balls became significant, especially for
balls with a diameter of 90 mm where the reductions in strength, stiffness, ductility, and
toughness reached, respectively, 21.3%, 23.7%, 67.0%, and 79%, in comparison with the
control slab. Also, using 90 mm- diameter balls changed the failure mode from flexural to
shear. Finally, the flexure and shear strengths of the slabs were determined per the ACI
318M-19 and EC2 codes. The predictions of the EC2 code were more accurate and less
conservative than those of ACI 318M-19 code.
© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Recently, the demand for large space buildings has been increased. In such buildings, the slabs should be designed with
relatively large thickness to satisfy the deflection requirements. Accordingly, the self-weight of slabs and overall building
augment as well. Hence, the consumption of the construction material rises, massive supports (columns and footing) are
required, and the construction cost increases.
In 2000, voided slabs were presented as an innovative solution to reduce the self-weight by virtually replacing a
significant volume of concrete by inserts [1]. Different shapes of voids have been employed, such as spherical, cubical, and
donuts [2–4]. The voids are typically placed at mid-depth of slabs in between the top and bottom reinforcement meshes [5].

* Corresponding author at: Rabee District/University City, Wasit-Kut 10013, Iraq.

E-mail address: thaar@uowasit.edu.iq (T.S. Al-Gasham).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2019.e00292
2214-5095/© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
2 T.S. Al-Gasham et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292

Nomencature

D Diameter of balls
H Thickness of slab
Dy Displacement at the yield force
Du Displacement at the ultimate force
Vn Nominal shear strength
Mn Nominal flexural strength
Ac Compression area of concrete
As Area of tensile re-bars
fy Yield strength of steel re-bars
f ck Cylinder strength of concrete
d The effective depth of the slab
rt The ratio of tensile reinforcement
Av Area of voids within the critical section
b The width of slabs
K Coefficient of size effect

Comparing with a comparable solid slab, the reduction in the self-weight of voids slabs was in the range of 20%–30% [6–12].
Besides, the voided slabs are environment-friendly elements since they decline the emission of CO2 as a consequence of
reducing the used cement, where the production of 1 ton from cement emits about 500 kg CO2 to the environment [2,13], and
the used voids are often made of recycled waste materials [2].
Since the last decade, the subject of voided slabs has attracted the attention of researchers. However, moderate
investigations have been conducted, and most of them were directed on the two-way voided slabs, especially for the topic of
the punching shear.
Regarding the punching shear strength of voided slabs, several studies have been performed [14–23], in which different
shapes of the inserts were used. The results found that the punching shear strength of the voided slabs was remarkably lower
than that of the conventional solid slabs because of a reduction in the critical concrete section owing to placing the voids near
columns. Also, the shape of voids was found to have a considerable influence on the punching strength [14]. On the other
hand, the studies [14,18,19] stated that the bubbled slabs could achieve the same punching strength of solid ones when a
solid area (without inserts) was introduced around columns. Generally, there is no consensus on the dimensions and shape
of the solid zone.
Concerning the flexure strength of two-way voided slabs, the results reported by Corey [24] showed that the flexural
strengths of slabs with voids, placed under the compression zone, were similar to that of control (solid) slab. The same
conclusion was addressed by Chung et al. [25]. However, another investigation [9] indicated an 11.0% drop in the flexure
strength of bubbled slabs. Also, the presence of voids led to decay in the flexural stiffness, nearly 20%, in comparison with an
identical solid slab [26,27]. The differences in the results were due to using various shapes of voids in these investigations.
Nimnim and Zain Alabdeen [28] demonstrated that the void shape significantly influenced the two-way flexural strength of
voided slabs, and spherical voids gave better results than the cubical ones. Fatma and Chandrakar [29] stated that the
arrangement of balls inside slabs also affected their load-carrying capacity. The use of reactive powder concrete in
manufacturing the voided slabs was found to remarkably improve the flexure strength, around 109%, compared to slabs
made of normal concrete [30,31].
Though the structural performance of the voided slabs is rather convincing in the case of two-way slabs, the situation is
entirely different or maybe more severe in the case of one-way slabs since the forces transfer in one direction only, and any
weakness in this direction results in premature failure of slabs. The presence of voids in this direction could raise this
problem. However, the previous investigations conducted on the one-way voided slabs were comparatively few.
Several studies [1,32–34] investigated the influence of the voids’ shape on the structural behavior of one-way voided
slabs. Kim et al. [32] reported that the donut voids gave better results than round box voids. Also, they stated that the use of
round box voids led to failing the voided slabs in the punching mode instead of the flexural mode. The effect of these two
shapes on the one-way shear strength of voided slabs was also assessed [1]. Similarly, the results indicated that the donut
voids were the best. Moreover, the results showed that the voids’ shape also affected the propagation of the shear crack. The
performance of slabs, having sphere-shaped or cuboid-shaped voids, was explored by Sagadevan and Rao [33]. They
evidenced that both shapes led to approximately the same structural performance of slabs. However, the elliptical voids
were found to be superior to the spherical voids [34].
Furthermore, the effect of the voids’ material was also inspected. The use of voids made of high strength material, like
glass fiber plastic, significantly enhanced the flexural strength of slabs [32]. Likewise, using polypropylene glass fiber voids
improved the one-way shear strength of slab by about 6% over the strength of slabs with polypropylene voids [1]. Moreover,
the tools used in fixing the voids were found to contribute remarkably in the strength of voided slabs, particularly in slabs
 T.S. Al-Gasham et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292 3

Table 1
Properties of used polystyrene balls as provided by the supplier.

Property Value
Nominal Density 15.5 kg/m3
Compressive stress at 10% deformation (min) 87 kPa
Cross-breaking strength (min) 169 kPa
Rate of water vapor transmission (max) 570 mg/m2s
measured parallel to rise at 23  C
Thermal resistance (min) at a mean temperature of 25  C (50 mm sample) 1.18 M2K/W

susceptible to shear failure. Kim et al. [32] illustrated that the use of diagonal steel bars in fixing the voids rather than spacers
resulted in an excellent improvement in the behavior of voided slabs. Ibrahim et al. [35] also evaluated the effect of the
construction method of voided slabs. They explained that the simple method of construction was better than the filigree
method. However, strengthening the filigree voided slabs by a steel cage ultimately improved their strength.
Further, several analytical procedures were presented to evaluate the flexural and shear strengths of the voided slabs.
Chung et al. [1] asserted that the shear provisions of the ACI 318M-14 and EC2 codes are not suitable for predicting the shear
strength of voided slabs when the least thickness of the web is considered. Also, they showed that the finite element analysis
could accurately estimate the performance of such slabs. This conclusion was also confirmed by Valivonis et al. [2].
It is worth mentioning that the previous studies evaluated the effects of voids on the one-way voided slabs in terms of
ultimate strength and deflections at the service stage or/and the failure stage. They ignored or paid marginal attention to
other important terms like stiffness, ductility, and toughness. These terms are fundamental in designing reinforced concrete
buildings located in seismic zones or an area vulnerable to explosions. Therefore, a comprehensive investigation, including
these three criterions, is still needed. Besides, the parameter (void size/ slab thickness) has not been addressed well. Further,
to the best authors’ knowledge, the polystyrene balls have not been used in the voided slabs yet. This type of voids is most
appropriate for the Iraqi climate because they have excellent thermal insulation as well as they are available abundantly and
relatively cheap.
In this study, the performance of one-way slabs, containing polystyrene voids, was experimentally inspected, focusing on
the influence of (ball size/slab thickness) parameter. Moreover, the results of voided slabs were comprehensively compared
to those of a solid control slab in six terms: self-weight, load-carrying capacity, deflection, stiffness, ductility, and toughness.
Finally, the flexural and shear strengths of tested slabs were estimated per ACI 318M-19 and EC2 codes.

2. Experimental program

2.1. Details of specimens

Four specimens were fabricated, representing a one-way slab with dimensions of 2000 mm
500 mm
120 mm. One
slab (SOL) was solid without voids and assigned as a control slab. The others had a voided cross-sectional area by introducing
68 polystyrene balls inside them; the properties of these balls are listed in Table 1. To inspect the impact of the voids’ size on
the behavior of slabs, three diameters of balls were chosen: 60 mm, 70 mm, and 90 mm. Accordingly, the ratio of ball
diameter to the slab depth (D/H) was 50%, 58.3%, and 75%, respectively. The bubbled specimens were identified according to
the ball diameter as BA60, BA70, and BA90, respectively.
The binding steel wires (Table 2) were employed for fixing the balls in their planned locations rather than using expensive
fixing tools, like diagonal bars. The balls were uniformly distributed inside the slabs, where four balls were in the transverse
direction and seventeen balls in the longitudinal direction. The distance between balls in both directions varied with their
size. In the transverse direction, the spacing between balls was 133 mm, 130 mm, and 123 mm, while it was 119 mm, 118 mm,
and 117 mm in the longitudinal side for BA60, BA70, and BA90 specimens, respectively.
The voids were fixed in their positions, in addition to using binding wires, by bounding them with four steel bars from all
sides at the top and bottom. Accordingly, the top and bottom steel meshes were identical for all slabs. These meshes
consisted of 8Ø10 and 34 Ø10 deformed steel bars in the transverse and longitudinal directions, respectively. It is essential to
state that the spacing between reinforcing bars varied, depending on the size and distribution of balls, as shown in Figs. 1–3.

Table 2
Properties of binding wires as provided by the supplier.

Property Value
Diameter 1.0 mm
Material Low carbon steel
Color grey
Tensile strength 310 MPa
Elongation 16.3%
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Fig. 1. Details of BA60 specimen.

Fig. 2. Details of BA70 specimen.

The location of the bottom mesh was constant for all specimens, 20 mm above the bottom face of the slab. In contrast, the
position of the top mesh was different, according to the balls’ size, ranging from 20 mm to 40 mm. The yield and ultimate
strengths of reinforcing bars were 577 MPa and 670 MPa, respectively. The ratio of tensile reinforcement was 1.20%. This ratio
is 29% lower than the maximum ratio required by ACI 318M-19 code [36] to ensure the tension-controlled behavior for slabs
(ductile behavior).
The four slabs were fabricated using the self-compacting concrete. Several trial mixes were made, the target compressive
strength was 45 MPa. In addition to this strength, the criteria for adopting the mix design was to fulfill the requirements of
EFNARC [38]. Accordingly, four tests were performed for evaluating the fresh properties of each trial mix, which were slump
flow, T50, V-funnel, and L-box. Tables 3 and 4 show the adopted mixing ratio and its fresh properties, respectively. The
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Fig. 3. Details of BA90 specimen.

Table 3
The mixing ratio of self-compacting concrete.

Material Cement Sand Gravel Water Superplasticizer

Kg/m3 Kg/m3 Kg/m3 Kg/m3 Kg/m3
Quantity 470 868 841 197.4 9.4

Table 4
Fresh properties of the adopted mixing ratio.

Test Type Results Limitations of EFNARC [38]

Slump flow (mm) 680 650-800
T50 (sec) 4 2-5
V-Funnel (sec) 10 6-12
L-Box (BR) 0.97 0.8-1.0

properties of raw materials used in producing the SCC mixture are summarized in Tables 5–8. In this mixture, all components
were primarily mixed in a dry situation for five minutes. Then, nearly 70% of the required water was added to fluidize the mix
for three minutes. Finally, the remaining water with a superplasticizer was added. The process of mixing then continued for
an extra five minutes. This procedure was followed by [39].
Each slab was cast from one concrete batch; six standard cylinders with dimensions of 150
300 mm were taken from
each batch for determining the compressive and splitting tensile strengths of concrete. All slabs and associated cylinders
were kept wet at room temperature for 28 days after casting. Table 9 outlines the properties of test slabs.

2.2. Test setup

The specimens were tested by subjecting the four-point loading, as shown in Fig.4. They were simply rested on the
supporting frame. The distance between the free ends and the roller supports was 175 mm. The shear and flexural spans
were set to 600 mm and 450 mm, respectively. The load was gradually increased at a rate of 1 kN/m until specimens’ collapse
by a hydraulic jack with a 1000 kN capacity. A load cell was employed for registering the applied load. Also, three linear
variable differential transformers (LVDTs) were utilized for measuring the deflection of the specimen at the center and the
loading points. The LVDTs were positioned underneath the slabs. Moreover, the strains were measured for both concrete and
reinforcing bars in the middle of the slab, using electrical strain gauges. Four gauges were installed on the top and bottom
re-bars, and one gauge was fixed on the compressive face of the specimen (top surface). All instrumentations (load cell,
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Table 5
Composition and physical properties of used cement.

Chemical properties Limits of IQS 5:1984 [49]

Oxide % by weight
CaO 61.42 ————
SiO2 21.75 ————
Al2O3 6.2 ———
Fe2O3 2.1 ———
MgO 1.513 <5
SO3 2.4 <2.8
Na2O 0.27 ———
K2O 0.5 ———
Insoluble Residue (I.R) 0.81 < 1:5
Loss on ignition (L.O.I) 2.35 < 4:0

physical properties of cement

Feature Value
Specific surface area (m2/kg) 240  230 m2/kg
Specific gravity 3.14 ———
Initial setting time (min) 130 45 min
Final setting time (min) 480 600 min

Table 6
Properties of coarse aggregate.

Sieve size (mm) Passing % Limits of IQS 45:1984 [50]

14 100 100
9.5 97 85–100
4.75 17.8 10–30
2.36 6.6 0–10
1.18 2.4 0–5

Table 7
Properties of fine aggregate.

Sieve size (mm) Passing % Limits of IQS 45:1984 [50]

9.5 100 100
4.75 92.9 90–100
2,63 69.5 75–100
1.18 58.7 55–90
0.60 49.2 35–59
0.30 27.7 8–30
0.15 6.7 0-10

Table 8
Properties of superplasticizer (Sika ViscoCrete1 5930-L).

Feature Technical data

Basis Aqueous solution of modified polycarboxylate
density 1.1 kg/lt
Appearance Turbid liquid
Ph 3.8–4.5

Table 9
Properties of test specimens.

Specimen Ball diameter Cylindrical compressive strength, f ʹc, (MPa) Splitting tensile strength, ft, (MPa)
(mm)
SOL — 47.3 4.5
BA60 60 48.8 4.9
BA70 70 47.6 4.6
BA90 90 45.5 4.2

Note; all the strength values were taken as an average value of three control specimens.
 T.S. Al-Gasham et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292 7

Fig. 4. Test setup.

LVDTs, and strain gauges) were connected to a data logger for taking readings at each second of the testing duration. Besides,
initiation and propagation of cracks were carefully traced throughout the experiment events.

3. Test results and discussion

3.1. Crack pattern and failure mode

All samples, except the BA90 slab, failed in the flexural mode; the BA90 collapsed owing to the brittle shear mode. This
result means that introducing balls with a diameter equivalent to 75% of the slab depth led to changing the failure mode from
flexural to shear, although the slabs were designed to fail in flexure.
The first crack was observed in the flexural span for all specimens, where the maximum moment occurred at loads of 23–
48 kN. As expected, the bubbled specimens cracked at forces lower than that of the control slab because of the direct
reduction in their moment of inertia due to eliminating the substantial volume of concrete by voids. The decline in the
cracking load became more evident as the size of balls increased, as listed in Table 10.
For specimens failed in flexure, more vertical cracks grew and spread over the flexural span with increasing the applied
loads. Then with further load, these cracks augmented, enlarged, and propagated upward. The flexure-shear cracks also
appeared in the shear span next to the loading points in the BA60 and BA70 specimens. Nevertheless, these cracks did not
propagate and widen enough to cause failure. In these slabs, the flexural failure was distinguished by the arrival of flexural
cracks nearly to the upper third of the specimen depth as well as the crushing of concrete on the top surface of specimens at
the mid-span.
For the BA90 slab, the development of cracks was different from other slabs where the flexural cracks within the flexural
span were limited and did not expand much. Besides, no concrete crushing was visible on the top surface of the BA90 slab.
The main reason for the collapse was developing diagonal (shear) cracks over the shear span, as shown in Fig. 5.
8 T.S. Al-Gasham et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292

Table 10
Test results of slabs.

Specimen Cracking load, Pcr, Ultimate load, Pu, Flexural stiffness (kN/mm) Ductility value Toughness value (kN.mm)
(kN) (kN)
SOL 48 164.7 12.1 3.24 4494
BA60 45 164.2 10.7 2.91 4049
BA70 42 135.5 9.4 2.88 3802
BA90 23 129.7 9.2 1.07 943

Fig. 5. Cracks pattern of slabs at collapse.

3.2. Ultimate strength

Table 10 lists the ultimate loads for all slabs, and Fig. 6 plots them against (D/H) ratio. Referring to Fig. 6, it is evident that
the BA60 specimen collapsed at a force nearly equal to that of the solid specimen with a very marginal difference, 0.3%,
despite installing 68 balls with a diameter amounting to 50% of the slab thickness inside it. This result can be explained due to
 T.S. Al-Gasham et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292 9

Fig. 6. Failure load versus (D/H) ratio.

extending the vertical cracks (flexural cracks) up to the top third of the slab depth and then stopped similar to what
happened in the solid slab, as displayed in Fig. 4a and b. In other words, the compressive block required to resist the applied
moments did not enter into the voids zone, and thus, the load-carrying capacity of the BA60 was not influenced.
On the other hand, enlarging the ball diameter to 70 mm (58.3% of the slab depth) as in BA70 slab caused an apparent drop
(17.7%) in the ultimate strength compared to the control slab. The reason could be attributed to a faster propagation of cracks
in this specimen as well as developing more flexural cracks over the flexural span, compared to the BA60 slab. This drop in
the strength was much lower than that reported by [40] for slab having voids with a D/H of 60%, which was 52%. In the
investigation [40], steel fibers were used, which might make defects in the fabrication of the specimen.
For the BA90 specimen, containing the largest voids (D/H = 75%), the fall in the ultimate load was the maximum, about
21.3%. This remarkable decline in the strength could be assigned to the development of the diagonal cracks, extending
between loading and supporting points. These cracks made the BA90 slab early collapsed in the sudden brittle shear mode
owing to reducing the critical section of concrete, which is responsible for resisting the high shear stresses produced in the
shear span. Compared to the previous investigation [34], the decline in the strength for BA90 was significantly higher than
that of slabs having inserts with a D/H of 72%. In the study [34], the distances between voids in the longitudinal direction of
the slab were relatively large as well as the voids were shifted away from the points of loading. However, this arrangement of
inserts is not practical.
Generally, the reductions in the load-carrying capacity of voided slabs are acceptable, compared with a significant drop in
their self-weight, where the self-weight in concrete structures comprises a considerable part of the design loading.
It is essential to state that the effect of the self-weight of specimens in this study was not taken into account because the
measurement instrumentations were installed after resting the slabs on the testing frame. The reductions in the self-weight
of specimens BA60, BA70, and BA90 were 6.4%, 10.2%, and 21.6%, respectively, in comparison with the SOL slab.

3.3. load-deflection curve

Fig. 7 plots the load-deflection responses of test slabs. The responses of the three slabs failed by flexural mode (SOL, BA60,
and BA70) were comparable, including two distinct phases: pre-yielding phase and post-yielding phase. The pre-yielding
stage can also be divided into two parts: pre-cracking and post-cracking. The pre-cracking part started from the
commencement of the experiments up to the appearance of the first crack, in which the deflection slowly rose with
increasing the applied load. After that, the second part (post-cracking) launched and continued until the tensile
reinforcement yielded. In this stage, the responses became slightly softer. After yielding the tensile re-bars, the second phase
(post-yielding) began and continued up to the specimen collapse. In this stage, the load-deflection responses of slabs were

Fig. 7. Load-deflection response of the test specimens.

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much softer where a deflection considerably augmented with a marginal increase in the applied load. Similar responses were
reported in the previous studies [33–35,41].
In contrast, the load-deflection behavior of the BA90 specimen was without the post-yielding phase since this specimen
collapsed in shear mode.
In general, introducing balls inside slabs caused a decay in the stiffness, and thus an increase in the deflection, compared
to the SOL slab at the same load level, as shown in Fig. 7. The decay in stiffness was slight before the yielding of tensile re-bars
and became significant after that.
For further explanation, the deflection values of the test specimens were compared at a service load of the solid slab.
Typically, the service load is equal to 70% of the collapse load [42–44]. In this study, the service load was taken as 115 kN. At
this load, the specimens BA60 and BA70 had deflections 12.2% and 72.3% higher than that of the solid slab, respectively. For
the BA90 slab, the rise in the deflection was 31.6%. This percentage is much lower than that of the BA70 slab because the BA90
slab failed suddenly in shear without experiencing an excessive deflection like BA70 slab.

3.4. Stiffness

Various definitions for stiffness are found in the literature [44]. Among them, the flexural stiffness is the most appropriate
for applying herein since it takes into account the slope of the first phase of the load-deflection curves of specimens (post-
yielding). This stiffness is calculated as the ratio of the yielding force (Py) to the corresponding displacement (Dy) [25].
According to the strain readings of the tensile re-bars, all specimens yielded before the collapse at forces in a range of
110.8 kN -125.7 kN, as summarized in Table 10. The determined values of the flexural stiffness for the test slabs are also
briefed in Table 10.
In comparison with the solid slab (SOL), the voided slabs gave smaller flexural stiffness (Fig. 8), about 11.1% for slab having
60 mm-balls; this percentage increased to twice (22.3% and 23.7%) for slabs containing larger voids (70 mm, and 90 mm),
respectively. This reduction in the flexural stiffness of voided slabs could be attributed to following reasons:(1) the direct
reduction in the moment of inertia of voided slabs due to existing polystyrene voids; (2) the presence of voids made growth
and enlargement of cracks notably fast; and (3) placing the voids directly above the tensile re-bars resulted in removing an
amount of concrete surrounding these re-bars, and hence the bond strength reduced.

3.5. Ductility

Ductility is a measurement, discussing the capability of a structural member to show a significant inelastic deformation
prior to collapse [45]. The reinforced concrete members should be designed with an acceptable ductility to ensure an
adequate warning before failure to save residents as well as their properties. Therefore, evaluating the influence of voids on
the ductility of slabs is necessary. The ductility was calculated as a ratio of (Du/Dy). Where Dy and Du are the displacements at
the yield and ultimate loads, respectively.The results are stated in Table 10 and Fig. 9.
The presence of voids inside the whole area of one-way slabs caused a drop in the ductility value. Although the BA60 and
BA70 slabs, having voids with a diameter equal to or less than 58.3% of slab depth, failed in the flexural mode as the solid slab,
they lost about 10.3%–11.1% of their ductility compared with the reference slab SOL. For slab with the largest balls (BA90, D/
H = 75%), the decrease in the ductility value was most significant, reaching 67.0%, since this slab experienced a brittle shear
failure. Hence, special consideration should be taken for bubbled slabs constructed in regions vulnerable to seismic loads.

3.6. Toughness

The ability of reinforced concrete elements to absorb energy before exhibiting a remarkable drop in the load-carrying
capacity is called toughness. The toughness is a very important criterion for reinforced concrete members susceptible to
seismic load or impact load [46]. Thus, assessing the effect of voids on the toughness of slabs is very crucial. The toughness is

Fig. 8. Flexural stiffness versus (D/H) ratio.

 T.S. Al-Gasham et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292 11

Fig. 9. Ductility value versus (D/H) ratio.

measured as the area below the load-deflection curve of a member up to failure load. Table 10 and Fig. 10 show the toughness
values of the four slabs.
The results stated that the presence of voids inside slabs resulted in less energy absorption in comparison with the solid
slab. In reinforced concrete elements, the energy absorption depends mainly on the ability of concrete to withstand cracking
and fracture [4,44]. The loss of a considerable amount of concrete in the bubbled slabs led to reducing their toughness.
In comparison with the SOL slab, the drop in the toughness was approximately 10% when the voids with a diameter of 50%
of the slab thickness were employed as in slab BA60. This percentage rose to 15.4% in the case of enlarging the diameter of the
voids to 58.3% of the slab depth (BA70). In the BA90 slabs with the biggest voids (D/H = 75%), the ability to absorb energy
remarkably dropped, about 79.0%, owing to the collapse of this slab in the shear mode without displaying an excessive
deflection.

4. Prediction of the flexural and shear strengths of the voided slabs

In this study, the nominal shear and moment strengths of slabs were calculated according to ACI 318M-19 [36] and EC2
[47] codes. The distribution of the flexural stress across the slab depth at the ultimate load for both codes are plotted in Fig. 11.
In the voided slabs, there are two possible shapes for the compression zone, depending on the compression depth (a). If the
(a) does not enter the voids zone, the compression zone is rectangular, and the nominal moment is determined as in the case
of the solid slab. Otherwise, the compression zone is irregular and lengthy calculations are needed for computing the area

Fig. 10. Toughness value versus (D/H) ratio.

Fig. 11. Distribution of stress across the slab depth.

12 T.S. Al-Gasham et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292

Table 11
The predictions of shear and flexural strengths of the tested slabs.

Slab P test α ACI 318M-19 EC2

(kN)
Pf Ps Ppred/Ptest Pf Ps Ppred/Ptest
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
SOL 164.7 1.0 115.9 109 0.66 117.6 145 0.71
BA60 164.2 0.93 116.3 102 0.62 117.9 135 0.72
BA70 135.5 0.89 116.0 97 0.72 117.6 129 0.87
BA90 129.7 0.76 114.2 83 0.64 117.2 110 0.85
mean 0.66 0.79
Standard deviation 0.037 0.072

α=the reduction shear factor.

Pf=flexural strength.
Ps=shear strength.
Ppred= least of Pf and Ps.

and center of the compression zone. The compression area (Ac) is evaluated based on the equilibrium condition, assuming
that the tensile rebars reach the yield limit, as follows;
As f y
Ac ¼ ð1Þ
Ƞ f ck

Where As is the area of the tensile rebars (mm2), f y is the yield strength of the rebars (MPa), f ck is the cylinder compressive
strength of concrete (MPa), and Ƞ is a factor to convert the irregular shape of the concrete stress into the rectangular shape
(for ACI 318M-19 ; Ƞ = 0.85 and for EC2, Ƞ = 1 when f ck  50 MPa).
Next, the center of the compression zone (Ȳ) is calculated. It is essential to state that in all slabs, except for BA90 in ACI
318M-19 code, the compression zone was rectangular, where the compression depth (a) located above the balls. The nominal
flexural strength for slabs can then be determined as follows;


Ȳ
M n ¼ As f y d  ð2Þ
2
The flexural strength (Pf) per both codes are listed in Table 11. It can be seen that the predictions of EC2 are slightly higher
than those of ACI 318M-19 codes. Also, the forces (Pf) of the voided slabs are almost comparable to that of the solid slab since
the compression depth did not penetrate the voids zone or slightly did that as in the BA90 slab.
It is worth highlighting that the contribution of the top bars in flexural strength is slight, and hence it was neglected for
simplicity since the slabs were designed to be singly reinforced. Besides, the partial safety factors for material are taken as 1.0
herein.
Concerning the nominal shear strength (Ps), both codes do not contain any provisions for evaluating the shear strength of
slabs with voids. They have only provisions for solid slabs, as shown in Eqs. (3) and (4) for ACI 318M-19 and EC2 codes,
respectively.
qffiffiffiffiffiffi
V c ¼ 0:66 ls rt 1=3 f ck bw d ð3Þ

Where ls is the coefficient of size effect, taken as 1.0 when the d is smaller than 250 mm; rt is the ratio of tension
reinforcement.

V c ¼ C Rd;c Kð100rt f ck Þ1=3 bw d ð4Þ

Where C Rd;c is a factor, taken as 0.18 after setting the partial safety coefficient for concrete to 1.0; K is the coefficient of size
effect, was set to 2.0 since the effective depth is less than 200 mm.
Chung et al. [1] reported that the use of the smallest thicknesses of the web alone in predicting the shear strength of the
voided slabs led to unreasonable results for both codes where the predicted strengths were too conservative. Instead, they
suggested that the shear strength of the voided slabs is equal to that of the solid slab multiplied by a reduction shear factor
(α). This factor is equal to the ratio of the net cross-sectional area along the plane of shear crack to the full cross-sectional area
along this path. In the BA90, the shear cracks (Fig. 5d) extended from the loading point to the point of support. Therefore, the
full area is equal to 306e3 mm2, which is the production of 612 mm by 500 mm; the full area is considered constant for all
slabs. The net area equal to the full area minus the area of balls, overlapping the plane of shear cracks, as illustrated in Fig. 12.
The net area differs by changing the size of the balls. The values of shear reduction factor for the four slabs were determined
and listed in Table 11.
The shear strength of the four slabs was determined per the two codes, depending on the suggestion of Chung et al. [1]
and listed in Table 11. It is evident that the ACI 318-19 code failed in predicting the failure mode where the four slabs showed
shear strength lower than the flexural strength. In the experiments, only the BA90 specimen failed due to shear. This result
 T.S. Al-Gasham et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00292 13

Fig. 12. The net area along the shear crack.

because the shear equation in modern edition of the ACI code (ACI 318-19) is more conservative than that of the previous
edition (ACI 318-14) for beam or slab, having reinforcement ratio less than 1.7% or/and with an effective depth (d) greater
than 250 mm. it is worth mentioning that even the less conservative edition (ACI 318-14) gave hugely underestimated shear
strength for voided slabs as reported previously [1,48].
On the other hand, the EC2 estimated accurately the failure mode, in which the BA90 was alone slab that collapsed due to
shear (shear strength is smaller the flexural strength) as happened in the tests. Further, this code was safe in evaluating the
strength of the voided slabs and less conservative (more economical) than ACI 318-19 code with a mean value of 0.79 versus
0.66 for the ACI 318-19 code; the similar conclusion was outlined by Chung et al. [1].

5. Conclusions

This study aimed at investigating the effect of voids on the behavior of a one-way slab. Therefore, four slabs were
prepared; three of them contained balls with different sizes (60 mm, 70 mm, and 90 mm). The remaining slab was the control
specimen, having no inserts. The test results of the voided slabs were compared to the results of the control slab. Besides, the
shear and flexural strengths of these slabs were estimated per ACI 318M-19 and EC2 codes. The main outcomes of this study
are briefed below;

1 The presence of balls influenced the failure mode. Introducing balls with a diameter equal to 75% of the slab depth changed
the failure mode from flexural to shear.
2 For the slab with the smallest balls (D/H = 50%), the loss in the ultimate strength was nearly nonexistent. For larger balls,
the decay in strength became evident, reaching 17.7% and 21.3% for BA70 and BA90 slabs, respectively. However, these
losses in the ultimate strength could be compensated owing to the reduction in the self-weight of the voided slab that
ranged from 6.4% to 20.6% in comparison with the solid slab.
3 The voided slabs showed softer load-deflection behavior than the solid slab due to the reduction in their flexural stiffness,
which was in the range of 11.1%–23.7 %.
4 The ductility of slabs was found to be affected by the existence of voids. Comparing with the control specimen, the drop in
ductility of slabs having 60 and 70 mm balls was 10.3% and 11.1%, respectively. For 90 mm voids, the drop was most
significant, reaching 67%.
5 Installing inserts inside the slabs resulted in reducing their energy absorption capacity. The reduction was moderate
(10%–15.4%) when the size of the balls was less than 75% of the slab depth. For the BA90 slab, the absorbed energy
substantially declined, about 79.0%.
6 The EC2 code was more accurate and less conservative than the ACI 318M-19 in predicting the flexural and shear strength
of slabs.
7 From a practical point of view, the use of balls with a size equal to 50% of the slab thickness is recommended since no lost in
the ultimate strength was observed as well as the drops in the stiffness, ductility, and toughness of slab were limited.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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