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Preliminary Design of an Axial Turbine Stage for a Microjet Engine

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 Preliminary Design of an axial turbine stage for a microjet
engine
Narges Sadeghzade tabatabaee Masoud Boroomand
Department of aerospace Department of aerospace
Amirkabir University of technology Amirkabir University of technology
424 Hafez Ave, Tehran, Iran, 15875-4413. 424 Hafez Ave, Tehran, Iran, 15875-4413.
Email:tabatabaee@aut.ac.ir Email:boromand@aut.ac.ir
Abolqasem Mesgar Pour tousi
Department of aerospace
Amirkabir University of technology
424 Hafez Ave, Tehran, Iran, 15875-4413.
Email:tousi@aut.ac.ir

Abstract
. This paper describes in detail all the phases required to preliminary design of a one-stage axial turbine of a microjet engine.
After doing one-dimensional design at pitchline, radial variations of parameters are calculated through different vortex types: free
vortex, constant nozzle angle, forced vortex and constant swirl. Defining velocity triangles and thermodynamic properties at blades
inlet and outlet, blade profile is determined for stator and rotor through a computational code. To predict flow losses in turbine
stage three experimental correlations are used. In order to verify and improve the geometric design, it is modeled, and an
industrial software is used to simulate three-dimensional flow through turbine stage. At the end, the validity of design theory and
correlations for such small dimensions of micro turbines are investigated . Besides, for each design of various radial distributions,
the corresponding turbine map is plotted by modeling turbine performance under different conditions. It allows a comprehensive
comparison between designed stages.

NOMENCLATURE
C Absolute velocity
CL Lift coefficient
h Height; also, enthalpy
𝑚̇ Mass flow rate
N Rotational speed; also, exponent
n Number of blades
𝑃 Static pressure
R Degree of reaction
r radius
s entropy
𝑇 temprature
𝑡max Maximum blade thickness
U Linear velocity
Y Total loss coefficient
Ycl Tip clearance loss coefficient
Yp Profile loss coefficient
Y𝑡𝑒 Top leackage loss coefficient
δ Deviation angle1
ζ Stagger angle2
𝜌 density
ϕ Flow coefficient
ψ Work coefficient
𝜔 Rotational speed

Subscripts
1 Stator inlet

1
Deviation angle
2
Stagger angle

1
 2 Rotor inlet; stator exit
3 Rotor exit
B blade
r Radial direction
x Axial direction
𝜃 Tangential direction
m Blade mean
⃘ Total property

1. Introduction
By focusing on gas turbines in industrial and propulsion systems (turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, and turbo shaft engines), the
turbines are the most important parts, because increasing the turbine efficiency would reduce the running cost and so protect the
limited energy resources of the earth. On the other hand, the mechanical and aerodynamic performances of the turbine influence
other components running in the same system. And certainly Blades form the essential part of the turbines.
During recent years, interest on small-sized gas-turbine engines has increased for both ground-based and vehicular
applications. Small-size turbojet engines, in particular, are becoming attractive for their potential application on remote-control
airplanes or on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) because of their extremely-high thrust-to-weight ratio
The design of such machines is inevitably influenced by their small size. For a millimetre/centimetre-scale gas turbine [1],
designers have to deal with engineering challenges comparable with those which characterize large conventional machines, plus
the fact that traditional design criteria do not necessarily apply in the new design space. This involves particularly the aero-thermo-
mechanical behavior of engine components, since the thermodynamic cycle is characterized by relatively high operating
temperatures, very low component pressure-ratios and efficiencies, and high rotational speeds of the core-assembly. In this context,
the role played by the low Reynolds numbers on engine performance is significant and indicates the dominance of frictional forces
over inertial ones. Also, heat transfer related problems due to the compact engine may affect the engine design and choice of core-
engine architecture. The result is the necessity of an accurate aerothermo-dynamic design and, ultimately, a very sensitive engine in
terms of operation and off-design behaviour. Moreover, combustion-related problems are huge, especially in terms of flame
stabilization. Also manufacturing aspects are peculiar to these engines because of their small size. Components rotate at very high
velocities (>60,000 rpm) so that balancing becomes decisive for safe and duable operation. [2]
In the past, the design of axial flow machines was based on the experimental evidence of a large number of cascade tests [3],
but the results obtained could be very limited, and the range of test conditions will be relatively narrow. In addition, running costs
are usually very high. In recent years, the development in computer technology and the progress achieved in numerical methods
has made the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) a very attracting alternative. Moreover, CFD methods have offered the
possibility to obtain sophisticated details of compressible flows over a wide range of operating conditions. By use of modern ideas
and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code, the validity of empirical design rules can be examined [4].
About radial turbines, aerothermodynamic design, geometrical design, and overall performance prediction of a millimeter-scale
turbine has been investigated Numerically [5].
Also, the heat transfer inside a micro gas turbine and its impact on the performance can be studied through a numerical
investigation, when cooling is applied to high temperature turbines [6].
As a part of a project for design of a small microjet with a pressure ratio of 2.03 and overall diameter of meanline 14cm, a
turbine stage has to be designed. In this study, a definit rate of mass flow of a specific fluid ,needs be expansioned to a lower level
of pressure and temperature. Obviously temperature drop is a representative of the target work,and so is the pressure drop.
Actually the main objective of this work is to design and performance analysis(analyze the performance) of such a turbine.

2. Fluid Dynamic Equations

Having considered the notation of figure1, following equations govern the flow in a stage of turbine.

2
 Figure 1. velocity triangles for turbine stage model

2.1 Energy Equation

Supposing radial equilibrium, energy equation of a fluid element becomes [7]:

𝑑ℎ0 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝜃 𝑑
−𝑇 = 𝐶𝑥 + (𝑟𝐶𝜃 ) (1)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

In order to solve this equation, it is necessary to independently specify a relation between swirl velocity 𝐶𝜃 or axial velocity 𝐶𝑥
and radiusr or between 𝐶𝜃 and 𝐶𝑥 . Most often, a variation of swirl velocity with radius has been specified as [8]

𝐶𝜃 = 𝐾𝑟 𝑁 (2)

Or,in terms of mean-section conditions,

𝐶𝜃 𝑟 𝑁
=( ) (3)
𝐶𝜃,𝑚 𝑟𝑚

A case of interest not conered by equation (2) is that where the absolute flow angle is radially constant. In this case, 𝐶𝜃 =
𝐶𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 .

2.2 Euler turbine Equation

Knowing constant total enthalpy in stator ,since no work is done, it is concluded that (ℎ01 = ℎ02 ). When flow passes over the
rotor, power generating causes it loses its energy and accordingly flow exits the stage with a lower level of total enthalpy.
From the steady flow energy equation 𝑊𝑠 = 𝛥ℎ0 . Applying the principle of angular momentum to the rotor, the stage work
output per unit mass flow is [7]

𝑊𝑠 = 𝛥(𝑈𝐶𝜃 ) (4)

3
So,

ℎ02 = ℎ01 − 𝛥(𝑈𝐶𝜃 ) (5)

As 𝛥(𝑈𝐶𝜃 ) is a function of radius, 𝑊𝑠 varies across blade height ,i.e .achieved work from different radial sections of the blade
may not be the same

2.3 Mass Equation

Radial variation of parameters causes flow at each blade section to have a specific velocity triangle, besides thermodynamic
properties would have a radial distribution across blades height.The flow density and axial velocity may vary from root to tip, an
integration over the annulus will be necessary if the continuity equation is to be used in planes 2 or 3. Thus considering a flow δm
through an annular element of radius r and width δr, [7]

𝛿𝑚 = 𝜌 2𝜋𝑟𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑥
𝑟𝑡
𝑚 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝜌𝐶𝑥 𝑟𝑑𝑟 (6)
𝑟ℎ

3. Design procedure

The present study, turbine design has been accomplished by four methods based on primary information as below:

Table 1 Design primary information

parameter value unit

Inlet total temperature, T0 1100 K
Inlet total pressure, P0 366.6 kPa
Mass flow rate, 𝑚̇ 0.43 kg/s
Rotational speed, N 98000 rpm
Total temperature drop, ∆T0 146.2 K
Total pressure ratio 2.025 -

The following flowchart shows the design process exploited which leads to blades’ rows geometry. This geometry can be
modeled later in order to simulate a three-dimensional analysis.

4
 Input data
Assumptions Designer-chosen parameters

Design at pitchline

General annulus geometry + velocity triangles at pithchline

Vortex type selection

Radial variations design

Velocity triangles at any radius

Assumptio Experimental data

ns
Detailed annulus geometry such as number of blades

Blading

Blade angles such as camber

Selecting an appropriate NACA blade profile

Blade profile at each radius

Stagger angle

Blade geometry

Figure 2 overall design sequence for a blade turbine

5
3.1 Design at pitchline
Firstly two of the dimensionless parameters needs to be defined, i.e. degree of reaction R and flow coefficient φ, at pitchline.
Applying one-dimensional relations in [7], [9] and [10], the third dimensionless parameter ψ would be calculated:

ψ = 2(1 + 𝜑 tan(𝛼1 ) − 𝑅) (7)

Figure 3 Dimensionless velocity triangles for a 50% reaction turbine stage [11]

Then, evaluating linear blade velocity U allows calculationg other velocity triasngles components.
𝛥𝑊 𝐶𝑝 𝛥𝑇0
𝑈=√ =√ (7)
𝜓 𝜓
Besides, estimationg a value for stator performance efficiency, and applying isentropic equations, leads to pressure and temperature
values at blades entry and exit.

After calculating blades height through convincing the equation of mass conservation, in order to define chords length,
corresponding aspect ratio value is considered 1.03 and 1.2 for stator and rotor respectively [12], which are smaller than these values for
big turbines [7].
The mean radius 𝑟𝑚 is assumed constant from inlet to outlet, which forms the annulus geometry. Thus the general geometry is also
specified in this step.

3.2 VORTEX TYPES

In this study 4 different kinds of radial variations are considered. As discussed in previous section, different distributions is possible
for swirl velocity, which each one leads to a different design with distinct radial distribution of parameters.
It is noticeable that we have not considered an identical pitchline for these four designs. For any design a high efficiency is
desirable, besides not exceeding any criteria. For example a positive value of ‘degree of reaction’ is considered at hub. In order to fulfill
intended terms, an optimization algorithm is employed. So defferent design points is selected for every model.

3.2.1 Free Vortex

When a value of -1 is used for the exponent N in equation (2), free vortex design of (𝑟𝐶𝜃 = 𝐾) is achieved. If this condition is
specified at both the stator and rotor outlets, then there is no radial variation in specific work, Δ(UCθ ), because the UCθ term at entering
and leaving the rotor are radially constant. Thus, the specific work computed from the mean-section diagram is valid for the entire flow.
Furthermore, the axial velocity Cx is radially constant.
From the other hand, linear blade velocity U increases from hub to tip and accordingly velocity triangle and thermodynamic
properties are different at each radius.

Non Free Vortex

6
 Free-vortex designs are so commonly used that all other designs are often classified under the commom heading of non-free vortex.
The non-free-vortex designs are used in an attempt to alleviate some of the potential disadvantages associated with the free-vortex
designs.
In equation(2) various values for power N determines vortex theory. [8]

Table 2 Various swirl distribution

Radial swirl distribution N

Free vortex -1
Super vortex -2
Constant swirl 0
Non Free Vortex
Forced vortex (Wheel flow) 1
Constant nozzle angle _

3.2.2 Constant nozzle angle

It may be desirable to make a constant nozzle angle one of the conditions determining the type of vortex, to avoid manufacturing
nozzles of varying outlet angle.
It is assumed to have an axial flow at both stage inlet and outlet. There is an extra assumption for flow angle at stator exit to be
constant across blade height, i.e. 𝛼2 =constant in plane 2.
It leads to the following form of vortex flow equation( equation1) at stator exit:

𝑑𝐶𝜃2 𝑑𝐶𝜃2 𝐶𝜃2 2

𝐶𝜃2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛼2 + 𝐶𝜃2 + =0 (8)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟

And therefore both components of velocity would be functions of radius. [7]

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑥2 = 2 (9)
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑥2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 (10)
𝑟 2

At rotor exit conservation of energy causes total enthalpy not to be uniform, and so its respective term in radial equilibrium equation
is not negligible.

𝐵2
ℎ03 = 𝑟𝜔 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼2
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼2
2
𝑑 (𝐶𝑥3 ⁄2) 𝑑ℎ03 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
= → 𝐶𝑥3 = √2(ℎ03 + 𝐵3 )
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 (11)

B2 and B3 are two constant which can be found through applying continuity equation in planes 2 and 3 respectively.
Integrating the latter equation results in radial distribution of velocity components.

3.2.3 Forced Vortex

7
 This is sometimes called “solid-body” rotation because 𝐶𝜃 varies directly with r. [13] As mentioned in table(2), This is a case in
which power value in equation(2) equals one,i.e. 𝐶𝜃2 = 𝐾2 𝑟 .
This assumption causes following form of radial equilibrium equation for flow exiting stator and rotor respectively.

d Cx2 2 d yields
( ) = −K 2 (K 2 r 2 ) → Cx2 = √B2 − 2K 2 2 r 2 (12)
dr 2 dr

𝑑 𝐶𝑥3 2 𝑑ℎ
( ⁄ = 03 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑞. = 2𝜔𝑟𝐾2 (13)
𝑑𝑟 2) 𝑑𝑟 →

𝑟𝑡3
𝐶𝑥3 = √2 ∫ 2𝜔𝑟𝐾2 𝑑𝑟 = √𝐵3 + 2𝜔𝐾2 𝑟 2 (14)
𝑟ℎ3

3.2.4 Constant Swirl

If power value in equation (2) equals zero, there would be a uniform distribution of swirl velocity across blade height at stator exit,
i.e. 𝐶𝜃 = 𝐾.
Except stage inlet in which there is a uniform distribution of all parameters, in planes 2 and 3 radial equilibrium equation leads to
the following form for axial velocity:

𝑑 𝐶𝑥2 2 𝐶𝜃2 2 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠

( )+ = 0→ 𝐶𝑥2 = √𝐵2 − 2𝐶𝜃2 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑟 (15)
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑟

𝑑 𝐶𝑥3 2 𝑑
( )= 𝑟𝜔(𝐾2 + 0) (16)
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟

Cx3 = √B3 + r 2 ω(K 2 ) − 2K 3 2 ln r (17)

3.3 Results of varius design methodology

An in-house design code was developed to solve the corresponding equations for each radial section through computational loops. It
is managed for every vortex type separately. In this way, radial distributions of all parameters can be calculated such as dimensionless
ones, velocity triangle components, thermodynamic properties and output work.
As it is seen in the following figure, in non free vortex designs total enthalpy drop (work per unit mass) is increasing from hub to tip,
unlike free vortex one, in which work is achieved uniform across the blade height.

8
 205000
FREE VORTEX
CONSTANT NOZZLE ANGLE
FORCED VORTEX
195000 CONSTANT SWIRL

TOTAL ENTHALPY DROP (M^2 S^-2)

185000

175000 CONSTANT NOZZLE

ANGLE
FREE VORTEX
165000

155000
CONSTANT SWIRL

145000
FORCED VORTEX

135000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Blade Height From Hub To Tip (%)

Figure 4.radial distribution of total enthalpy drop for different vortex types

Degree of reaction variations is plotted in figure2. As a result of optimization algorithm, there is not any negative value at sections
near hub.

FREE VORTEX
0.8
CONSTANT NOZZLE ANGLE
0.75 FORCED VORTEX FORCED VORTEX
0.7 CONSTANT SWIRL
0.65
0.6
Degree of Reaction

0.55
0.5 FREE VORTEX
0.45
0.4
0.35
CONSTANT SWIRL
0.3
0.25
0.2 CONSTANT NOZZLE
ANGLE
0.15
0.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
blade height from hub to tip (%)

Figure 5. radial distribution of ‘degree of reaction’ for different vortex types

A mass average of performance parameters are computed over the radial distribution in each section, i.e. stage inlet and entry.
Comparing these values with results of design at pitchline shows that how much flow conditions at pitchline are representative of the
whole blade behavior. Furthermore it should be checked for each design that if the target pressure ratio has been fulfilled with such a
radial distribution.

9
 Table 3. Comparison between pitchline results and mass-averaged of radial distribution for different vortex type designs

Total pressure ratio (𝐏𝟎𝟏 ⁄𝐏𝟎𝟑) Total enthalpy drop (∆𝐓𝟎 ),(K)
Vortex Type
pitchline Mass average pitchline Mass average
Free Vortex 2.025 2.025000414 146.2 146.2
Constant Nozzle Angle 2.025 2.013002702 146.2 147.465
Forced Vortex 2.025 2.082008178 146.2 146.2
Constant Swirl 2.025 2.035196802 146.2 146.2

It can be found from table 4, that in ‘forced vortex’ design the achieved pressure ratio is more than the target value (which can be
seen in pitchline design results); But as will be discussed later, it should be studied if this total pressure is producing power or is
consumed as different losses. In other vortex types there is a desirable identity in both total temperature drop and total pressure ratio
values; while in ‘constant swirl’ total pressure ratio is more to some extent.

3.4 Blading
After defining flow angles, it is needed to define blade angles and subsequently the whole blades profile.
To know blade camber angle 𝜃, additional to flow deflection 𝜀, it should be specified how much flow get distance from blade at inlet
and outlet, i.e. incidence and deviation angles values.

θ = ε − i + δ [𝟓] (18)

As incidence angle is not so influential to turbine performance, an incidence of zero is assumed for both blades at all radial sections.
Deviation angle is calculated according to the method of refrence [9].
Although there are different theoretical approach to determine blade profiles [7] ,it is so complicated to achieve a newly developed
profile that convince all aerodynamic criteria. Therefore it is decided to use conventopnal blade profile of NACA series.
The geometry chosen for this study NACA A3K7 turbine airfoil [14]. The primary series A3K7 is for reaction blades in which there
is acceleration through the passage. The camber line shape gives rapid turning in the forward part of the blade, where the Mach numbers
are low. The profile is defined by a series of points for the camber line in terms of 𝐶𝑙0 = 1.0, and a thickness distribution along that line
(with a maximum thickness to chord of 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⁄𝑐 = 20%). [15]
The free-stream lift coefficient Cl0 is a parameter used in order to relate the given ordinates of camber line to the design value of
turning angle and inlet angle, which its relation is:

𝑑𝑦𝑐 𝑑𝑦𝑐
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐶𝑙0 ( ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐶𝑙0 ( ) [𝟕] (19)
𝑑𝑦𝑐 0.5 𝑑𝑦𝑐 95

𝑑𝑦𝑐 𝑑𝑦𝑐
Where ( ) and ( ) are the slopes of the mean line at 0.5 percent chord and 95 percent chord for 𝐶𝑙0 = 1.0. 𝐶𝑙0 is the only
𝑑𝑦𝑐 0.5 𝑑𝑦𝑐 95
unknown parameters of the above equation. The blade mean-line coordinates are obtained from the NACA report information for A3K7
by the following relation:
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐶𝑙0 (𝑦𝑐 )𝐶𝑙0 =1.0 [𝟕] (20)
Thus the mean-line of each radial section is found from hub to tip. For example, results for the stator blade of ‘constant swirl’ design
is plotted in the figure 1 at various radial sections.

10
 20
CL0=1
18 hub
mid
16 tip

14

12

y/c 10
8

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
x/c

Figure 6- mean line distribution from LE to TE for different radial sections

At next stage, the stagger angle have to be calculated to show how various blade section profiles are set with respect to axial
direction. And at last thickness distribution over this lines completes the profile.
Knowing incidence and deviation angles, blade angles at LE and TE is found through a simple geometric relation,

𝑑𝑦𝑐
ξ=( )⌋ − β2b (21)
𝑑x𝑐 @ 𝐿𝐸

or,

𝑑𝑦𝑐
ξ=( )⌋ + β3b (22)
𝑑x𝑐 @ 𝑇𝐸

Moreover, variations of stagger angle from hub to tip, show how much the blade twists.
In this project, chord length is assumed to be constant across the blade height. So, considering an optimized value for pitch to chord
ratio at pitchline, based on experimental data in [2], necessary number of blades can be evaluated:

2πrm
n= (23)
sm

Obviously there would be a blade row in which pitch value is different in each radius.

3.5 Efficiency estimation

To estimate the turbine stage efficiency, it is necessary to consider all source of losses, such as profile loss 𝑌𝑝 , secondary loss 𝑌𝑠 ,
and tip leakage loss 𝑌𝑇𝑙 , for each blade separately according to [16]. Tip clearance is supposed to equal 2 percent of the chord length.

11
𝑌 = 𝑌𝑝 + 𝑌𝑠 + 𝑌𝑇𝑙 (24)

According to radial variations of influential parameters in loss values such as inlet and outlet angles, evaluationg mass averaged of
parameters would be important. besides, these correlations are almost experimental data and are presented in diagram forms. For
conveniance of being used in computational code, they are estimated by polynomials.
Additional to ainley and mathieson correlations, dunham and came relations and the method presented in [9] are investigated and
the turbine stage is estimated by every three methods.

1
𝜂𝑇𝑇 = 2
1 𝜓 𝜓 (25)
1+ [{𝜑2 +( +1− 𝑅)2 } 𝜆 𝑁 + {𝜑2 + ( + 𝑅) } 𝜆𝑅 ]
2𝜓 2 2

It can be shown that 𝜆 and Y are not very different numerically the corresponding argument is stated in reference [7]
The results are as follows:

12
 Table 4. performance efficiency according to experimental correlations

Voetex type Estimated

Free Vortex Constant Nozzle Angle Forced Vortex Constant Swirl
Total-to-total isen. Efficiency (%)
Ainley & Matieson 90.97 91.16 91.18 91.03
Dunham & Came 85.38 84.44 86.35 84.28
Aungier 80.24 80.1 87.37 84.75

It is noticable that as a primary pitchline estimation, the turbine efficiency was supposed to be 82.19%.

4 Three-dimensional simulation
In order to validate the design, it is needed to construct the turbine and test it. But to decrease expenses, it was decided to estimate
its performance through three-dimensional modeling under different operational conditions.
4.1. Computational Model
To model the flow passing through turbine stage each blade should be constructed separately. To provide three-dimensional
geometry, as it is seen in figure 4, the blades of both rotor and stator are built by stacking all profile sections from hub to tip, according
to their staggered angles.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7 Stacking of blade profiles designed in the (θ-x) cascade plane to form turbine stage blades: (a) five cascade sections between hub and tip to form rotor
blade among its row; (b) ) five cascade sections between hub and tip to form stator blade among its row

13
 Figure 8. solid model of the stage which has been constructed in Ansys-CFX.

4.2 Meshing

A structured mesh is used to generate an appropriate grid for each design. Dimensionless distance from the wall 𝑌 + is set to one in
order to model accurately flow in boundary layer just near blades wall.

Figure 9- 3D geometrical shape and computational grid of the turbine stage

14
 Figure 10 pattern of mesh in near wall region

It should be studied to generate a grid dense enough so that results do not depend on it. It was found that surfaces which are near to
tip and hub are more sensitive to grid and this affects the performance efficiency. So a mass averaged value of efficiency is considered
as a criterion of independency from grid. Figure 6 shows the effect of number of grids on efficiency.

0.78
0.75
0.72
Efficiency
0.69
0.66
0.63
0.6
100000 300000 500000 700000 900000 1100000
# Nodes

Figure 11. variations of efficiency with increasing number of nodes in forced vortex design

Similar tests were undertaken to find the appropriate number of grids. Thus the desirable grid is accomplished for all designed
turbine stages and presented in table 5.

Table 5. Mesh information

Vortex type # nodes # elements Maximum edge length ratio

Free Vortex 539140 505163 169.542
Constant Nozzle Angle 494799 527110 278.995
Forced Vortex 624214 662310 251.815
Constant Swirl 524214 491264 392.329

4.3 Boundary conditions

15
 Figure 12 [17]

air ideal gas as the operating fluid is studied under steady-state condition. Compressiblity effects are considered. and k-Epsilon is
selected to model turbulence for such a flow [18], [19]. Scalable functions are used as turbulent wall functions.
Bounadaries are as following:
Solution domain is including of stator and rotor. At stator inlet the amount of mass flow rate and total temprature are specified.
Stator and rotor blades are considered as a adiabatic, no slip and smooth wall. Hubs and shrouds are defiend as walls. At rotor outlet
static pressure is specified.
For three-diimensional simulation of flow through the turbine stage, the unsteady Navier-Stokes equations in their conservation
form are solved by ANSYS CFX software. Advection scheme of upwind is considered for solving equations; and convergence limit is
set to 1e-8.

4.4 Results and Discussion

Three-dimensional streamlines show flow behavior especially near walls: hub and tip. Secondary flows are seen clearly in figure 12.
Besides, velocity vectors can be surveyed over any blade section through stator and rotor blades (figure 13).
Also, from the thermal resistance point of view, by three-dimensional simulation, each blade can be analyzed and critical regions
may be detected for the four designed turbine stages (

Figure 15).

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 Figure 13-three dimensional streamlines, with illustration of velocities at blades inlet and outlets (for free vortex stage)

(a) (b)

Figure 14. velocity vectors in blade to blade view for two blades of stator row(a) and rotor row(b) for free vortex stage

17
 Figure 15. static temperature contour over blades surfaces

So that each parameter varies across the blade height, a mass average is needed to be evaluated for them. (table 7).

Table 6. Mass averaged results of three-Dimensional design

Voetex type
Free Vortex Constant Nozzle Angle Forced Vortex Constant Swirl
Quantity
Total Pressure ratio 0.4701 0.4623 0.4846 0.4700
Total Temperature ratio 0.8622 0.8595 0.8764 0.8606
Power (kg m^2 s^-3) 74566.9 76065.9 66954.4 75570.6
Total-to-total isen. Efficiency (%) 80.13 80.16 74.68 81.06

The low value of efficiency of forced vortex stage, is due to the three-dimensional effects, which are not predicted in preliminary design
correlations. As it is shown in figure 15 and 16, transonic effects and resultant vortexs influence the turbine stage performance.

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 Figure 16. Mach number distribution of a Forced-Vortex stage at Figure 17. velocity streamlines of a Forced-Vortex stage in a plane at
mean radius ‘blade to blade’ plane 22% blade height

The percentage of differences between correlations assessment of efficiency and three dimensional simulation results are presented
in table 8. It can be found that, correlations prediction of forced vortex stage are not reliable as explained earlier. on the other hand,
Ainley-Mathieson and Dunham-Came estimate a higher efficiency than three-dimensional analysis, due to the fact that these
correlations are based on experimental data for turbines of convensional dimensions, and it is obvious not to be accurate enough for
estimation of losses in small sizes of microjets. While Aungier correlations seem to be appropriate because of considering different
effects through multiple coefficients. Thus, the difference value is only 4.5% more than 3D efficiency of Constant Swirl, and it is almost
accurate for Free Vortex and Constant Nozzle Angle.

Table 7 Comparing primary & 3D results of estimating turbine performance (𝜂𝐴𝑀 − 𝜂3𝐷 )⁄𝜂3𝐷 × 100

Difference (%)
Quantity
Free Vortex Constant nozzle angle Forced vortex Constant Swirl
Ainley & Matiesonn (AM) 13.52 13.723 22.094 12.30
Total to total isen
Dunham & Came (DC) 6.55 5.339 15.627 3.972
efficiency
Aungier (Ang) 0.1312 0.0749 16.993 4.540

Figure 18 allows a comparison between preliminary design results and the three-dimensional simulation results for total pressure
ratio , total temperature ratio , power and total to total efficiency. Except Forced Vortex results, The differences are less than 10% that
are due to the three-dimensional effects of the flow,which are not considered in the convensional correlations of turbine design.
;

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 1
0.5

0.8
0.4

total temprature ratio

total pressure ratio

0.6
0.3

0.4
0.2

0.2
0.1

0
0 Constant Forced Vortex Constant Free Vortex
Constant Forced Constant Free Vortex Swirl Nozzle Angle
Swirl Vortex Nozzle Angle

periliminary design three-dimensional simulation periliminary design three-dimensional simulation

(a) (b)

90

70000 80

60000 70
power (kg m^2 s^-3)

total to total efficiency (%)

60
50000
50
40000
40
30000
30
20000
20

10000 10

0 0
Constant Forced Constant Free Vortex Constant Swirl Forced Vortex Constant Free Vortex
Swirl Vortex Nozzle Angle Nozzle Angle
priliminary design three dimensional simulation preliminary design three-dimensional simulation

(c) (d)

Figure 18. comparison between preliminary design and three-dimensional simulation results: (a) total pressure ratio (b) total temperature ratio (c) power (d)
total to total efficiency (Aungier correlations)

4.5 Analysis and comparing four designed turbines

Any machine is evaluated according to its performance parameters. Performance parameters are those parameters that define system
expenses. For example efficiency is a noticeable criterion which specifies fuel consumption. On the other hand it should be noted that a
system doesn’t work on design point necessarily always; so off design performance should not be neglected. Actually, in addition to
efficiency at design point (exp. design speed and pressure ratio), it is important to know that how system operates at other points.
Number of blades and how much they twist from hub to tip, are important factors which affect manufacturing costs. It is preferred to
design a turbine that generates the most power per blade. Besides, construction of a blade with less twist is far easier.
Actually it can be said that one should compromise between a set of parameters to achieve the optimized design.

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4.5.1 Geometrical Parameters

Blade twist from hub to tip, and the number of blades in each blade row are shown in the following tables.

Table 8. Number of blades

Voetex type Number of rotor blades in a row Number of stator blades in a row
Free Vortex 33 40
Constant Nozzle Angle 27 32
Forced Vortex 33 38
Constant Swirl 31 34

Table 9 Blade twist from hub to twist

Voetex type Rotor blade twist (deg) Stator blade twist (deg)
Free Vortex 17.3 3.08
Constant Nozzle Angle 25.53 0.18
Forced Vortex 17.43 19.51
Constant Swirl 14.55 17.48

4.5.2 Aerodynamical Parameters

Work and power
Although the most power is generated by the turbine with forced vortex design, but each blade of turbine with constant nozzle angle
produces 15 percent more (table 7 and 8). On the other hand it is noticeable that power generated by the ‘free vortex’ and ‘constant
swirl’ stages is not favorable, despite of having a good efficiency. Flow deflection angle is a representative of the amount of work per
blade too.(table 11)

Table 10 flow deflection

Voetex type Deflection (deg)

Free Vortex 54.75
Constant Nozzle Angle 75.68
Forced Vortex 46.22
Constant Swirl 71.34

Turbine map
Turbine maps are a function of non-dimensional turbine speed (N⁄√T01 ) and the non-dimensional corrected mass flow (ṁ√T01 / P01).
The first map relates non-dimensional turbine mass flow with turbine pressure ratio and the second map gives a measure of turbine
efficiency. By a constant inlet temperature (T01 = 1100) , turbine performance has been obtained in design speed, 70% of design speed
and 40% of that.
.

21
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 19- turbine map for four designed turbines: ‘free vortex’, ’constant nozzle angle’, ‘forced vortex’, ‘constant swirl’ from (a) to (d) respectively

The most higher efficiency in design speed is generated by a constant distribution of swirl velocity design. In pressure ratios equal to
1.7 and more, turbine operates with this efficiency; which is 1% more than Free Vortex and 2% more than the Constant nozzle angle,
while mass flow rates are not so different.
In all designed turbines sudden drop in efficiency occurs in very low pressure ratios, say 1.18 to 1.25. Even Forced vortex design, in
which efficiency is almost low, operates with more than 70% efficiency, when pressure ratio is decreased to 1.28, In the other word, an
acceptable performance can be achieved in such low pressure ratios.
When rotor shaft speed is 70 percent of the design speed, ‘free vortex’ design performance is the best, while ‘constant swirl’ and
‘constant nozzle angle’ have good efficiencies (with only 1 and 2 % differences respectively).
If shaft speed decreases to 40 percent of its design value, the highest efficiency is related to the ‘free vortex’ stage; With 2 percent
difference of efficiency and 1.4% amount of mass flow, ‘constant nozzle angle’ and ‘constant swirl’ turbine performances are desirable
too.

22
 The target turbine should be matched with compressor, combustion chamber, intake and nozzle to calculate the operating line. In
this way, the proper design will be chosen when it is matched with other components at the next stage of the microjet design project.

Conclusion
An axial turbine stage was designed for a microjet engine. Four different swirl distributions of Free Vortex, Constant Nozzle Angle,
Forced Vortex and Constant Swirl were considered. Preliminary assessment of loss, shows that Constant Nozzle Angle and Free Vortex
designs exert about 5% more loss than Constant Swirl; and about 7% more than Forced Vortex. More over flow deflection angle of
Constant Nozzle Angle is 23% more than Free Vortex and 7% less than Constant Nozzle Angle design; while Forced Vortex design
causes the least deflection of flow, according to preliminary design.
In order to validate the design, a three dimensional modeling of all four kinds of stages, have been done by CFX. It was concluded
that the loss correlation method of Aungier provides the most appropriate results, to estimate the stage efficiency of small size turbines.
Constant Swirl performance is the most efficient one in this analysis, which its efficiency is about 5% more than Free Vortex and
Constant Nozzle Angle. More over it is found that in Forced Vortex stage, transonic effects influence the performance and so,
preliminary design results are not reliable. Except this model, other kinds of stages operations specifications (such as pressure ratio and,
temperature ratio) are close to evaluated values in preliminary designs.
Having obtained the performance characteristics of various designed turbines, the project team will be able to calculate operating
line of microjet engine by using other component characteristic performance to choose the appropriate design.

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