THERMAL STRESS MONITORING

OF STEAM TURBINE ROTORS

A dissertation submitted

In partial fulfillment for

the award of degree

of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

in

POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGY

by

CHANDRAMOULI KASINA

Under the guidance of

Dr NESAR AHMED & Dr LAJPAT RAI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERlNG

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI
DECEMBER, 2000
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project, THERMAL STRESS MONITORING OF

STEAM TURBINE ROTORS, being submitted by CHANDRAMOULI KASINA
in partial fUlfillment of the degree of MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY in POWER
GENERATION TECHNOLOGY at the INDIAN INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY, DELHI is a bona-fide record of the project work he has carried
out under our supervision and guidance. To the best of our knowledge, this work has
not been submitted elsewhere, for the award of any degree or diploma.

Dr NESAR AHMED Dr LAJPAT RAI

Department of Electrical Engineering. Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute Of Technology, Delhi Indian Institute Of Technology, Delhi

Date : Date :
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It gives me great pleasure to be able to thank everyone who has helped me see
this work completed. I am indebted to my thesis guides and supervisors, Dr Nesar
Ahmed & Dr Lajpat Rai for their valuable support and guidance throughout the
course of this work.

I sincerely thank Shri K.Prakasa Rao, GM, RSTPS, for allowing me to attend
the course work. I thank Shri S.K.Sekhar, Plant Manager, RRIPL, Kakinada for
extending valuable support during my visit to SPGL, Kakinada.

My special thanks to my parents, wife Satya and daughter Pooja without

whose emotional support my endeavors would not have seen the light of success.

(Chandramouli Kasina)
 CONTENTS

Certificate i
Acknowledgement iii
Contents v
Abstract vii
List of symbols ix
List of figures xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Literature Survey
Chapter 3 Mathematical models & software development
3.1 Thermal & centrifugal stresses
3.2 Rotor temperature distribution
3.3 Heat transfer coefficient of rotor surface
3.4 After-first-stage steam condition model
3.4.1 After-first-stage steam temperature
3.4.2 After-first-stage steam pressure
3.5 Prediction of steam parameters & load
3.6 The software
Chapter 4 Results & Discussion
4.1 Stability of temperature distribution calculation
4.2 Effect of variable material properties on thermal stress
4.3 Present & predicted stresses
4.4 Rotor life consumption computation
4.5 Recommendations & future work
Chapter 5 References
Chapter 6 Bibliography

Annexure A Plant Data

Annexure B Source Code
 -

ABSTRACT

Fossil fuel powered power plants are conventionally being used to meet the
base load requirement. While the individual unit size is increasing on the one hand,
the difference between day time and night time demands is also increasing on the
other hand, forcing units into variable load operation. Non steady state operations like
start-up, shut-down and large load changes induce large thermal stresses in thick
walled components like steam turbine rotors, casing and valves. A turbine start-up
has to simultaneously satisfy two contradictive requirements. One, that of minimizing
the time taken for start-up due to reasons of economy of generation and second, that
of limiting thermal stresses within allowable maximum limits to ensure full service
life of the turbine components.

The levels of thermal stress reached in the critical regions of high pressure and
intermediate pressure turbine rotors is an important factor determining the life span of
the turbine. The present work implements a thermal stress monitoring system for a
typical steam turbine rotor with bore. This can easily be extended to solid rotors The
system computes both thermal and centrifugal stresses, based on the condition of the
steam at the inlet of the turbine. Rotor temperature and stress distribution are
determined using an explicit finite difference model of heat transfer. The variation of
material properties of the rotor and thk convective heat transfer coefficient is also
taken into account. The system extrapolates the current temperature trend of the steam
and computes predicted stresses for a look ahead period of 20 minutes. The system is
also capable of computing the life consumption of the rotor for any stress cycle
crossing a preset threshold. The program with suitable changes can also be used for
stress analysis of super-heater and reheater outlet headers of HRSGs in a combined
cycle plant.

vii
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

annular area between the labyrinth packing and the rotor

specific heat of the rotor material
Young's modulus of rotor material
flow rate of the steam flowing through the labyrinth packing gap
volumetric flow rate of steam flowing through the gap between the
labyrinth packing and the rotor
after-first stage steam pressure of the HP turbine corresponding to the
no-load pressure drop at the rated turbine speed NR
pressure required for obtaining a unit acceleration
turbine specific factor
steam throttling ratio
temperature reducing factor across the first stage
rotor surface heat transfer coefficient
load of the turbine
lower load limit of combined governing
upper load limit of combined governing
load converted to rated conditions
rate of change of load
speed of the turbine ...

acceleration of the turbine

rated speed.
Nusselt's number
pressure of after-first-stage steam (HP turbine)
rated Pm
PH,at no load
pressure of after-first-stage steam (IP turbine)
rated PII
main steam pressure
rated main steam pressure
heat delivered from the steam to the rotor surface in the period TI
amount of heat delivered from the rotor surface to the core of the
outermost annular section
amount of heat delivered from t h e y annular section to t h e j + ~ *
annular section.
Reynolds number
Rotor bore temperature
inner casing temperature measured at 100% depth
outer casing temperature measured at 50% depth
temperature of after-first-stage steam (HF'turbine)
temperature of after-first-stage steam (IP turbine)
Rotor mean temperature
main steam temperature
rated main steam temperature
reheat steam temperature
Rotor surface temperature
temperature off' annular section

after-first-stage steam temperature corresponding to load L'

combined leakage velocity
axial velocity of the steam
rotor surface velocity
volume o f j h annular section permit length
the after-first-stage velocity of steam
number of packing fins
no-load pressure drop index
no of imaginary annular sections
outer radius of thejfhannular section,
rotor surface radius
radius of bore
present iastant
heat accumulated i n p annular section
temperature drop between TMSand steam temperature in turbine bowl.
ATo under rated conditions
thickness of the annular sections,
a Coefficient linear expansion

P diffisivity of the material.

6 packing gap
YS specific weight of steam (kg/m3),
& heat conductivity of the rotor material
v Poisson's ratio
vs kinematic coefficient of viscosity of steam (mZIsec)
;Is thermal conductivity of steam (KW/m°C)
PM density of the rotor material
0s surface stress (net)
a. maximum allowed surface stress
OST surface stress (thermal)
OS% are the surface stresses converted to percentage.
OB bore stress (net)
OBC centrifugal stress acting on the rotor bore
OBCR centrihgal stress at the bore
GBL maximum allowed bore stress
OBT bore stress (thermal)
OB% bore stresses converted to percentage.
71 period of the heat balance calculation
6 the ratio of steam pressure following the second and first stages
 L E T OF FIGURES

Fig 1 . 1 Cross-sectional view of a typical single casing HP-IP sections of

turbine
Fig 1.2 Typical variation of thermal stress during turbine operation
Fig 3.1 Cross-sectional view of rotor
Fig 3.2 Computation of rotor temperature distribution
Fig 3.3 Computation of rotor heat transfer coefficient
Fig 3.4 Estimation of after-first-stage steam condition
Fig 3.5 After-first-stage steam temp characteristic at rated parameters
Fig 3.6 Turbine inlet bowl temperature drop characteristic
Fig 3.7 Flow chart of the common stress calculation routine
Fig 3.8 Flow chart of the program sequence
Fig 3.9 Flow chart of the life consumption calculation routine
Fig 3.10 Typical stress variation
Fig 3.11 Typical rotor l i e consumption curve
Fig 4.1 Temperature distribution with computation interval of 60s
Fig 4.2 Temperature distribution with wmputation interval of 30s
Fig 4.3 Temperature distribution with wmputation interval of 10s
Fig 4.4 Variation rotor mean temperature
Fig 4.5 Variation of rotor mean temperature deviation
Fig 4.6 Variation rotor surface stress
Fig 4.7 Variation of rotor surface stress deviation
Fig 4.8 Variation rotor bore stress
Fig 4.9 Variation of rotor bore stress deviation
Fig 4.10 Prediction of after-first-stage steam temperature
Fig4.11 Variation of present and predicted surface stresses
Fig 4.12 Variation of present and predicted bore stresses
Fig 4.13 Surface stress variation for life consumption computation
THIS EFFORT IS DEDICATED TO

MY WIFE
SATYA

DAUGHTER
POOJA
.
 CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the need to meet efficiently the ever-increasing demand for
electric power has markedly increased the capacity of each steam turbine plant This
has made it necessary to operate a power plant in a manner to cope successfully with
variations in the demand for electric power, particularly to deal with the difference in
the demand for electric power between daytime and nighttime Thus, a power plant
hitherto operated at base load or with a constant turbine power is nowadays required
to frequently iffect startup, shutdown and load changes. For example, according to a
mode of operation called "Daily Start-Stop", boilers are set on at 5 A.M. every
morning and the start-up of the turbines is completed at 8 A.M The turbine is then
operated through out the day time until 10 P.M.This cyclic starting-up and stopping
of the plant are repeated every day. In another mode called "Weekly Start-Stop", the
plant is started up, for example, at 8 A.M. on Monday and works through the week
until it is stopped at 10 P.M. on Saturday, which cyclic operation is repeated every
week

Supposing that a plant in which the start-up must be completed at 8 A.M fails
to start at that time, disturbance (in fkquency due t o shortage of power) may result in
the system concerned. This disturbance can be overcome only through increasing the
outputs of other plant or plants. Thus, it is strictly required that the plants must be at
latest started by the time expected, e.g. at 8 A.M. which in turn necessitates minimum
length of time for starting-up the turbine. In addition, when a thermal power plant is
tripped due to abnormal conditions in the plant or power system, the plant must be
restarted as soon as the source of the trouble in the plant or system is removed.

A large t.hermal stress is induced in the thick-walled components like rotor,

casing and valves of steam turbine due to uneven heating I cooling. Of these, turbine
rotors are recognized to be the limiting parts in most modem turbo-generators.When
shells and valves are Smiting, it is by a small margin and for a &ion of the total run
uplloading time.
 Operation transients such as startup, shutdown and load changes produce
thermal stress of high magnitude in the steam turbine rotor. In controlling stresses
produced in the steam turbine rotor, it is important to control thermal stress produced
by the operation transients. It is also necessary to take into consideration centrifLgal
stress which would be produced in the turbine rotor during its rotation. The problem
of stress control may be considered to be the problem of preventing excess life
consumption of the turbine rotor by controlling operation of the steam turbine or the
problem of controlling the life of the turbine rotor.

The portion of the rotor facing the labyrinth packing after the first stage of
both HP and IP sectihs of turbine (the part of the rotor which comes in contact with
steam of maximum velocity and temperature, as shown in figure 1.1), is subject to
maximum thermal stress when turbine is started up or subjected to a load variation.
The larger the rate of change of speed or load becomes, the larger the thermal stress.
Proper control of thermal stresses at these points is of utmost importance from the
point of view of life of the rotor. In practice, for safe operation of the turbine, a quick
startup and an abrupt load change are strictly forbidden.

Figure 1.1 Cross-sectional view of a typical single casing HP-IP sections of turbine

2
 The long-term reliability and availability of turbines requires close attention
to, and recognition of, the impact of thermal cycles on the "life" of steam turbine
components. Excessive thermal transients imposed on turbine rotating and stationary
parts during startups, major load changes, and shutdowns can greatly reduce the life
of these components. Because the effect of each thermal cycle is usually in itself
small, the effects may not be readily apparent to plant operators during the event and
may not be recognized and properly considered in making day-to-day operating
decisions. Damages like packing rubbing, shell distortion or even cracking of turbine
parts, is possible in the long run. Long-term cumulative effects of excessive thermal
stress cycles can result in extended and expensive forced outages requiring major
repairs or component replacement. In many instances, a turbine may appear to start
without difficulty, in spite of improper startup. During the initial periods of service,
no definite trouble may be evident.

Usually, in industry the stresses in turbine parts are indicated as percentages,

100% representing the maximum stress the material can be subjected to. If during all
the start-ups, in the life of the turbine, the stress does not exceed 100% of the
maximum allowable stress, then the rate of life expenditure should equal the design
intent. If the machine undergoes stress higher than 100% during a startup, then the life
of the turbine will be reduced. Similarly, if the stresses during a cycle are lower than
loo%, the life of the turbine will be extended. However, because the reduction in life
rises more rapidly with increasing stress, a high stress causes a far greater reduction in
life than the extension in life for a proportionally lower stress.

Thermal stress monitor calculates the current stress and predicted stress in the
steam turbine rotor and advises the operator of the optimum rates of rolling and
loading. It also calculates the consumption of rotor life. A typical startup diagram is
given below in figure 1.2.

A fast startup leads to consumption of the life of turbine or component

damage. A slow startup, on the other hand, does not utilize the available stress
margins, leading t o losses of revenue. An ideal startup, as can be seen from the figure
utilizes the stress margins to the full, resulting in fast stattupfloading without
reduction in the designed life of the turbine component.
 Fast Startup [Life Used]

Ideal [Mast Efficient]

Slow Sf artup ILoss of Revenue]

Time
b m p i i m t Full lord,-{
~

Figure 1.2 Typical variation of thermal stress during turbine operation

The thermal stresses generated in the turbine are closely related to the
acceleration or to the rate of change in load and generally tend to become larger as the
acceleration rate becomes larger. During start-up of the turbine, rolling-up and
warming are effected alternatively. Thermal stresses are related also to the duration of
warming. More specifically, thermal stresses are increased during acceleration and
then are gradually decreased during the subsequent
..~~warming. The larger the thermal
stresses, the longer is the duration of warming.

An automatic method of starting up turbines has to simultaneously satisfy two

contradictive requirements of minimizing the length of time for the starting-up due to
reasons of economy and limiting thermal stresses within pre-determined allowable
range, thus prolonging the life of the turbine which is shortened with each start-up.

Rotor surface metal stress is proportional to the difference between surface

metal temperature and average rotor temperature, and rotor bore (center) metal stress
is proportional to the difference between average rotor and rotor bore
temperatures[l6]. Conventionally, however, it has been difficult to rapidly determine
accurate time lagged rotor bore temperatures and rotor average temperatures
necessary for accurate and rapid thermal stress calculations. In the systems that are in
service in industry, a lot of simplifying assumptions are made like,

Average constant parameters of rotor material

Average constant properties of steam
Average heat transfer coefficients
Assumption that the after-first-stage steam temperature is equal to the nearest
casing metal temperature

Most high capacity modem steam turbines have a double shell HP section
making the measurements of even casing temperatures of the inner shell difficult and
highly maintenance prone. The non-availability of measurements leads to non-
availability of thermal stress control systems.

The application areas of thermal stress calculations are in three broad inter-
linked categories.

1. Operator guidance, in the form of displays on monitors about the machine

condition. It is left to the operator to utilize the information.
2. Incorporation into a control system, modifying the rates of rolling and loading.
This scheme tries to hlly utilize the stress margins to achieve a startup I
loading cycle in the minimum possible time. There are two different
implementations available in industry today. First one, based on instantaneous
stress values and the second one, based on the both instantaneous as well as
predicted stresses.
3. On-line life consumption calculations, and off-line residual life analysis
studies with logged data of the turbine.
 CHAPTER 2 -
LITERATURE SURVEY

Manson[l5,16] has done pioneering work in the field of behavior of materials

under thermal stress. Both ductile and brittle materials are studied. Studies are aimed
mainly at aircraft gas turbine engines. A number of practical methods to minimize the
effect ofthermal stress and thermal shock are outlined in [ 1 5 ] .

Hanzalek & Ipsen's [13] path breaking article discusses the limiting conditions
occurring in high temperature components of HP and reheat sections of turbine, pain
stop and control valves. The concept of start-up charts for the operation of turbines for
rolling and initial loading is discussed. A sample start-up chart is shown in figure 2.1.
This is offline scheduler from the designer's point of view. The life consumption of
turbine rotors is also discussed. These offline scheduling charts are followed even to
the present day. The performance of all improved start-up schedulers is compared
with this as the base reference. References [20] and [21] represent the type of
information made available by the turbine manufacturers to the utility operators. [20]
represents a system where an off-line scheduler is similar to the one presented in [13].

Johnson[l4] discloses the results of experimental and analytical studies made

..
on steam turbine starting. The study was made on 400-500MW class machines of
Westinghouse Electric. Approximate relations for rotor surface heat transfer and the
steam flow - speed relations are reported. The work takes into account both thermal
and centrifugal stresses. Experiments were conducted to make some basic
measurements like rotor length changes, to validate the theoretical models for stress
computation.

Berry and Johnson 1171 discussed cyclic then@ stresses resulting eom
transient temperature changes and the consequent fatigue damage. They also
introduced the concepts of cyclic capacity charts. The calculations involved in the
grooved cylinder thermal stress is described in the annexure to the paper.
Fig 2.1 Turbine startup-chart

Gazley[l8] put forth a mathematical formulation for the computation heat

transfer for the computation of heat transfer in the annular gap between a rotating
cylinder and a stationary outer cylinder The method of heat transfer coefficient
presented in [8] and [9] is also based on studies by Guzley. The same method, as
detailed in [9], is used in the present project work,.
,.-

Adinarayana and Sastri [l] have reported the results of experiments conducted
on model steam turbine at BHEL, for the estimation of convective heat transfer
coefficients in industrial steam turbines. The results can be used in case of utility
turbines as well. They have shown that the heat transfer coefficient does vary a lot
during the rolling of the turbine and have stated that the semi-empirical relation of
Guzley[l8] needs improvement.

Sasaiadek's [I04 work presents a finite difference nibdel of transient

temperature distribution in steam turbine rotor. The model uses an approximate
formula of Buzzi and Pasquantonio for the computation of heat transfer coefficient
and suggest usage of better formula as the next step of development. A 3-dimensional
rotor geometry is considered in this case.
 The use of mathematical models in on-line thermal stress modeling is
presented by Lausterer[4]. The principles of the computation of temperature
distributions in thick walled components and the stability of computation is
discussed. A computer based load margin calculator MARC0 is discussed. Estimated
values of metal temperatures are reported to be more accurate than measured values
due to the lag involved in the temperature measurement. His earlier works make
usehl deductions about the mathematical model based temperature measurement.

Matsumoto et. Al [S] discussed about HITASS mtachi Turbine Automatic

Start-up System]. This system is capable of computing the present surface and bore
stresses of a steam turbine rotor. The system could predict the stress, using an auto-
regressive dynamic model to calculate the boiler outlet conditions. Based on these
measurements, it could suggest a rate of acceleration / rate of loading to the turbine
control system. The system was designed to reduce the time taken for start-up and
loading of the turbine. An improvement of 25% in start-up time and 30% in load-
following-capability is reported.

Matsumura eta1 [9] disclosed the aspects of a turbine start-up system with
influence of thermal stresses applied to a daily start-up and shut-down (DSS) unit.
The work closely follows the philosophy annunciated in [S].
. ..~
System designer's perspective of HITASS is presented by Honda[ll]. It
presents a block diagram (with no technical details) about the modeling of the after-
fust-stage steam parameters. This is more like the wnunercial pamphlet of HITASS
system.

Akimasa Nakai et a1 [3], discussed about a turbine start-up algorithm based on

prediction of rotor thermal stress. This paper gives a model for the computation of
rotor thermal stresses and a model-predictive-control based control strategy for
turbine start-up. The strategy aims to control the steam flow through the turbine,
making the control algorithms suitable both for rolling and loading phases of the
turbine operation.
 Seong Woo Kwak et at. [2], have put forward a turbine load scheduler for
faster start-up and shut-down of fossil fuel fued power plants. It takes into account the
thermal stress constraints in the turbine rotors. It is designed to operate at a level
above the unit control, possibly at the level of load dispatch station. A facility to
update the knowledge base of the fizzy inference engine is incorporated in the model.
A simulation study showed better results than HITASS system mentioned earlier.

"Thermal stress computation for steam-electric generator dispatch" by Delson

[S] used a thermal model of the rotor for stress computation of generator rotors.

The available literature is mostly f?om inter-disciplinary groups working in

industry labs. While a lot of results are reported, underlying design details are not
made available to the utilities or published in literature. Under these circumstances, it
is felt that a study aimed at developing a accurate model that can evaluate the present
and predicted thermal stresses needs to be taken up. The present work, therefore, aims
to study and develop a system that will evaluate and show the present as well as
predicted thermal stresses in a typical steam turbine rotor.
 CHAPTER - 3
MATHEMATICAL MODELS & SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

The mathematical models used for the computation of thermal stresses,

estimation of after-first-stage steam condition and the estimation of heat transfer
coefficient are presented in this chapter.

3.1 THERMAL & CENTRIFUGAL STRESS

The thermal stress of the rotor, i.e. the rotor surface thermal stress crn and
rotor bore thermal stress DBT are given by the following equations, on the basis of the
temperature distribution of the rotor aoss section.[l6]

where E Young's modulus

v Poisson's ratio
a Coefficient linear expansion
TM Rotor mean temperature
Ts Rotor surface temperature
TB Rotor bore temperature

The net stress in the rotor is finally calculated taking also the centrifugal stress
into account. Since the centrifugal stress is proportional to the square of the turbine
speed N, the centrifugal stress QC acting on the rotor bore at a turbine speed N is
given

where N is the speed of the turbine and OBCR is the centrifugal stress at the bore at the
rated speed NR. Consequently, the bore stress CB is given as follows.
 Of the stress acting on the rotor surface, depending on the form of the rotor
surface, the thermal stress acts in the axial direction of the rotor, i.e. at a right angle to
the centrifugal stress which acts in the circumferential direction. Therefore, the
evaluation of the stress at the rotor surface necessitates only the thermal stress which
is concerned with the consumption of the turbine life. Thus, the stress os in the rotor
surface is given by
as = OST (3.05)
Thermal stresses can be either tensile or compressive depending on the temperature of
the surface(bore) being more or less as compared to the mean temperature of the
rotor. With present adopted convention, compressive stresses are negative in
magnitude and tensile stresses are positive in magnitude.

The absolute magnitude of stress is converted to percentage with respect to the

maximum ailowable thermal stress by

where OX 6t DBL are the maximum allowed surface and bore stresses and as% a~%
are the surface and bore stresses converted to percentage.
..

3.2 ROTOR TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

The governing equation for the heat conduction in a thick walled cylinder in
cylindrical co-ordinates is

where pis the diffisivity of the material. Two models suitable for numerical solution
of the above equation with suitable boundary conditions for turbine rotor are given
below.
 The movement of heat in the rotor takes place predominantly in the radial
direction. The axial conduction is neglected. A cross-sectional view of the rotor is
shown in figure 3.1. The rotor is divided into m (1, 2, 3 . . . m) imaginary annular
sections . The temperature distribution is calculated by way of heat balances over the
annular sections.

If the period of the heat balance calculation is set to rl seconds, the

temperature distribution is obtained every TI seconds. It makes use of the state of the
rotor at the previous calculation time and the present steam condition, besides various
steam and rotor properties.

QJs represents the heat delivered from the steam to the rotor surface in the
period 71. Similarly, QJI represents the amount of heat delivered from the rotor
surface to the core of the outermost G=1) annular section and QjJ.+lrepresents the
amount of heat delivered from the ja annular section to the j+1" annular section.
Since the rotor bore is kept in adiabatic condition, the heat amount Qm,,+r is always 0.

Representing the present instant by t, the amounts of heat delivered to and

f?om adjacent annular sections, during the period TI from an instant t-TI to the
present instant t are given by the following equations
Q , s( l ) = 2 % ~ ( f ) [ ~ (rtn) - TS (91 (3.08)

where AM is the thermal conductivity ofthe rotor material, K(t) is the rotor surface
heat transfer coefficient at instant t, Ts is the temperature of the rotor surface, rl is the
outer radius of the$ annular section, ro = rs is the rotor surface radius, r,+l= r~is the
radius rotor bore, Ar is the thickness of the annular sections, and represents the
1 Fig 3.1 Cross-sectional view of rotor
temperature ofJ* annular section. The heat transfer coefficient K(t), (calculated using
the model described in section 3.3), is used for calculating the heat amount QZs.

Since QIr(t) equals to Q , l O , is given by

r'T,(t - r ) + 2rsW(i)T,, ( t )
T,(0 = r ' + 2rsW(t)
(3.13)

where, r' = 41-2 +3Ar and W(g = Ar KO)/ /ZM

The amount of heat AQ,(l) accumulated in jth annular section is given as the
difference between the heat input Q,.iJ and the heat output Q,+i to and from the same
sectionJ
AQ# =Q,-/jCt)- Q,j+lC) (3 14)
The temperature T, of thejrhannular section is given by

where, 6 is the volume o f j h annular section per unit length, is the density of the
rotor material and CM is the specific heat of the rotor material. The rotor bore
temperature TB(t)is given by simulating the temperature distribution by a second
degree equation as follows.

The total computational procedure is shown in figure 3.2. The computation is

performed once every one minute. Each iteration calculates present temperature
distribution Ts(r), G{r) and Te(0. The process clearly falls into 5 distinct steps. Step 1
takes in the temperatures of steam T- and the rotor temperatures at the instant t-z.
Step 2 calculates the amount of heat delivered fiom the previous annular section. The
calculation proceeds from the surface towards the bore (with increasing m). Step 3
calculates the arnount of heat accumulated in each annular section, as a difference of
heat coming in from the previous annular section and the heat going to the next
annular section. Step 4 calculates the present temperature of the annular section by
Fig 3.2 Computation of rotor temperature distribution
adding the differential temperature rise to the previous temperature. And finally, step
5 gives the final temperature distribution.

The rotor mean temperature TM is calculated using

An alternate model of heat conduction which divides rotor into m virtual

cylinders (same as shown in figure 3.1) is shown below.
r 1

dl;
-
-
- P <T,+~q..,) +
- P (?+I- 2Tj
---- + Tj-l 1
dt 2RjAr (w2

where T m Steam temperature at the surface

TM Rotor mean tempeiature
CM Specific heat of rotor material
T Temperature of j* cylinder
K Heat transfer coefficient between steam and rotor
AM Thermal conductivity of the rotor material
density of the rotor material
no of segments
Radius of the j'h cylinder
Width of cylinder
K
and p Diffisivity of the rotor material (- 1
PMC,
The former model has been used in this project work.
3.3 HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICLENT OF THE ROTOR SURFACE

The rotor surface heat transfer coefficient computation is made in accordance

with the turbulent flow heat transfer from the steam passing through the gap between
the labyrinth packing and the rotor. The same process is applied also to both the high-
pressure and intermediate-pressure turbine, with suitable substitution of the
parameters/constants.

Figure 3.3 shows the method of calculating the convective heat transfer
coefficient K between the after-first-stage steam and the turbine rotor surface. The
modeling of the after-&-stage steam parameters is explained in section 3.4.

Blocks 1, 2 and 3 respectively calculate the specific weight ys (kg/m3),

kinematic coefficient of viscosity vs (m2 /set) and the thermal conductivity ;Is
(KW/m°C) of after-first-stage steam at the steam condition of PHIand T H ~
These
. are
obtained using IFC-67steam properties formulation. [23]

Block 4 calculates the flow rate FM (Kglsec) of the steam flowing through the
gap between the labyrinth packing and corresponding portion of the rotor using
Martin's equation.[9]

where b is a constant, c a constant determined by the packing gap 6, d the rotor

diameter, P the pressure following first stage, Z the number of packing fins and 5 the
ratio of steam pressure following the second stage to that following the first stage

(G).
The constant k is characteristic
.. of a given turbine and is equal to bcsd.
PEl

Block 5 calculcttes the volumetric flow rate FV (m3 Isec) of steam flowing
through the gap between thellabyrinth packing and the rotor.
 Block 6 calculates the velocity Urn (dsec) of the axial velocity of the steam
passing through the gap between the labyrinth packing and the rotor from the flow
rate Fv as

where A is the annular area (m2) between the labyrinth packing and the rotor. Block 7
calculates the rotor surface velocity URD(dsec) of the portion of the rotor at the
labyrinth packing.

where Rs is the surface radius of the rotor, and N is the speed of the rotor (RPM). The
combined leakage velocity U (mtsec) is then calculated as under by block 8.

2U6 and the Nusselt's number Nu given

The Reynolds number R, given by -
vs

R,O.B
are calculated by blocks 9 and 10 respectively. Finally, block 11 calculates
by 35.2
the heat transfer coefficient K ( K W I ~ ~ ~ofCthe
) heat transfer from the steam to the
rotor surface around the labyrinth packing behind first stage.

The heat transfer coefficient K, thus obtained, is used in the boundary

condition for calculating the transient internal stress distribution of the rotor (section
3.2).

The pressure ratio 4 of the pressure after the second stage to the pressure after
the first stage is treated as a eonstant, because this ratio can be regarded as being
constant irrespective of the change of running condition, e.g. speed, acceleration and
load.[22]
I Rotor speed /
LZ-i1 temperature

* : - v - +
1
+ 2
v
I
Specific Coefficient of
weight kinetic
viscosit
1 1 4
4
Labyrinth packing
leakage flow
(Martin's equation)
I
t,
I5
Leakaage
volume flow
-
7 6
1
Rotor Axial leakage velocity
surface velocity

8
+ + ..

Combined leakage
velocity

9
+ v

Reynold's
Number

Nusselt

Fig 3.3 Computation of rotor heat transfer coefficient Heat Transfer Coefficient
(Gazley's equation)
 Buzzi and Pasquantonio have suggested the following simpler empirical
relation for K.[24]

where PHIis the steam pressure, WH/

the velocity and TH/the temperature of the after-
first-stage steam.

3.4 AFTER-FIRST-STAGE STEAM CONDITION MODELING

Figure 3.4 shows the method of obtaining the turbine steam parameters after
expansion through the first stage f?om the boiler outlet steam parameters. The method
uses main steam temperature %a, main steam pressure Pm, reheat steam temperature
Tm, speed of the turbine N, acceleration of the turbine N and load of the machine L
as input variables. The method is applicable for the entire range of turbine operation
i.e., rolling as well as loading. In case of after-first-stage steam temperature of
intermediatepressure turbine, it is assumed that there is no temperature drop across
the first stage of intermediate-pressureturbine. It is taken equal to the actual measured
reheat steam temperature. The IP section of the rotor being the most critical area for
stress related failures, this assumption also works as a safety measure. Further, load L
is assumed zero in no-load running condition (detected by the main breaker closing).
Once main breaker is closed, speed N is sssumed to be N, and acceleration N to be
zero. The model used for the determination of after-first-stage parameters is shown in
figure 3.4

AFTER-FIRST STAGE TEMPERATURE : The load L of the turbine at main steam

temperature T m and main steam pressure P m is first converted to equivalent load
under rated main steam temperature TMSR
and rated main steam pressure PMSRby
block 1 using the relation

The equivalent load L' equals zero during the rolling phase of the turbine.
 ------a- ~
~

Load -
N
N
T ~ S - Equivalent load under Function between load and
rated steam conditions after-first-stage steam temperature
~~.. ~
-
~ ~~ ~
~~~~ ..~ ~~~~~~~.
~-

Steam throttling ratio

(Coefficient of Iris effect) i

Temperature drop
across control valve -. -.

.
Steam temperature
~
~~ .~ ~~

Temperature reducing factor

. ~~ ... ~~ ~.~~
. . ~ ~
~ ~

,8
7 - Mer-first-stage
-7 + steam pressure
D- ARer-first stage steam pressure ..~-. . ~~ ~

Acceleration -----+ at no load

TP/W after-tirst- ;
--

Fig 3.4 Estimation of after-first-stage steam condition

simultaneously. With increase in load, they open more fully. This method provides
more uniform heating around the high-pressure part of the turbine. Most modern

The after-first-stage steam temperature 1; corresponding to load

of a combined governed machine[22]

f,'
In multi-valve turbine inlets, partial arc admission allows the steam to enter
the turbine by sequentially opening the control valves. This can cause uneven heating
on the high-pressure annulus. In full-arc admission, all control valves start opening

controls start with full-arc and switch to partial arc to reduce throttling losses through
the valves.

is then
calculated by block 2 from the characteristic of the turbine A typical characteristic is
shown in figure 3 5 The loads L l and L2 represent the lower and upper loads in case

This characteristic is also used for finding out the steam throttling ratio KI of
the turbine inlet control valve. The factor K l is also called coefficient of iris effect.
This is done by block 3. If the equivalent load L' is less than L2, then

K1=- L, -L' (3.30)

L3
else (L' is more than or equal to L2 and the turbine inlet control valve is operated at
a partial arc admission) KI=O.

. .~.
Block 4 determines the temperature drop ATo between the main steam
temperature TMSand the steam temperature in the turbine bowl. It is calculated &om
P.WS and lifs. This again is dependent on the configuration of the turbine. Typically,
ATo becomes larger as the pressure PMSbecomes greater, for a constant TMS.A typical
relation between ATo, PUS and Tm is shown in figure 3.6.[22]

Block 5 determines the temperature reducing factor K2 across the first stage of
the high pressure turbine. It is calculated as a function of turbine speed N.
 Note that 0 5 K 2 S 1 and equals I when the turbine is operated at the rated speed and
during the loaded operation of the turbine.

Fig 3.5 After-first-stage steam temp characteristic at rated parameters

Fig 3.6 Turbine inlet bowl temperature drop characteristic

24
 Finally, block 6 finds out the after-first-stage steam temperature TH/of HP
turbine as

- q )+(Kt + K 2 -l)ATOR
THI=TMS-KIATo -K2(TMSI( (3.32)
The temperature Ti<, is determined as a value obtained by subtracting the temperature
drops of the steam on the way to the portion after-first stage, from the main steam
temperature TMS. K,AT,, represents the temperature drop across the turbine inlet

control valve, while K,(T,, - T, ) is the steam temperature drop across the first
stage. A T , represents the temperature differential between the main steam
temperature and the steam temperature in the turbine bowl under the rated steam
condition[9].

Steam temperature at the inlet of intermediate-pressure turbine i.e. the

reheated steam temperature, is directly used as the after-first stage steam temperature
TI^ of the intermediate-pressure turbine.
TI]= TRH (3.33)

AFTER-FIRST STAGE PRESSURE [9] : After-first-stage steam pressure P H ,of

~ the
high-pressure steam turbine corresponding to no-load operation is determined by
block 7.

where KNLdenotes the after-fist stage steam pressure of the high-pressure turbine
corresponding to the no-load pressure drop at the rated turbine speed NR k denotes a
no-load pressure drop index number, and KAC denotes the pressure required for
obtaining a unit acceleration. Block 8 calculates the afier-first-stage pressure PHI
using

where P m is the after-first stage pressure at rated turbine conditions and L is the
load.
 After-first stage steam pressure PI] of the intermediate-pressure turbine is
obtained (block 9) by multiplying the pressure PHIby the ratio of the behind-first
stage steam pressure PHIRof the high-pressure turbine at the rated load and the
corresponding PIIRof the intermediate-pressure turbine.

The same process is applied also to both the high-pressure and intermediate-pressure
turbine, with suitable substitution of the parameters/constants.

3.5 PREDICTION OF STEAM PARAMETERS AND LOAD

The formulation for thermal stress cited above can be used for computation of
both present and predicted stresses, depending on the parameters used. If the present
main(reheat) steam pressure and main(reheat) steam temperature are passed on to the
after-fust-stage steam condition model (discussed in 3.4), what we get is the present
temperature distribution of the rotor, which enables determination of present thermal
stresses (at both surface and bore). If, on the other hand, the expected rnain(reheat)
steam pressure and main(reheat) steam temperature (the steam condition expected at
the inlet of the turbine, if the present acceleration / loading is continued for a given
time) are passed on to the after-first-stage steam condition model, the predicted
stresses can be determined. For accurately .finding out predicted stresses, it is
necessary that the changing steam condition is accurately learned by the stress
calculation system.

The parameters to learn are the changing rates of three thermodynamic

hnctions of the main steam temperature TMS,main steam pressure P m and reheated
steam temperature TM in relation with the amounts of change of speed N or load L.
dTm
More specifically, there are six parameters ( - dTRH
- GP' -
- dTm - dTRH
dN ' G w ' Gw ' d P ' dP

and-).dP, The former three parameters are used in the speed control mode, while the
GP
latter three are used in the load control mode. The learning is done at a time interval
of r n q an integral number of stress computation interval using regression . The
following equations depict how the rate of change of a particular parameter is
calculated.

dTMS
-- _ Tm(t)-Tm(t-mrl) (3.37)
dN N ( t ) -N(t -m z , )

From the values of the rates of change of steam parameters, the predicted
values of steam parameters are obtained using equations (3.37), (3.38) and (3.39)
during the rolling phase and using (3.40), (3.41) and (3.42) during the loading phase.

d P .
P,(t+n~,)=P,(t)+~Ln~, (3.48)
dL
Here nz, is the prediction interval, L is the rate of change of load and Nis the
acceleration of the turbine.
3.6 THE SOFTWARE

A study of 2 existing systems (KWUBHEL and Parsons) was carried out to

understand the type of features / requirements of a typical turbine rotor stress
evaluation system. A software is then developed in C++ (C with 10-streams, to be
precise) to include the following additional features compared to the above cited ones,
Variable material properties
Life consumption calculations

The flow chart shown in figure 3.7 illustrates the method of estimation
of the rotor thermal stresses. The source code is listed in annexure B. At entry point
A, the condition of main steam (pressure and temperature at the inlet of control valve)
is available. Based on these parameters and the model of section 3.4, after-first-stage
parameters of steam are calculated by block 2. Having got the after-first-stage steam
condition, block 3 calculates the rotor heat transfer coefficient using model of section
3.3. The temperature distribution across the cross section of the rotor as shown in
figure 3.1 ( for assumed number of annular sections of 10) is calculated using the
formulation given in section 3.2 by block 4. Based on the temperature distribution
(rotor surface Ts, bore temperatures TB, and. .the temperature of the each of the
intermediate annular sections I;) the rotor mean temperature TMis calculated using
equation 3.16

The surface stress 0 .and bore stress UBS are then calculated by block 5 as
described in section 3.1 The program facilitates use of rotor material properties
either at a fixed user-defined temperature or as a function of temperature. Annexure-
A lists the properties of material 30CrMoV-as a function of temperature. The exit
point C gives the thermal stresses of th%r%oc given the geometry of the rotor,
',>V *
material properties of the rotor, CQIJ&&I&$~&&=~ inlet of the turbine, and the
temperature profile of the rotor at the-previous corhputation inieml. The same routine
is also used for calculating the predicted t h e m 1 stresses. In this case the main steam
,;
P.
parameters are made available at entry point B; ~nsteadof A.
 Pre-estimate
steam condtiotion
at turbine inlet

2
Calculate
after-first-stage steam
condition

Calculate
rotor surface
heat transfer coefficient

..
7
4
Calculate
rotor temperature distributioon

Fig 3.7
+ swfaq &bore stresses

Flow chart of the common stress calculation routine

 Block 1 calculates the expected main steam pressure and temperature. The
program keeps track of the steam parameters, speed and load for last 20 minutes.
Based on this data, the rate of change and expected values of main steam pressure and
temperature with respect to either speed or load are calculated as shown in section 3.5
using a linear regression model. The rest of the stress calculation procedure remains
the same, as earlier discussed. The program is set for a prediction interval of 20
minutes, i.e., it predicts the expected thermal stress 20 minutes from the present
instant of time, assuming the same operating conditions are maintained.

So as to accurately calculate the thermal stresses, it is necessary that the

temperature distribution of the rotor at the time of start-up of the stress monitoring
system be known,. When the system is started, the radial temperature distribution in
the rotor is estimated from the actually measured temperatures T o and Tco of the
inner and outer surfaces of the turbine casing. TCIand Tco are the temperatures
measured at 100% and 50% depth of the casing. The rotor surface and bore
temperatures Ts and TBare regarded as follows, respectively.
Ts = Tc (4.49)
TB = TCI+ KT( Tco -TcI) (4.50)
The factor K, in equation 4.50is a constant which is turbine specific. The temperature
distribution in the rotor is obtained by linear interpolation of temperatures Ts and TB.
Thus, temperature of each of the annular sections is given by the equation

It is assumed that a linear temperature gradient is established along the radius of the
turbine rotor. This way equation 4.03 can estimate the temperatures T, of respective
sections of the rotor with a high level of precision, when the turbine is started after a
sufficiently long shutdown, because the difference between the temperatures TCOand
TCIis sufficiently small in such a case.
% 3'

.-
However, when the turbine is restarted after a short shut-down or the stress
monitoring system is brought into service with the turbine in hotlwarm condition, the
temperature distribution:& %turbine rotor is not estimated exactly because the
.- ,
..,,,,.-z..
 Get process Data

Initial temperature
distribution

---1(time for stress \,

Get Process data

(ms& rh steam)
I

Steam condition

Interruption
by operator?
-'-I
Determine the stress l i i t s

Present stress calculation

Predicted Stress calculation

Signal abnormal stress

CqlcJculate& update rotor life

consumption

Fig 3.8 Flow chart of the program sequence

difference between the temperatures TCOand Tc1 is considerably large. Consequently,
an error is likely to be caused in the estimation of the thermal stress immediately after
the start. In such a case, when ITco-Tc~lis greater than a set limit, a correction to the
maximum stress limits is introduced, making them more severe.

Flow chart of figure 3.8 gives the steps involved in the main software
routine. Block 1 gets the casing temperatures on start-up of the system. Block 2
estimates the initial temperature distribution as per equations 3.49, 3.50 and 3.51.
Thermal stress computation is done once every minute. At each crossing of the
minute, Block 3 gets the main steam parameters. Block 4 keeps track of the main
steam parameters. his facilitates prediction main steam parameters by block 1 of
stress computation routine. The prediction routine, which works on linear regression
principle, will not function for the first 20 minutes, when enough data is not available.
Based on the casing temperatures, the maximum limits of stress are corrected in block
5. If ITco-Td < AT, the limits set by the designer 1 operator are used. If not, a
correction is applied to the limits. If G-L is the limit set by the designer, the new limit
becomes DL +Am where A o is a time-dependant correction. In the present program
the value of A o is taken as 10% of DL at the time of system --up and is linearly
reduced to zero over a period of 3 0 minutes. This means that at the end of 3 0 minutes,
the designer set limit or.becomes operational.
.-.

Blocks 6 & 7 calculate the present and predicted stress at the surface and bore
of the rotor (fig 3.7). Block 8 signals if any of the calculated stresses cross the limits
set by the operator I designer. The program can be made to log the stress values for
historical storage purpose.

Life of a rotor is dependent on stress values that are cyclic. By cyclic stress
values, it is meant that rotor stresses may assume positive (tensile) or negative
(compressive) values depending upon whether the stresses are caused by heating or
cooling. The positive maximum stress and a negative maximum stress determine the
stress range for a cycle. Block 9 calculates the life consumed by the rotor as shown in
e
figure 3.9. The range of stress the rotor surface undergoes is calculated by taking the
 C ,ram Str-
Pmgrarn
Monitor

(*) To Smss Monitor

Fig 3.9 Flow chart of the life consumption calculation routine

difference between the maximum positive and the maximum negative stresses the
rotor surface undergoes. The stress range for each cycle is then correlated to a graph
of stress range versus percent life expended in order to determine the percent of life
expended for the cycle. Stress variation and life consumption plots for a typical
turbine are given figure 3.10 and 3.11 respectively. Adding up the life expenditure of
each stress cycle, the life-expenditure-so-far of the rotor is obtained. A dead-band
zone is established around the zero stress line so that relatively small changes in stress
direction are not entered into the life consumption calculation. The program keeps
cycling through these unless interrupted by the operator.

.-.
Fig 3.10 Typical stress variation

Fig3.11 Typical rotor life consumption curve

34
 CHAPTER - 4

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

4.1 STABILITY OF TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION CALCULATION

Using the software as simulation tool, the stability of temperature distribution

calculation is investigated for a step jump of 100 deg C. The after-first-stage steam
temperature is made 100 deg C and the response is got for calculation periods of 60s,
30s and 10s. The results are plotted in fig 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 respectively. Each of the
graphs shows the temperature of the after-first-stage steam, the rotor mean
temperature, surface stress and bore stress. 60s case presented in figure 4.1 shows
definite instability. The oscillation in the stress values is more perceptible. The 30s
case shown in figure 4.2 is stable. And there is no marked improvement in the 10s
case shown in figure 4.3. The same behavior is observed even if the step change in the
after-first-stage steam temperature is made as high as 500 deg C (extreme case)
Based on these observations, it can be conclusively stated that for a stable solution of
equation 3.06, the period of calculation needs to be 30 seconds or less.

Period of calulatiin 60secf -

-afs temp -r&r mean temp -surface stress -bore dress
150 - . .................. ... ........................ ...............................

......... ............................. -...-.-

time (MIN)

Fig 4.1 Temperature distribution with computation interval of 60s

 -
Period of calulation ~ O S ~ C S
... . . -. ... - . .-- . . .- - --.
E a f -
s temp -rotor
.- mean
.- temp
. . - stress
-sur(ace . stress
-bore - . 1

Fig 4.2Temperature distribution with computation interval of 30s

Period of calulation - IOsecS

.- . -. . .. ..- - -
'--
at~ .
temp. .-rdw mean temp
.
-sdriac?
. - stress
.
-bore. -- siress '

time (MIN)

Fig 4.3 Temperature distribution with computation interval of 10s

4.2 EFFECT OF VARIABLE MATERIAL PROPERTIES ON THERMAL
STRESS

The turbine rotor is made of special steels like 30CrMoV. Its properties
Young's modulus (9,Poisson's ratio (v), coefficient of linear expansion (a),specific
heat of rotor material (CM), heat transfer coefficient between steam and rotor (K),
thermal conductivity of the rotor material (AM)and density of the rotor material b)
are all temperature dependant. A simulation of the variation of
rotor mean temperature,
surface stress and
bore stress
is run by taking rotor material properties at fixed temperatures of I00 deg C, 300 deg
C and 500 deg C and also variable material properties. The variation of rotor mean
temperature is shown in figure 4.4. The fixed temperature material property curves
fall on either side of variable properties curves. To see the trend of variation, the
deviation of mean rotor temperature calculated with fixed temperature properties of
100, 300 and 500 deg C with reference to mean rotor temperature calculated with
variable material properties is plotted in figure 4.5. Similarly, the plots of variation of
surface and bore stresses, and their deviation with respect to stresses calculated with
variable material properties are plotted in figures 4.6,4.7,4.8 and 4.9.

It is observed that the computation done with fixed material properties at 300
deg C comes closest to the computation with variable material properties. This is
especially true in case of bore stress, which is the most important stress to be
monitored. It can be concluded that in a stress monitoring system implementing fixed
material properties, the errors in computation can be minimized by using material
properties at around 300 deg C (approximately midway between 100 deg C and 500
deg C ,the usual lower and upper limits of after-first-stage steam temperature).
 Variation of rotor mean temperature
Effect of rotor rnateral properties

i I-
afs-temp -100 deg coeffs - J X ) d e g coeffs -5COdeg coeffs -var temp coeffs )
I

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

time (MIN)

Fig 4.4Variation rotor mean temperature

Variation of rotor mean temperature deviation

w.r.t. variable properties case

- Deviation - 1W deg -Deviation - JX]deg -Deviation - 500 deg )

.,, 1
time (MIN)

Fig 4.5Variation of rotor mean temperature deviation

 Variation of Surface Stress
Effect of rotor material pr~perties

-100 deg coeffs -333 deg cwffs -500deg Meffs --va~iabletemp weffs /
I

. - -

time (MIN)

Fig 4.6 Variation rotor surface stress

Variation of deviation of Surface Stress

w.r.t. variable properties case

-Deviation - 1133deg Deviatian - 333deg -Devaith - 5CO deg 1

50
40
20
0 ~.......
s
' -20
M
z -40
5
a
<
* -100
-8(]

-120
-1 40
-160
time (MIN)

Fig 4.7 Variation of rotor surface stress deviation

 Variation of Bore Stress
Effect of rotor material properties
I r-lm . .-
.
. .-.
d q m f f s -m
-_
..-.
deg coeffs -56)
. .
.- ....- .-.
deg coeffs -vanable
- . ...-.
temp cw*
.
1

0 C
0 20 40 60 80 1CO 120 140
time (MIN)

Fig 4.8Variation rotor bore stress

Variation of deviation of Bore Sbess

w.r.t. varial properties case

-Deviation - 100 deg -Deviation - 3J2 deg -Deviation - 56) deg

100
80

60
s 4

Me 20
6 o
E
$ -20
40
-60

80
time (MIN)

I
Fig 4.9Variation of rotor bore stress deviation
4.3 PRESENT & PREDICTED STRESSES

Next a simulation is done for a typical variation of ramp-up, steady-state,

ramp-down and back to steady-state of after-first-stage steam temperature (at 200 deg
C for 100 minutes, raising at 1 deg Clrnin for 100 min, raising at 0.5 deg Clrnin for
next 100 rnin, steady at 500 deg C for next 200 min, faliing at 1 deg C/min for next
100 min and remaining steady at 300 deg C thereafter). The predicted after-first-stage
steam temperature is calculated, assuming a prediction interval of 20 minutes.
Temporal rate of change of steam temperature is used for prediction. The variation of
present and predicted temperatures is plotted in figure 4.10.

Afet-first-stage steam temperature

(Present 8 Predicted)

- akr-fust-stage steam temp (present) --aftw-first4age temp (predicted) 1

Fig 4.10 Prediction of after-first-stage steam temperature

The variation of present and predicted stresses at both surface & bore for the variation
of after-first-stage steam temperature as shown in figure 4.10 are plotted in figure
4.11 and 4.12 respectively.
 Present IPredicted stresses
(Prediction intewal - 20 Min)

-Sumce stress (present) -Surface stress (predicted) )

Fig 4.11 Variation ofpresent and predicted surface stresses

Present I Predicted stresses

(Prediction interval - 20 Min)
- .- - -.
I
-
I~
or
e stress (present)
.- .-
-Bore
.- -stress.-
-.
-I
(pr&.ct&)

Fig4.12 Variation of present and predicted bore stresses

Predicted stresses
are more than the present stresses during ramp up period.
are less than the present stresses during ramp down period.
catch up with present stresses during periods of no temperature change
These observation are consistent with expected results, validating the stress
computation.

Of late, "Triplex Modular Redundant" (TMR) systems are being used for
steam turbine control, where three processors are used for control purpose with a
voting logic built-in between the processors. In systems like this, the execution time
of the control algorithm is of critical importance and should be as small as possible.
Calculating rotor bore and surface temperatures based on the time response of the
rotor and fixed rotor material properties is a reasonable compromise so as not to
overload the cycle time. The present software can be used for finding out the time
response of the rotor mean temperature with respect to the rotor surface temperature.
Plots like the ones shown in figure 4.4 can be used for finding out the rotor response
characteristics.

4.4 ROTOR LIFE CONSUMPTION COMPUTATION

The software is capable of finding the Life consumption based on the range of
stress the rotor is subjected to by monitoring the surface stress variation. Figure 4.13
shows the variation of surface stress. A dead band of +50% is assumed. The portions
of surface stress crossing the dead band is monitored for maximum and minimum
stresses. The range of stress change is computed by taking the difference between
maximum positive and negative surface stresses. This is converted to percentage life
consumed from the manufacturer supplied characteristic.
i Life consumption calculation

I Surfaace stress Whin deadband -Surface stress exceeding deadband

time (MIN)

Fig 4.13 Surface stress variation for life consumption computation

4.5 RECOMMENDATIONS & JXJTUREWORK

The software is capable of accurately computing the thermal stresses in a rotor

with bore. This can easily be extended to any turbine by conf~guringthe plant data as
shown in annexure - A. By incorporating an analog 110 interface, this program can be
used for on-line thermal stress monitoring. It is capable of giving better results than
systems currently being used in Indian power sector due to the accurate model
implemented. The program with suitable changes can also be used for stress analysis
of super-heater and re-heater outlet headers of HRSGs in a combined cycle plant. This
work can be used in the development of a soft computing based turbine start-up time
I
optimizer as suggested in bibliography [I].
 CHAPTER - 5

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Nuyak & Dua, 'Thermal analysis of steam turbine casings under steady state
and transients"
 CHAPTER - 6

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NO 6, Nov/Dec 1973, Pp 1904-1915
ANNEXURE - A
 PLANT DATA

Parameter 1 Description I Unit I Typical Value

I I I
radsurface 1 ~ o t osr u h e radius 1 Meters
radBore Rotor bore radius Meters

clearance I Seal clearaance after L n stage

I1
centStrRated 1 Cenhifugal stress at rated speed
Meters
M P ~

fixCoeflTemp Temp at which material properties are to be used in O C

stress calculation
maxSurfStress Maximum safe limit for surface stress MPa
maxBoreStress I Maximum safe limit for bore k e s s IM P ~
dbstress Safe band of stress beyond which life consumption is Mpa
to be calculated
ratedspeed Rated speed of the turbine RPM

noSeg No assumed cylinders for temp distribution

determination
caper Interval of stress calculation Seconds

1 Prediction interval for steam parameter Seconds

Period of history used for prediction of steam Seconds
parameters
Factor for determining the initial temperature
distribution. dependent on the turbine geomentry

Upper limit of combined governing Yo

Rated ms temp and turbine bowl steam temp dt "C

Min pressure in deltaTO characteristic M P ~

Rated afs pressure Mpa
Pressure required for unit acceleration M P ~
Afs pressure at rated speed & no load MPa

No load pressure drop index number

Rated ms pressure Mpa

Rated ms temperature "C
No of fins of labyrinth packing

M e r 2nd stage to after 1st stage pressur ratio

Constant used in afs seal steam flow

E Young's Modulus MPa {0,300,500)
{215000,198000,173500);

alpha Coefficient of linear expansion of temperature MPC (100,200,400,600)

{10.2E-6,11.8E-6,13.5E-6,13.7E-6);

nu Poisson's ratio {0,100,200,400,600)

{0.3,0.3,0.3,0.3,0.3);

lamda Coefficient of thermal conductivity W/mK {0,100,500)

{26.25,26.25,21.33);

rho Density ~ ~ l m ' {100,400)

{7850.0,7850.0);

CP Specific heat J/KgK {0,300,400,600)

(443,443,492,575);

lifeconsumed rotor life consumed characeristic % {0,100,200,300,400,500,600)

{0,0.001,0.005,0.01,0.03,0.05,0.1);

Ldash Ldash characteristic "C {0,20,70, loo),

{270,450,425,495);

deltaTO deltaTO characteristic "C (295,400,535)

{60,50,40);
 -
ANNEXURE B
#define tab '\t'

#define PCA 22.120000 // MPa

#define TCA 647.3 // degC
#defineVCA 0.00317 // kg /m3
#define TZA 273.15 // degC
double min (double valuel, double value2) ;
double max (double valuel, double value2);
double lagInter( double x [ ] , double y [ l , int size, double xTest);
double linReg (double x[], double y[], int nosamples);
/ / functions for material properties of the rotor
double E (double temp); / / Youngs modulus
double alpha (double temp); / / Coeff of linear
expansion
double nu (double temp); / / Poisoon's ratio
double lamda (double temp); / / Coeff of thermal
conductivity
double rho (double temp); / / Density
double cp (double temp); / / Specific heat
double centstress (int speed);
/ / functions for finding out steam properties
double satP (double temperature);
double spvol (double pressure, double temperature);
double lamdaSteam(doub1e press, double temp);
double muSteam(doub1e press, double temp);
double nuSteam(doub1e press, double temp);
double k (double press, double temp, int speed);

/ / functions for process parameter acquisition

void getCasingTemps (double *cas100, double *cas50);
void inputparams( double *mspress, double *=temp,
int *speed, double *load, int *genBrkr);

//
void firstStageParams ( double mspress, double mstemp,
int speed, double accel,
double load, int genBrkr,
double *press, double *temp);
void InitialDistrib (double cas100, double cas50);
void stress(doub1e *surfaceT, double *boreT, double *meanT,
double *stressl, double *stress2);
void presentStress(doub1e *surfaceT, double *boreT, double *meanT,
double *presentSS, double *presentBS);
void predictedStress(doub1e *predictedSS, double *predictedBS);

double radSurface = .33, // Rotor surface radius

radBore = 0.03, // Rotor bore radius
clearance = 0.002, // meters
centStrRated = 99.0225, // MPa (14362 psi)
accel=O. 0, // acceleration of turbine
afs-temp, // after-first-stage steam
temperature
afs-temp-cache, / / temporary var to hold after-
first-stage steam temperature
afsgress, / / after-first-stage steam pressure
afs press-cache, / / temporary var to hold after-first-
stage steam pressure
load, / / load of the turbine
deltaR, / / thickness of assumed cylindrical
segment
1[121, / / radius of cylindrical segment
t[121, / / temperature of cylindrical lamina
used in common stress routine
tPresent[lZ], / / array to hold temp hist of previous
calculation (present stress)
tPredicted[lZl , / / array to hold temp hist of previous
calculation (predicted stress)
q[121, / / heat input from previous segment
dq[121, / / net heat input in a given segment
stressconstant, / / E * alpha / ( 1 - nu)
rDash, / / temp var in the calculation of Ts
wt , / / temp var in the calculation of Ts
tMean,meanT, / / rotor volume mean temperature
tSurface,surfaceT, / / rotor surface temperature
tBore,boreT, / / rotor bore temperature
sigmas, / / surface sress as calculated by
common stress routine
sigmaB, / / bore stress as calculated by common
stress routine
histP [211, / / historical trent of main steam
pressure
histT[Zl], / / historical trent of main steam
temperature
histN[21], / / historical trent of speed
histL[21], / / historical trent of load
tempslope, / / rate of change of ms temperature
pressSlope, / / rate of change of ms pressure
speedslope, / / rate of change of speed
loadSlope, / / rate of change of load
temppred, / / predicted temperature
presspred, / / predicted pressure
cas100, / / casing inner temperature
cas50, / / casing mid (50%) temperature
mspress, / / main steam pressure in kg/&
mstemp=200.0, / / main steam temperature in degC
fixCoeffTemp = 300.0, / / degC
maxSurfStress = 100.0, / / for conversion to 8
maxBoreStress = 100.0, / /
dbStress = 40.0, / / for life consumption calculation
siqmaCorrectionMag = 10, / / correction magniture for stress
limit
sigrnaCorrectionTime = 30,// correction time for stress limits
deltaSigmaSurface,
deltaSigmaBore,
1D0t,
nDot,
loadprev,
multipliey;

int genBrkr, / / generator main breaker monitor 0 -

open 1 - close
ratedSpeed=3000, // rated speed in rpm
noSeg = 10, // no assumed cylinders
speed, // speed of the turbine in rpm
speedprev, // speed of previous scan . Used for
acceleration calculation
noMin, / / minute counter
 maxNoMin=1000,
calPer = 30, / / temerature distribution calculation
period
stepT=O, / / temperature change slope degC/min
fixCoeffFlag = 0, / / 1 - fix coeffs 0 - temperature
dependant coeffs
nTow =0, / / period for stress prediction
mTow = 10, / / period for prediction of parameters
towP=20, / / no of sets of history at 1 min
interval
i; / / general loop counter

ofstream outfile("allstr.txt");

void main ( )
I
double presentSS=O.O,
presentBS=O . 0,
predictedSS=O.O,
predictedBS=O. 0;

r(O] = raddurface;
r[l] = radsurface - deltaR/2;

for (i=2 ; i<=noSeg; it+)

-{
r[i] = r[i-11 - deltaR;
1

for (i=O;ii=20;i++)

/ / Initial temperature distribution

for (noMin=l;noMin<=maxNoMin; noMin++)

1

nDot = (speed - speedprev);

lDot = (load - loadprev) ;

speedprev = speed;
loadPrev =load;

firstStageParams (mspress, mstemp, speed, accel, load, genBrkr,

 hfs-temp = mstemp;
&f~-~ress = mspress;

for (i=O;i<ZO;i++)

histP[201 = mspress;
histT[201 = mstemp;
histN[Z01 = speed;
histL[ZOI = load;

tempslope = linReg( histN, histT, 10);

pressslope = linReg( histN, histP, 10);
multiplier = nDot;

else
i'
tempslope = linReg( histL, histT, 10);
pressslope = linReg( histl, histP, 10);
multiplier = 1Dot;
1
deltasigmasurface = max(sigmaCorrectionMag*(l-
noMin/sigmaCorrectionTime),O);
deltaSigmaBore = max(sigmaCorrectionMag*(l-
noMin/sigmaCorrectionTime),O);

if (noMin<=towP)
{ ..
tempPred = mstemp;
presspred = mspress;
)
else

tempPred = mstemp + tempSlope*multiplier*towP;

presspred = mspress + pressSlope*multiplier*towP;
I

if (nTow == towP) nTow = 0;

if (noMin==20)
{
for (i=O;i<=noSeg+l;i++, tPredicted(i1 = tpresentrill;
I

firststageparams (mspress, mstemp, speed, accel, load, genBrkr,

Lafs-press, Lafs-temp);
predictedStress(hpredictedSS, &predictedBS);
1
/ / include code for screen output & file output
void InitialDistrib (double cas100, double cas50)
i
double kr = 1; / / factor for determining the initial temperature
/ / distribution. dependent on the turbine qeomentry

for (i=l;i<=noseg;i++)
1
tPresent[i] = tPresent[O] - (tPresent[O] - tPresent[lll) *
(2*i-1) / (Z*no.Seg);
tPredicted[i] = tPredicted[O] - (tPredicted[Ol -
tPredicted[lll) * (2*i-1) / (2*noSeg);
1

void presentStress(doub1e *surfaceT, double *boreT, double *meanT,

double *presentSS, double *presentBS)
I
double surfaceTemp,
boreTemp,
meanTemp,
presentSS1,
presentBS1;

for (i=O;i<=noSeq+l;i++)
1
t[i] = tPresentIi1;
I
afs-temp = mstemp; ..
afs-press = mspress;

for (i=O;i<=noSeg+l;i++)

*surfaceT = surfaceTemp;
*boreT = boreTeinp;
*meanT = meanTemp,
*presentSS = presentSS1;
*presentBS.= presentBS1;

void predictedStress(doub1e *predictedSS, double *predictedBS)

I
double predictedSS1,
predictedBS1,
SurfaceTemp,
boreTemp,
meanTemp;
 for (i=O;i<=noSeg+l;i++)
(
t [i] = tPredictedLi1 ;
)

afs temp cache = afs-temp;

a f s p r e s ~ c a c h e= afs-press;
afsPtemp
- = tempPred + tempslope;

afs temp = afs-temp-cache;

afsPpress
- = afs-press-cache;

for (i=O;i<=noSeg+l;i++)

void stress(doub1e *surfaceT, double *boreT, double *meanT,

double *stressl, double *stress2)
(

for (int iter=l; iter<=(60/calPer);iter++)

(

/ / temperature of the rotor surface

wt = deltaR* k(afsgress, afs-temp, speed)/ lamda(t[Ol);

t[Ol = (rDash t [l] + 2* radSurface * wt* afs-temp)/ (rDash -I

2* radSurface*wt);

/ / heat from surface to segment 1

q[Ol = 2 * pi* (r[21 + 3*deltaR/4) lamda(t[O]) * (t[Ol -
t[ll )*calPer/(deltaR/2);

for (i=l;i<=noSeg-l;i++)
(
/ / amount of heaat delivered from segment i to segment i+l
q[il = 2* pi * r[i+l] * lamda(t[i]) (t[i] - t[i+l] ) calPer

I
dqLnoSeg1 = q[noSeg-11;
t [noSegl = t [noSegl + dq[noSegl / cp (t[noSegl ) / rho (t[noSegl /
(2* pi * r[noSegl * deltaR);

/ / amount heat transfer from bore surface

qInoSeg + 11 = 0.0;
 tMean = 0.0;
for (i=l; i<=noSeg;i++)

tsurface = t [O];
tBore = t [noSeg+ll;
stressconstant = E(tMean) alpha(tMean)/(l-nu(tMean)J;
sigmas = stressconstant * (tMean -
tSurface)*100/ (maxSurfStress+deltaSigmaSurface);
sigmaB = stressconstant * (tMean -
t~ore)*100/(maxBoreStress+deltaSigmaBore);
+surfaceT = tSurface;
*boreT = tBore;
*meanT = tMean;

*stress1 = sigmas;
*stress2 = sigmaB;

double max(doub1e valuel, double value21

(
return ( (valuel > value2) ? valuel : value2);
1
double min (double valuel, double value2)

return ( (valuel < value21 ? valuel : value2);

1
double lagInter( double x[l, double y[l, int size, double xTest)
/ / Lagrangian intetpolation
{
double yTest = 0; / / return variable
.
for ( int i = O;i<=size-l;i++)
1
double prod = 1; // intermediate
variable

for (int j=O;j<=size-l;j++)

I
if (j==i) continue;
prod = prod * (xTest - x[jl)/(x[il-x[jl);
I
yTest = yTest + prod * y[il;
I
return (yTest);

double linReg (double x[j, double y[l, int noSamplesl

/ / Linear regression
(
int start, end, n;
double sigmaX=0.0, sigmaX2=0.0, sigmaXY=O.O, sigmaY=O.O,
sigmaY2=0.0;

start = 20 - nosamples +l;

 end = 20;
n = noSamples;
for (i=start;i<=end;i++)
1

/ / material of rotor assumed is 30CrMoV

double E (doubxe temp)

/ / find Young's Modulus as a function of temperature
i
double fix, / / Youngs
modulus for fixed temp
var, / / Youngs modulus for
variable temp
x [ l = (0,300,500), / / definition of break
points
Y[] = {215000,198000,1735001; / / degC , MPa

/ / adapted from RSTPS 200MW Ansaldo maachine data

//E= 177581.3613;
-
/* E - 25.75636 psi
= 25.75636 X 6.894757 kPa
-
- 177581.3613 MPa * /

fix = lagInter (x,y,3,fixCoeffTemp);

var = lagInterlx,yt3,temp);

if (fixCoeffFlag==l) ..
return (fix);
else
return (var);
!

double alpha (double temp)

/ / find coefficient of linear expansion of temperature
i
double fix,
var,
x[l = ~100,200,400,600),
y l l = (10.2E-6,11.83-6,13.5E-6,13.7E-6);
//alpha = , 8.9583-6;
fix = lagInter (x,y,4,fixCoeffTemp);
var = lagInter (x,y,4,temp) ;

if (fixCoeffFlag==l)
return (fix);
else
return (var);
double nu (double temp)
/ / find poisson's ratio as a function of temperature
I
double fix,
var,
XI] = {0,100,200,400,600),
y[] = {0.3,0.3,0.3,0.3,0.3);
/ / dimension
less
//nu = 0.3;
fix = lagInter (x,y,5,fixCoeffTemp);
var = laqInter(x,y,5,temp);

if (fixCoeffFlaq==l)
return (fix);
else
return (var);
1

double lamda (double temp)

/ / find coefficient of thermal conductivity as a function of
temperature
t
double fix,
var,
x[] = {0,100,500),
y[l = {26.25,26.25,21.331;

//k = 24.01465;
fix = lagInter(x,y,3,fixCoeffTemp);
var = lagInter (x,y,3,temp);

if (fixCoeffFlag==l)
return (fix);
else
return (var);
)

double rho (double temp)

/ / find density as a function of temperature
{
double fix,
var,
x[1 = I100,400),
y [ l = 17850.0,7850.0);

//rho = 7850.0;
fix = lagInter(X,y,2,fixCoeffTemp);
var = lagInter (x,y , 2 , temp);

if (fixCoeffFlag==l)
return (fix);
else
return(var);
1

double cp (double temp)

/ / find specific heat as a function of temperature
 double fix,
var,
x[l = (0,300,400,600),
y ( I = (443,443,492,5751; //
J/K~K
/ / Data from
Encopra

//cp = 485.518;
fix = lagInter(x,y,4,fixCoeffTemp);
var = lagInter(x,y,4,temp);

if (fixCoeffFlag==l)
return (fix);
else
return(var);
1

double centStress (int speed)

/ / find centrifugal stress as a function of speed
(
return (cent~trRated*pow((speed/ratedSpeed),2)
);
I
double satP (double temperature)
/ / find saturation pressure for a given temperature
I
/ / coefficients for saturation line as per IFAC67

double kl = -7.691234564,
k2 = -26.08023696,
k3 = -168.1706546,
k4 = 64.23285504,
k5 = -118.9646225,
k6 = 4.167117320,
k7 = 20.97506760,
k8 = 1.0e9,
k9 = 6.0;
..
double beta, theta, / / normalised pressure & temp
x, nul, denl, den2; / / intermediate values

theta = (temperature + TZA) / TCA;

x = 1.0 - theta;
nu1 = x * (kl + x (k2 + x * (k3 + x (k4 + x * k5))));
denl = 1.0 + x * (k6 + x * k7);
den2 = k8 x * x + kg;
beta = exp(nu1 / theta / denl - x / den2);
return (PCA * beta) ;

double spvol (double pressure, double temperature)

/ / find the specific volune of steam as function of pressure and
temperture
/ / Units pressure : MPa temperature : deg C
{

/ / all constants as per IFAC67 formulation

double LO
L1 -= 15.74373327,
-34.17061978,
I1 = 4.260321148,

a1 = 8.438375405e-1,
a2 = 5.362162162e-4,
a3 = 1.72,
a4 = 7.342278489e-2,
a5 = 4.97585887e-2,
a6 = 6.5371543e-1,
a7 = 1.15e-6,
a8 = 1.5108e-5,
a9 = 1.4188e-1,
a10 = 7.002753165,
all = 2.995284926e-4,
a12 = 2.04e-1.

All = 7.982692717,
A12 = -2.616571843e-2,
A13 = 1.52241179e-3,
A14 = 2.284279054e-2,
A15 = 2.421647003e2,
A16 = 1.269716088e-10,
A17 = 2.074838328e-7,
A18 = 2.17402035e-8,
A19 = 1.105710498e-9,
A20 = 1.293441934e1,
A21 = 1.308119072e-5,
A22 = 6.047626338e-14,

beta, theta, / / normalised press & temp

x, tern, Y, 2, betal, / / intermediate values
vl, v2, v3, v4, v5, v9,
factl, fact2, fact3;
 beta = pressure / PCA;
theta = (temperature + TZA) / TCA;

if (pressure > satP(temperature))

i
Y = 1.0 -
a1 pow(theta,Z) - a2 / pow(theta,6);
Z = Y + sqrt (a3 *pow(Y,Z) t a5*2 * beta - a4*2 * theta);
v5 = All*a5/pow(Z,5.0/17.0);
v4 = pow(beta,2) * (A21*3 * (a12 - theta) + A22*4 * beta /
pow(theta,20)1;
v3 = A20 pow(theta,lB) * (a9 + pow(theta,Z)) * (all - 3.0
/ pow(alO+beta, 4)) ;
v2 = (A17 + beta * (A18*2 + A19*3 * beta)) /
(a8+pow(theta,ll));
vl = A12 + theta * (A13 + theta * A14) + A15 * pow(a6-
theta,lO)+A16 / (a7+pow(theta,19));
tem = (v5 + vl - v2 - v3 + v4)*VCA;
return (tem);

else

x = exp (bOO * (1.0 - theta) ) ;

factl = 1.0 / pow(beta,4) + b61 * pow(x,14);
fact2 = 1.0 / pow(beta,5) + b71 * pow(x,l9);
fact3 = 1.0 / pow(beta,6) + pow(x,27) * (b81 * pow(x,27) + b82);

betal = LO + theta * (L1 / 10.0 + theta * L2);

vl pow(x,3) * (B11 * pow(x,lO) + B12) +

=
beta (x * (B21*2 * pow(x,l7) + B22*2 * x + B23*2) i
beta * (pow(x.10) * (B31*3 * pow(x,8) + B32*3) +
beta * (pow(x,l4) * (B41*4 * pow(x,ll) + B42*4) +
beta * (pow(x,24) (B51*5 * pow(x.8) + B52*5 *
pow(x, 4) + B53*5) ) ) ) ) ;
v2 = 4.0 pow(x,ll) (B61 * x + B62) / (factl *
pow(beta,5) * factl);
v3 = 5.0 pow(x,l8) (B71 * pow(x.6) t B72) / (fact2 *

v9 = 11.0 * pow (beta / betal, 10) (B90 + x * (B91 + x *

(892 + x + (B93
t x (B94 t x ( B 9 5 t x * B96))))));
return ((I1 theta / beta - vl - v2 -
v3 - v4 + v9)* VCA);
1

double lamdaSteam(doub1e press, double temp)

(
double a0 =
1.02811e-2,
a1 = 2.99621e-2,
a2 = 1.56146e-2,
a3 = -4.22464e-3,
 rhostar = 317.7,
rho, tRat, rhoRat, lamdaBar, // intermediate variables
lamda0, dtStar,Q,R, S,T,
termlrterm2,term3,deltaLamda;

T = temp+TZA;
tRat = T/TCA;
lamda0 = pow(tRat,0.5) * (a0 + tRat* (a1 + tRat* (a2 + a3
tRat)));
rho = l/spvol(press,temp);
rhoRat = rho/rhoStar;
lamdaBar = bO + bl rhoRat + b2 * exp(Bl*pow(rhoRat+B2,2) ) ;
dtStar = fabs (tRat - 1.0) + C4;
Q = 2.0 + C5 * pow(dtStar,-0.6);
R = Q + 1.0;
if (T < TCA)
S = C6 * pow(dtStar,-0.6);
else
S = pow(dtStar,-1.0);
term1 = (dl* pow(tRat,-10) + d2) * pow(rhoRat,l.B) * exp(Cl*(l-
pow(rhoRat,2.8) 1 ) ;
term2 = d3* S * pow(rhoRat,Q) * exp( (l-~ow(rho~at,~)*~/R));
term3 = d4 * exp(CZ*pow(tRat,l.5) + C3 * pow(rhoRat,-5));
deltalamda = term1 + term2 + tenn3;
return (lamdaO + lamdaBar + .deltaLamda);
I
double muSteam(doub1e press, double temp)
(
/ / unit press MPa
// temp degC
// mu Pa * le-6

lona double b11151 = { 0.501938, 0.235622, -0.274637, 0.145831, -

rhostar = 317.7,
rho,rhoRat, T, tRat, terml=O, term2=0,
 mu0, mu;

rho = l/spvol(press,temp);
rhoRat = rho/rhoStar;
T = temp + TZA;
tRat = T / TCA;

for (int i =O;i<=5;i++)

1
for (int j =O; j<=4;j + + )
{
terml = terml + b[i][j]*pow(l/tRat-l,i)*pow(rhoRat-1,j);
)
1
for (int k=O;k<=3;k++)
i

1
mu0 = pow(tRat, 0.5) / term2;
mu = muO*exp (rfioRat*termll;
return (mu);

double nuSteam(doub1e press, double temp)

return (muSteam(press,temp)*spvol(press,temp));
)

void firststageparams ( double mspress, double mstemp, int speed,

double accel,
double load, int genBrkr, double *press, double
*temp)

I
double nDot, / / acceleration of turbine
n, / / speed of turbine
L, / / load of turbine
Ldash, / / load corrected to rated
parameters ..
tldash, / / after-first-stage temp at
Ldash
xLdash[l = {O, 20,70, 1001, / / Ldash characteristic
ytldash[l = 1270, 450,425, 4951.
L2, / / upper limit of combined governing
kl, / / steam throttling ratio
k2, / / temp reducing (cooling)
factor
deltaT0, / / ms temp and turbine bowl
steam temp dt
deltaTRO = 40.0, / / rated ms temp and turbine
bowl steam temp dt
pMIN = 7.0, / / min pressure in deltaTO
characteristic
pHlp = 13.2, / / rated afs pressure
kAC = .001, / / pressure required for unit
acceleration
kNL = .05, / / afs pressure at rated speed
& no load
k = 1.2, / / no load pressure drop index
number
xtMS[I = (295, 400, 535),// deltaTO characteristic
ydeltaT0[1 = !60,50,40),
PMS , / / ms pressure
 tMS. / / ms temperature
pMSR = 15.0, / / rated ms pressure
tMSR = 535.0, / / rated ms temperature
~10, / / a55 pressure at no load
pH1, / / afs pressure
tH1; / / afs temperature

int no; / / rated speed

pMS = mspress;
tMS = mstemp;
no = ratedspeed;

if (qenBrkr == 1)
1
nDot = 0.0;
n = ratedspeed;
L = load;
1
else
{
nDot = accel;
n = speed;
L = 0.0;
1

Ldash = L * (pMSR/pMSR) * sqrt((tMS + TZA)/(tMSR + TZA) ) ;

tldash = lagInter(x~dash,ytldash,4,Ldash);

if (Ldash > L2)

1
kl = 0.0;

else
1
kl = (L2 - Ldash)/L2;
..
1

tH1 = tMS - k2 (tMSR - tldash) - kl* deltaTO + kl * k2 *

deltaTR0;

p10 = (kNL * pow(n/nO, k) + kAC * (n/60) * nDot) * sqrt((tMS +

TZA)/ (tMSR + TZA) ) ;
pH1 = L * (pH1R.- p10) /lo0 + p10;

double k(doub1e press, double temp, int speed)

(

int 2 = 5; / / no of fins of labyrinth packing

 double ph2ByPhl = 0.8, / / after 2nd stage to after 1st
stage pressur ratio
kO=50, / / constant used in afs seal steam
flow
Area, / / clearance area at the seals
specificweight,
kineticviscosity,
heatconductivity,
massFlowRate,
VolFlowRate,
axialVelocitySteam,
surfaceVelocityRotor,
effectivevelocity,
Re, / / Reynolds number
Nu, / / Nusselt number
coeff; / / heat transfer coefficient

Area= (pow(radsurface+clearance,2)-pow(radSurface,2~~/~le~~;
specificweight = l/spvol(press,temp);
kineticviscosity = nusteam(press,temp);
heatconductivity = lamdaSteam(press,temp);
massFlowRate = kO * sqrt(press * specificweight) * sqrt((1-
pow(ph2ByPhl,2))/(Z-log(ph2ByPhl)l);
volFlowRate = mass~low~ate/specificWeight;
axialVelocitySteam = vol~low~ate/Area;
surfaceVelocityRotor = 2 * pi * radsurface * float(speed/60);
effectivevelocity =
sqrt(pow(axial~elocity~team,2)+(pow(surface~elocityRotor/2,2)));
Re = 2.0 * effectivevelocity * clearance / kineticviscosity;
Nu = pow(Re, 0.8)/35.2;
coeff = heatconductivity* Nu /Z.O/clearance;
if (fixCoeffFlag==l) return (100001;
else return (coeff);

/ / also can be calculated as per Bazzi's emperical relation

/ / coeffl = 1800*press**axial~elocitySteam/(steam temperature +
273.15) ;

1
..
void inputparams( double *rnspress, double *=temp, int *speed, double
*load, int *gtnBrkrl
I
// include code for simulation of various parameters
/ / define the break points for each paraemeter as a function of
time
/ / and used Lagrandian intrpolation routine for generation of
/ / various parameters

/ / an analog i/o interface can be used here for getting the

real time data
)

void getCasingTemps (double *inner, double *outer)

I
/ / include code for casing temperature simulation or analog i/o
interface