8

Non-destructive Testing

8.1 Introduction

Defects, such as cracks, porosity and inclusions, which may be potentially

damaging may be introduced into materials or components during manufac-
ture, and other defects, such as fatigue cracks, may be generated during
service. It is necessary to be able to detect and identify such defects and to
ascertain their position and size so that decisions can be taken as to whether
specific defects can be tolerated or not. A range of non-destructive test
(NOT) methods is available for the inspection of materials and components.
Some of the features and applications of the main test methods in use are
given in Table 8.1. All these NOT systems co-exist and, depending on the
application, may either be used singly or in conjunction with one another.
There is some overlap between the various test methods but they are
complementary to one another. The fact that, for example, ultrasonic
testing can reveal both internal and surface flaws does not necessarily mean
that it will be the best method for all inspection applications. Much will
depend upon the type of flaw present and the shape and size of the
components to be examined.

8.2 Visual Inspection

Often the first stage in the examination of a component is visual inspection.

Examination by naked eye will only reveal relatively large defects which
break the surface but the effectiveness of visual inspection for external
surfaces can be improved considerably through use of a hand lens or
stereoscopic microscope. Generally, high magnifications are not necessary
for this type of inspection. Optical inspection probes, both rigid and flexible,
which can be inserted into cavities, ducts and pipes have been developed for
the inspection of internal surfaces. An optical inspection probe comprises an

V. John, Testing of Materials

© V. B. John 1992
 NON-DESTRUCfIVE TESTING 91
Table 8.1

System Features Applicability

Visual Detection of defects which
inspection break the surface, surface
probes corrosion, etc
Liquid Detection of defects which
penetrant break the surface
Magnetic Detection of defects which
particle break the surface and
sub-surface defects close to the
surface
Electrical Detection of surface defects
methods and some sub-surface defects.
(Eddy currents) Can also be used to measure
the thickness of non-conductive
coatings, e.g. paint on a metal
Ultrasonic Detection of internal defects
testing but can also detect surface
flaws
Radiography Detection of internal defects,
surface defects and to check
correctness of assemblies
Interior of ducts, pipes and
assemblies
Can be used for any metal,
many plastics, glass and glazed
ceramics
Can only be used for
ferro-magnetic materials (most
steels and irons)
Can be used for any metal
Can be used for most materials
Can be used for most materials
but there are limitations on the
maximum material thickness

objective lens system at the working end and a viewing eyepiece at the other
end, with a fibre optic coherent image guide linking the two (Figure 8.1).
Illuminating light is conveyed to the working end of the probe through an
optical fibre light guide, and both the optical and illumination systems are
contained within either a stainless steel tube, for rigid probes, or a flexible
plastic or braided metal sheathing in the case of flexible probes. Inspection
probes are made in many sizes with, for rigid probes, diameters ranging
from about 2 mm up to about 20 mm. The minimum diameter for flexible
probes is about 4 mm. Probe lengths may vary considerably also, and the
maximum working length for a 2 mm probe is about 150 mm. The maximum
permissible working length increases as probe diameter increases and may
be up to 5 m for a 20 mm diameter probe.
Inspection probes can be designed to give either direct viewing ahead of
the probe end, or to give a view at some angle to the line of the probe. It is
possible to mount a miniature TV camera in place of the normal eyepiece
lens system and display an image on a monitor screen.