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GENERAL SCIENCE
GRADE 7
STUDENT TEXTBOOK
Authors
Beyene Degefu (MA)
Yosef Denbu (MSc)
Getahun Mekonen (BED)
Editors:
Aysha Jemal (MSc)
Takele T amene (MSc)
Melaku Mengiste(B Sc)
Designer: -
Chernet Fekadu (BSc.)
Kaleab Haile (BSc.)
Evaluators: -
Ermiyas Abas (MSc)
Martha Abdissa(MA)
Eskinder Adem (BSc)
Coordinator: -
Mergia Adere (MSc)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thanks Dire Dawa Administration, the Ministry of Education
and GEQIP-E for their financial support for the preparation and publication of
textbook. Beyond this, we truly appreciate the contribution of Educators,
Program coordinators and leaders.
Dire Dawa Administration Education Bureau.
1st Edition 2015
Published by____________
All right reserves

Reproduction, Distribution, storage and Reuse of this material may not be
reproduced without the prior written permission of the copy right owner or a
license permitting restricted copying in Ethiopia by FDRE Negarit Gazeta
Proclamation No. 410/2004.
We have done our best to respect the copy right of the image. We apologize
for any inconvenience this may have caused you, and we would like to express
our sincere condolence to you in the following publication.
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CONTENTS
UNIT 1 ......................................................................................................................... 1
BASIC CONCEPTS OF SCIENCE .......................................................................... 1
1.1. THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND ITS BRANCHES .................................................. 2

1.1.1. Definition of science .................................................................................. 2
1.1.2. Branch of Science ...................................................................................... 3
1.1.3. Overlap between the disciplines................................................................. 4
1.1.4. Science and technology .............................................................................. 5
1.1.5. Scientists and Ethical discipline ................................................................. 7
1.2. COMMON LABORATORY EQUIPMENT, USES, SAFETY RULES AND PROCEDURES
IN SCIENCE LABORATORIES ...................................................................................... 8
1.2.1. List and uses of common scientific equipment .......................................... 8

1.2.2. Making laboratory equipment (tools) from locally available materials ... 10
1.2.3 Some Basic Rules of Safety ...................................................................... 11
1.2.4 Hazard signs (symbols) ............................................................................. 11
UNIT SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 12
REVIEW QUESTIONS ................................................................................................ 13
UNIT 2 ....................................................................................................................... 15
MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDDING ................................................................. 15
2.1. CHARACTERISTICS AND NATURE OF MATTER .................................................. 16

2.1.1 Meaning and Properties of Matter............................................................. 16
2.1.2 Particulate Nature of Matter ...................................................................... 17
2.1.3 Particle theory of matter (particle model of matter).................................. 18
2.1.4 Explaining observations using the particulate nature of Matter ................ 19
2.1.5 Particles in Solid, Liquid and Gas ............................................................. 20
2.1.6 Compression.............................................................................................. 21
2.1.7 Change in state .......................................................................................... 21
IV
2.1.8 Explaining change of state processes using a simple particle model of
matter. ................................................................................................................ 22
2.2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER ...................................... 23
2.2.1 Physical Properties .................................................................................... 23
2.2.2 Identification of substances based on their physical properties .............. 24
2.2.3 Observing physical properties ................................................................... 26
2.2.4 Chemical properties .................................................................................. 29
2.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SUBSTANCES (IN TERMS OF COMPOSITION AND
OBSERVABLE PROPERTIES) ..................................................................................... 31
2.3.1 Pure substance and mixture....................................................................... 31

2.3.2 Elements and compounds.......................................................................... 32
2.3.3 Mixture ...................................................................................................... 38
2.4 CHANGES AROUND US: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES .......................... 41
2.4.1 Physical and chemical changes ................................................................. 41
2.4.2 Importance of physical and chemical changes in our life ......................... 42
2.4.3 Physical and Chemical changes that are important in everyday life ......... 43
2.4.4 Useful and Harmful Changes .................................................................... 43
2.5 SEPARATION OF MIXTURE AND ITS APPLICATION ............................................ 45
2.5.1 Methods of separation of mixtures ............................................................ 45
2.5.2 Application of separation techniques ........................................................ 50
2.5.3 Separating of mixtures using local materials ............................................ 54
UNIT SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 56
REVIEW EXERCISE ON UNIT TWO ............................................................................ 57
UNIT 3 ....................................................................................................................... 59
ELEMENTS, COMPOUND AND CHEMICAL REACTION ............................. 59
3.1 ELEMENTS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION ......................................................... 59

3.1.1 Common elements..................................................................................... 59
3.1.2 Chemical symbol....................................................................................... 60
3.1.3 Writing symbol ......................................................................................... 60
3.2 COMPOUNDS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION...................................................... 62
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3.2.1 Compound ................................................................................................. 62
3.2.2 Meaning of formula .................................................................................. 63
3.2.3 Valence number ........................................................................................ 63
3.2.4 Formula of binary compounds .................................................................. 64
3.2.5 Naming Binary Compounds...................................................................... 65
3.2.6 Polyatomic ions ......................................................................................... 66
3.2.7 Writing chemical formulas ........................................................................ 67
3.2.8 Naming simple chemical compounds ....................................................... 68
3.2.9 Interpreting formula .................................................................................. 68
3.3 SIMPLE CHEMICAL REACTION AND EQUATION ................................................. 70
3.3.1 Simple chemical reaction .......................................................................... 71
3.3.2 Evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred ............................... 72
3.3.3 The law of conservation of mass ............................................................... 72
3.3.4 Investigating chemical reaction................................................................. 73
3.3.5 Writing and balancing simple chemical equation ..................................... 74
3.3.6 Writing Chemical Equation....................................................................... 74
3.3.7 Balancing Simple Chemical Equation ...................................................... 75
3.3.8 Demonstrating balancing equation by using model .................................. 77
3.4 USES OF CHEMICAL REACTION IN EVERY DAY SITUATION ............................... 78
3.4.1 Uses of chemical reaction ......................................................................... 78
UNIT SUMMARY ..................................................................................................... 80
REVIEW EXERCISE ON UNIT 3 ................................................................................. 80
UNIT 4 ....................................................................................................................... 83
CELL AS THE BASIS OF LIFE ......................................................................... 83

4.1. MICROSCOPE.................................................................................................... 84
4.1.1. Purpose and invention of Microscope ...................................................... 85
4.1.2 Types of Microscope ............................................................................... 86
4.2. CELL ................................................................................................................ 90
4.2.1. The discovery and definition of a cell. ..................................................... 91
4.2.2. The structure of cells ................................................................................ 92
4.2.3 Cell Shape and Size................................................................................... 95
VI
4.2.4. Unicellular organisms .............................................................................. 97
4.2.5 Multicellular organisms ............................................................................ 99
4.2.6. Cell, Tissue, Organ, and organ system ..................................................... 99
4.2.7. Respiration and mitochondria ................................................................ 102
4.2.8. Photosynthesis and chloroplast .............................................................. 104
UNIT SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 109
REVIEW QUESTIONS .............................................................................................. 110
UNIT 5 ..................................................................................................................... 112
LIVING THINGS AND THEIR DIVERSITY .................................................... 112
5.1. LIVING THINGS .............................................................................................. 112

5.1.1 Characteristics of living things................................................................ 113
5.1.2. Classification and scientific names of organism .................................... 117
5.1.3 Hierarchy in the classification of organisms (Kingdom to species)........ 119
5.2. KINGDOMS OF LIFE ........................................................................................ 122
5.2.1 The Kingdom Animalia .......................................................................... 123
5.2.2 Kingdom Plantae ..................................................................................... 131
5.2.3 Kingdom Protesta.................................................................................... 137
5.2.4 Kingdom Monera .................................................................................... 140
5.2.5 Kingdom Fungi ....................................................................................... 141
UNIT SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 144
REVIEW QUESTION................................................................................................ 144
UNIT 6 ..................................................................................................................... 147
EARTH IN SPACE................................................................................................. 147
6.1. SHAPE AND DIMENSION OF THE EARTH ............................................. 148

6.2. PARTS OF THE EARTH (BODY &ATMOSPHERE) ............................................. 151
6.3. MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH ................................................................... 154
6.3.1 EFFECTS OF ROTATION OF THE EARTH ....................................... 154
6.3.1.1 Day and Night ............................................................................ 154
6.3.2 EFFECTS OF REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH .................................. 156
6.3.2.1 Difference in the length of day and night .................................. 156
VII
6.3.2.2 Seasons ...................................................................................... 157
6.4 SYSTEM AND CYCLES ...................................................................................... 159
6.4.1 Components of the Earths Physical Environment .............................. 159
6.4.2 System and cycles of spheres ............................................................. 161
6.4.3 Continental Drift ............................................................................. 162
UNIT SUMMERY .................................................................................................... 166
REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................. 167
UNIT 7 ..................................................................................................................... 169
MOTION, FORCE, ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES ......................... 169
7.1 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF MOTION .............................................................. 170

7.1.1 Definition of motion................................................................................ 170
7.2 DEFINITION OF FORCE AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCE ...................................... 173
7.2.1 Definition of force .................................................................................. 174
7.2.2. Types of forces ....................................................................................... 174
7.2.3. Gravitational Force ................................................................................ 176
7.3. EFFECTS OF FORCE ......................................................................................... 177
7.4. MEASURING FORCE........................................................................................ 178
7.4.1. Newton's Laws of Motion ...................................................................... 179
7.4.1.1 Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia) .......................... 180
7.4.1.2 Newton's second law of motion (laws of acceleration) ............... 180
7.4.1.3 Mass and weight .......................................................................... 182
7.4.1.4. Newton‘s Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction).................. 183
7.5. DEFINITION OF ENERGY................................................................................. 183
7.5.1. Work ...................................................................................................... 184
7.5.2. Energy .................................................................................................... 185
7.6. FORMS AND CONVERSION OF ENERGY .......................................................... 186
7.6.1. Forms of Energy..................................................................................... 186
7.6.2 Conversion of Energy ............................................................................. 187
7.7. ENERGY SOURCES.......................................................................................... 189
7.8. WISE USE AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY ................................................. 191
VIII
7.8.1. Wise Use of Energy ............................................................................... 191
7.8.2. Conservation of Energy ......................................................................... 191
7.9. RESOURCE DEPLETION AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION .................... 192
7.9.1. Natural Resource .................................................................................... 193
7.9.2. Resource Depletion ................................................................................ 193
UNIT SUMMERY .................................................................................................... 195
REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................. 195
IX
UNIT 1
1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF SCIENCE

Learning Outcomes
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
 Define science as a body of knowledge and the processes and practices
used to add to that body of knowledge;
 Describe the main branches of science and explain their relationship;
 Relate how science and technology affect one ‘s beliefs, practices, and
ways of thinking;
 Appreciate the contributions of outstanding scientists to science and
Technology;
 Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision making and
Problem solving;
 Identify the significant contributions of Ethiopian Scientists in science and
technology;
 Identify different laboratory tools;
 Demonstrate safe ways of using apparatus in the laboratory;
 Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory;
 Exhibit knowledge of lab safety rules and procedures;
 Identify potential hazards and implement appropriate safety procedures
when working in the laboratory;
Introduction
In your earlier grade you have studied about environmental science in which
biology and social science are combined. In this unit you will learn about the
branches of natural sciences, chemistry, biology and physics as general
science.
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General Science Grade 7 Student Text Book
1.1. The Nature of Science and its Branches

After completing this section, you should be able to:
 Define science as a body of knowledge and the processes and practices
used to add to that body of knowledge;
 Describe the main branches of science and explain their relationship;
 Relate how science and technology affect one ‘s beliefs practices, and
ways of thinking;
 Appreciate the contributions of outstanding scientists to science and
technology;
 Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision making and
problem solving;
 Relate how science and technology affect one ‘s beliefs, practices, and
ways of thinking;
 Identify the significant contributions of Ethiopian Scientists in science and
technology.
1.1.1. Definition of science

Activity 1.1
What do you think about science?
The word science comes from Latin ‗scientia’, meaning "knowledge Science"
is a study of the physical and natural world. It provides an ordered way of
learning about the nature of things, based on observation and evidence.
Through Science, we explore our environment, gather knowledge and develop
ideas that help us interpret and explain what we see.
Indigenous Science incorporating local people‘s knowledge and Indigenous
perspectives. Some examples of Indigenous knowledge
Soapberry, Endod (Phytolaccadodecandra), is used as soap. koso zaf
(Hyginiaabissinica).is used to treat tape warm parasite in some rural
parts of Ethiopia.
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Ekule ken when the sun over the head to measure time.
To measure the length of the object we use Senzer (span), Kern (cubit)
and Eremeja (stride).
To measure the mass of grains/pulse we use Kuna.
To measure the volume of liquid like oil, gas we used Butule.
Conventional science (Western science) tries to understand the natural world
by studying individual parts.
Exercise 1.1
Write common indigenous knowledge that are used in your daily life and
present in class.
1.1.2. Branch of Science

Activity 1.2
Write about the branch of science by referring books in the library or

searching from Internet.
Science
Natural science Social Science
Chemistry Biology Physics
Figure 1.1: Branches of science
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Figure1.2: Relationship of natural science
1.1.3. Overlap between the disciplines
There is no clear boarder line between the different branches of natural

sciences. Some of the relationship/overlap/of natural science with other
science disciplines includes:
Activities 1.3
Which area of study overlap discipline you appreciate?
Chemical reaction that takes place in living things relates chemistry
with biology.
The effects of force in the formation of mountains relates physics with
geography
Light induced various effects on living organism relates biology with
physics
The stresses and strains in skeletal system relates biology with physics
The force between two masses is directly proportional and inversely
proportional the square of the distance between the two masses.
Physics and math.
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Exercise 1.2
Identify the relationship of the following scientific disciplines.
1) Bats use sound waves to navigate in the dark.
2) Body of living organisms made up of organic and inorganic compound.
3) Molecules move in and out of the cell by diffusion and osmosis.
4) The electricity of the nervous system.
5) How much pressure a certain element gets.
6) How wings give insects the ability to move.
1.1.4. Science and technology

Activity 1.4
Discuss the following concept in a group and present in a class
How do you appreciate the role and contribution of science and technology
in your understanding of the world?
Science encompasses the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the
physical and natural world through observation and experiment. Technology is
the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposesIt helps to make
our life easier, to enjoy our environment more.A person who studies
technology is called a technologist.
Activity 1.5
Investigate the role of Ethiopian scientist in science and technology.
Gebisa Ejeta (born 1950), Gebisa Ejeta is an Ethiopian American plant

breeder, geneticist and Professor at Purdue university. In
2009, he won the World Food Prize for his major
contribution in the production of sorghum.
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Sossina M. Haile (born 1966) Sossina M. Haile is an Ethiopian American

chemist, known for developing the first solid acid fuel cells.
She is a professor of materials science and engineering at
Northwestern University, Illinois, USA.
Kitaw Ejigu (born 1948), Kitaw Ejigu was Ethiopian American scientist and
politician who served NASA for about four decades as chief
of spacecraft and satellite system engineer. With his co-
workers, Kitaw invented spacecraft and rockets to support
planetary science research and exploration.
Isaac Newton English Physicist and Mathematician (1642–1727). Newton

was one of the most brilliant scientists in history. Before he
was 30, formulated the basic concepts and laws of
mechanics, discovered the law of Universal gravitation, and
invented the mathematical methods of the calculus.
Marie Curie (1867-1934) Co-discovered the chemical elements radium and

polonium made numerous pioneering contributions to the
study of radioactive elements carried out the first research
into treatment of tumors with radiation.
James Prescott Joule British Physicist (1818–1889) Jule was an English

physicist, mathematician and brewer, born in Salford,
Lancashire. Jule studied the nature of heat, and discovered
its relationship to mechanical work (energy). This led to the
law of conservation of energy, which in turn led to the
development of the first law of thermodynamics.
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1.1.5. Scientists and Ethical discipline

A Scientist is a professional who conducts and gathers research to further
knowledge in a particular area. Scientists have strong ethical obligations to
society and environment, and should act in the public‘s interests by
conducting responsible research and promoting discussions on science related
issues. Scientists study the physical world using systematic scientific methods
of observation, hypothesis, measurement and experimenting, and evaluation,
combined with the use of statistics, to confirm or reject hypotheses.
General science has potential ethical implications since it ―is closely involved
in society, providing the foundations for areas of applied science such as
nutrition, medicine, environment, energy and materials. As many areas of
natural sciences have a substantial effect on the environment and society, the
ethical decision-making covers a broad range of responsibilities, to avoid
scientific misconduct such as:
Cheating
Dishonesty
Non-disclosure of information, which can have harmful side effects
(e.g. Laboratory trials)
Misrepresentation of scientific experiments, funds or other resources
(e.g. For personal/career gain);
Misrepresentation of qualifications, experience, or research
accomplishments (e.g., to obtain research programs, external funding,
professional career advancement)
Ethics are moral principles that govern a person's behavior. The things
that are considered to be right and wrong.
Activity 1.6
Choose one of the scientist, write down his /her discovery, and play a role
as a scientist?
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Exercise 1.3
1. What is science?
2. Write down the branches of natural science?
3. List three disciplines related to natural science.
4. What are the advantage of science and technology?
1.2. Common laboratory equipment, uses, safety rules and

procedures in science Laboratories
After completing this section, you should be able to
 Identify different laboratory tools;
 Demonstrate safe ways of using apparatus in the laboratory;
 Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory;
 Exhibit knowledge of lab safety rules and procedures;
 Identify potential hazards and implement appropriate safety procedures
when conducting laboratory.
1.2.1. List and uses of common scientific equipment

Activity 1.7
Name some common apparatuses that are used in laboratory.
Table 1.1: Common scientific equipment (Apparatuses) and their use

Diagrams Names and function
Beam Balance is used to measure mass
Beaker is used as a container, like a cup.

May be heated.
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Measuring cylinder is used to measurement

volume of liquid
Tong is used to pick up or hold apparatus
Bunsen burner is used for are sources of

heat.
Test tube is used for holding small samples

or for containing
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Petri dish is used to culture cells producing

storage space and preventing them from
getting contaminated
1.2.2. Making laboratory equipment (tools) from locally available materials

Preparing teaching and learning materials from locally available resource is
cheap and can be prepared by teachers and students.
Example tripod, test tube rack, separatory funnel, beakers/different size/ etc.
The process of producing or preparing teaching and learning materials, the

following steps should be taken into consideration:
Careful study of the conventional apparatus,

How it works and how it is constructed,
Make necessary design of apparatus dimensional measurement,
Make a list and collect locally available materials for the
improvisation.
The following are some of the general guidelines and rules that you should
always observe when working in a laboratory.
Activity 1.8
Discuss rules and regulations that should be followed in the science
laboratory.
In a Science laboratory, the major safety hazards include electrical circuits,

dangerous chemicals, hot liquids and heat sources, broken glass, live animals
and sometimes-infectious agents (pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites).
Achieving safety in the laboratory, requires paying attention to potential
hazards and observing appropriate safety measures. Science laboratories can
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provide a safe environment when both students and teachers are aware of
potential hazards and follow appropriate safety procedures.
1.2.3 Some Basic Rules of Safety

1. Use common sense.
2. Avoid play in the laboratory.
3. Never eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory.
4. Always wear close-toed shoes when you work in the lab, open-toed shoes
or Sandals are not appropriate.
5. Be familiar with the properties of, and hazards associated with, all
chemicals used in the laboratory exercises.
6. Always report the damaged items, such as electric plugs and switches to
your teachers.
7. Always work in well-ventilated room and do not forget to open windows
and doors.
Activity 1.9
Discuss hazard symbols on chemical bottles, electrical gadgets and other
Materials found in the laboratory.
1.2.4 Hazard signs (symbols)

Hazard is a potential source of harm. Substance events or circumstances can
constitute hazards when their nature would allow them.
In general warning laboratory safety symbol consist of a black exclamation
Point.
Figure 1.3: Hazard symbols
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UNIT SUMMARY
• Science is a study of the physical and natural world.
• Indigenous knowledge seeks to understand the world in a more holistic
way by observing the connections between all of the parts.
• Chemistry, biology and physics are a branch of natural science.
• Technology help human beings work easier and live better.
• Technologist is a person that studies technology.
• Ethics are moral principles that govern a person's behavior.
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Review questions
Part I. Say true if the statements is corrects or false if the statements are
incorrect.
1. Bunsen burners are sources of heat.
2. Science one of the means of acquiring knowledge and skill.
3. Graduated cylinders are traditional measurement used to measure volume
of liquid.
4. Endod can be used as traditional detergents.
5. Physics is a branch of social science.
II. Match the word in the column A with column B with correct
explanation.
Column A Column B
1. Science A. The study of living things
2. Biology B. A person who studies technology
3. Chemistry C. Study of the physical and natural world
4. Physics D. Study about composition, structure,
property and Transformation of substance
5. Technologist E. studies the nature of matter, motion,
force, energy and their Interactions
III. Choose the best answer from the given alternative.
1. Which term referred to science?
A. Wisdom B. Ability C. knowledge D. Conventional
2. The combination of chemistry and physics.
A. Physical science C. Bio physics
B. Bio chemistry D. Geo-physics
3. An Ethiopian scientist who contributes in the eradication bilharzia.
A. Doctor Akililu Lemma C. Kitaw Ejigu
B. Professor Gabisa Ejeta D. Professor Sossina M .Haile
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4. Which one is not used to measure the length of an object?

A. Kirn B. Erimija C. Kuna D. Sinzer
5. Which of the following represents a safety hazard while working in the
science laboratory?
A. Knowing how to use equipment C. Working alone
B. Wearing safety goggles D. Following direction
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UNIT 2
2. MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDING

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Use particles theory of postulate to explain properties and behavior of
materials;
 Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle
separation, arrangement and types of motion;
 Classify matter as an element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or
heterogeneous mixture with regard to its physical properties;
 Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and changes of
matter;
 Appreciate that matter can be classified based on physical or chemical
properties;
 Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them;
 Demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this unit: observing, classifying;
comparing and contrasting, making mode, inferring, communicating, and
asking questions, designing experiment, drawing conclusions and applying
concepts.
Introduction
Everything in our surroundings is known as matter. They may be the food we
eat, the vehicles, the gadgets, the day-to-day materials that we use, the air that
we breathe or the water that we drink. All of these things occupy some space
and have mass and volume. For instance, in classroom the benches that the
students use to sit have mass and occupy some space of the classroom hence
they can be regarded as matter.
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2.1. Characteristics and nature of matter

After completing this section, you will be able to
 Define matter with examples from day to day life;
 Demonstrate that matter is made up of tiny particles;
 State the postulates of the particle theory of matter;
 Infer the particulate nature of matter from demonstration /investigation;
 particle nature of matter in explain diffusion and effect of diffusion;
 Describe and/or make a representation of the arrangement, relative
spacing, and relative motion of the three states of matter;
 Describe and explain compression in terms of distance between particles;
 Use the terms melting, condensation, and freezing/solidification to
describe changes of state;
 Use the particulate nature of matter to explain: melting, freezing
(solidification), evaporation, condensation.
Activity 2.1
Form a group and discuss the following questions with your group
1. What is matter?
2. Do you believe that everything on the earth is matter?
2.1.1 Meaning and Properties of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. The space occupied by
matter is volume and the quantity of matter in that volume is its mass. The
universe is made of matter. Everything in our environment, whether it is solid,
liquid and gas, natural or man-made is a form of matter, for example: pen,
pencil, toothbrush, water, milk, car, bus, bicycle, etc. are matter.
Non-matters have neither mass nor take up space. All types of energy,
including light, heat, and sound are example of non-matter. A form of matter
possessing constant physical properties under specific condition is called
substance. For example, water is a substance because it has constant
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like color, odor, taste etc.
Activity 2.2
Give some examples of matter and non-matter found in your surroundings.
2.1.2 Particulate Nature of Matter
Activity 2.3
Bring flexible plastic bottle with cap and balloon. Record your observation
and answer the following questions.
1. If the bottle has no liquid in it, is it completely empty?
2. Is there anything in the bottle?
Now put a balloon carefully on the top of the bottle, hold the bottle, and
squeeze it until you cannot squeeze it any more.
3. What happens to the balloon when you squeeze the bottle?
4. What do you think about the expansion of the balloon?
5. What makes the balloon expanded?
Characteristics of particles of matter
Everything in the universe is made up of matter. This includes solids, liquids
and gases. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. It is easy to
name many different kinds of matter. Just think of what you can see and
touch. You can see and touch a pen, paper, a book, or water. However, there is
also matter that you cannot see and that is not easy to touch. Air is matter; it
has mass and takes up space. You cannot see air or grab it, though you can
feel it as wind. Blow up a balloon with air, and you can see that the air takes
up space inside.
Four main characteristics of particles of matter:

They are very tiny in size; They move constantly;
They have space between They are attracted towards
them; each other
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2.1.3 Particle theory of matter (particle model of matter)

The particle theory of matter is also known as the kinetic theory of matter. It
states that all matter consists of tiny particle, which is in a continuous motion.
The particle theory helps us in understanding property and behavior of the
substance.
The postulates of particle theory of matter are

Matter consists of particles,
There are spaces between the particles,
The particles move continuously,
There are forces between the particles.f one substance differ
ACTIVITY 2.4
Perform the following tasks in your class and present your conclusion to
the class.
1. Take perfume or air freshener. Stand one corner of the classroom and
spray small amount of the perfume or the air freshener.
i. Explain your observation. What will happen in the class?
ii. Ask your classmates who sit opposite to you whether they smell
the perfume or not.
iii. Does the perfume spread throughout the class? What term we use
to explain this spreading of the perfume in the class?
2. Take a piece of chalk, powdered it, and spread the powdered chalk in
to the air.
i. Does the chalk spread through all of the class?
ii. Does the particles of the chalk are the same as the particles of the
perfume?
Illustration for the support of the statements of the particle theory
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of a substance from high concentration to area of
lower concentration. For example, as the above Activity 2.4 shows we smell
perfume because gaseous molecules of the perfume diffuse through the air
surrounding the bottle.
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2.1.4 Explaining observations using the particulate nature of Matter

Diffusion and every day effects of diffusion.
Diffusion is a great effect on our day-to-day life. It is occurred due to Particles
of gases spread through the air randomly and mixed one another. The smell of
the food due to spices that we use, the smell of fresh boiled coffee or tea and
the smell of perfumed incense (mesketi) when smoking is the effect of
diffusion. A bad smell also occurred due to diffusion, for example smell of
dirty toilet or the smell of dead animals.
Property of solids, liquids and gases.
The objects around us, called matter, exist in three physical states. These are
solid, liquid and gas. They have their own properties.
Properties of solids
They have a definite shape and a definite volume.
They have higher density than gases and liquid.
They are very difficult to compress (solids are incompressible)
They are not fluid.
Properties of liquids
Liquids have definite volume but indefinite shape (they take the shape
of the container).
Liquids have higher density than gas.
Liquids are very slightly compressible.
Liquids are fluids. They can flow.
Properties of gases
Gases do not have a definite shape and a definite volume.
Gases are highly compressible.
Gases have low density.
Gases exert pressure in all directions.
Gases diffuse spontaneously into each other making a homogeneous.
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2.1.5 Particles in Solid, Liquid and Gas

Solids particles are very attracted to each other. They are close together and
arranged orderly. They do not move freely but vibrate in a fixed position.
Liquid particles are attracted to each other but not as much as the particles of
solid.
The particles of a liquid are close together, always in moving and can slide
past one another.
Gas particles have very little attraction to each other. They are very far apart
compared to the particles of a solids or liquid, and are constantly moving. The
particles do not interact with one another but just hit and bounce with each
other when they collide.
Figure 2.1: Particles in solids, liquids and gases.
ACTIVITY 2.5
Form a group and discuss the differences in behavior among particles in
solids, liquids and gases (use the above Figure).
Exercise 2.1
Answer the following questions:
1. Define matter.
2. Write down four examples of each states of matter.
Solid, Liquid and Gases.
3. How do you know if something is made up of matter?
20
2.1.6 Compression
In a gas, the particles are widely separated so there is a lot of empty space into
which they may be compressed. As a result, gases are very compressible. The
particles in a liquid or a solid are tightly packed and there is very little empty
space between them. For this reason, increasing the pressure has no effect on
their compressibility; hence, liquids and solids are incompressibility.
The incompressibility of liquids is an important and useful property. Many
types of hydraulic machinery depend on it to transmit enormous forces that lift
and move heavy things.
Figure 2.2: Compression of gas particles
2.1.7 Change in state

What is change in state of matter?
Matter exists in three physical states or forms. These are solid state, liquid
state and gaseous states. By the different in temperature, substance can be
changed from one state to another state. Change of state is a physical change
in a matter. They are reversible changes and not involve any changes in the
chemical nature of matter. Common changes of physical state of matter are
melting, freezing (solidification), condensation and evaporation.
Melting is the process by which, the physical state of a substance changes
from its solid state to liquid state. For example: when ice melts, changed in to
liquid water.
H2O (s)  H2O (l)
21
Evaporation is the process by which, the physical state of a substance changes

from its liquid state to gas state.
H2O (l)  H2O (g)
Condensation is the process by which, the physical state of a substance

changes from its gas state to liquid state.
H2O (g)  H2O (l)

Freezing or solidification is the process by which, the physical state of a
substance changes from its liquid state to solid state.
H2O (l)  H2O (s)
Change of state can be summarized as follow.
2.1.8 Explaining change of state processes using a simple particle model of

matter.
Particle model of matter explain the arrangement and motion of particles of
matter in the three states (solid, liquid, gas). The diagram below illustrates the
particle model of matter in different states.
Figure 2.3: particles model of matter in change of state
22
Activity 2.6
use the above diagram and answer the following questions
1. What do you observe when heat or temperature is increased?
2. Explain the arrangement of particles of the three states of matter
when temperature increased.
3. Explain the molecular motion of particles in Solid, Liquid and Gas.
2.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

After completing this section, students will be able to:
 Describe physical properties;
 Use physical property of matter to identify substances;
 Conduct experiments to identify properties of substances and make group
report;
 Identify chemical properties;
 Distinguish between physical and chemical properties.
STARTUP ACTIVITY
Collect some materials from your environment and bring them to the
classroom.
Discuss in groups and present the points of your discussion to the class.
1. Identify and name the materials you collected.
2. What criteria do you use in identifying the materials?
Properties are the characteristics that give a substance its identity and
enable us to distinguish one kind of substance from another. No two
substances have exactly the same set of properties. To identify a
substance, chemists observe two distinct types of properties: physical and
chemical properties.
2.2.1 Physical Properties

Physical properties are the characteristics a substance shows without changing
into a new substance. These properties are perceived by our sense organs or
measured without changing the identity of the substance.
23
Some physical properties are color, melting point, boiling point, density,
physical state, and electrical conductivity. Some physical properties, such as
mass and volume, depend on the amount of matter being measured while
properties, such as melting, and color, do not depend on the amount of the
substance present.
These properties are perceived by our sense organs or measured without
changing the identity of the substance. Some physical properties are color,
melting point, boiling point, density, mass, physical state, and electrical
conductivity.
ACTIVITY 2.7
Discuss in groups and present your conclusion to the class.
1. Take a sheet of paper and describe it in terms of size, mass, color and
physical state. Are these properties physical or chemical?
2. If you light a match and bring it close to the paper, the paper will start
burning. Is the ability of paper to burn and change to ash a physical
property or a chemical property?
2.2.2 Identification of substances based on their physical properties
I. Physical Properties Detected by Sense Organs
The color, odor and taste are observable physical quantities.
Color: The color of a substance results from its interaction with light.
Substances can be identified by their colors. For example, chalk is white,
water is colorless, gold is yellow and so on.
Odor: refers to the property of a substance perceived by the sense of smell.
Terms
commonly used to describe the odor of a substance are pungent, fragrant,
spicy, fruity and odorless. For example, water is odorless, flowers are fragrant,
and orange smells fruity.
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Taste: refers to physical properties that can be perceived by the taste buds of
the tongue. The taste of a substance is usually described by terms like sweet,
bitter, sour, salty, and tasteless. For example, honey is sweet, lemon is sour
and table salt tastes salty.
II. Physical State

Physical state is the form in which a substance is found under a given
condition such as temperature and pressure. The three physical states of matter
are solid, liquid and gas. The same substance may exist in different states at
different conditions. For example, water exists as a solid below 0oC, as a
liquid between O0c and 100oC, and as a vapor or gas above 100oC
III. Measurable Physical Properties

Measurable physical properties are the properties of a substance that can be
measured using an appropriate apparatus. These physical properties have
constant values under specific conditions. Examples are melting point, boiling
point, density and electrical conductivity.
Melting Point: is the temperature at which a solid substance changes to its
liquid state. For example, ice is the solid form of water. Ice melts to liquid
(water) at 0°C. Therefore, the melting point of ice is 0°C.
Boiling Point: is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid
equals the surrounding atmospheric pressure. At sea level water boils at
100°C.
Density: is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. It is expressed
mathematically as:
Density or ρ
Note that to determine the density of a substance we should know its mass and
the volume it occupies.
25
The units of density are kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3), kilogram per litre
(kg/L), gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) or gram per milliliter (g/mL).
Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity is the ability of a substance to
conduct electricity. This is a physical property mostly characteristic of
metallic substances such as copper, aluminum, iron, silver and zinc.
Solubility: - solubility is the amount of solute dissolved in a certain amount of
solvent at a particular temperature. Substances can be soluble and insoluble in
water.
2.2.3 Observing physical properties

Every substance has a specific set of physical properties. These physical
properties are used to differentiate one substance from others. Two different
substances may have similar physical properties. However, all their physical
properties cannot be identical.
Experiment 2.1
Title: Determining the physical properties of a substance.
Objective: To determine the density and conductivity of substances.
Materials required Three fifty cent coins, nails, beam balance, water,
measuring cylinder, dry cell, light bulb, two pieces of connecting wires, wood
and plastic.
Part A. Determination of the Density of a Substance Procedure
1. Using a beam balance, measure the mass of the three fifty cent coins.
Record the mass.
2. Take a measuring cylinder which is large enough for the coin to enter in to
it and
a. Pour water into the measuring cylinder to the 50 mL mark.
b. Drop the three coins into the measuring cylinder turn by turn and see
the change in the volume of the water after dropping all the coins.
26
Observations and analysis:

i. What is the total mass of the three coins?
ii. What is the total volume of the three coins?
(Volume of coins = Volume reading after dropping the coins – 50 mL)
iii. What is the density of a single fifty-cent coin?
Part B: Conductivity of a Substance
Procedure:
1. Take a nail and connect it to the wire.
2. Attach the wires to the positive and negative terminals of the dry cell
as shown in Fig 2.4
3. Observe whether the bulb gives light or not.
Figure 2.4: conductivity of a substance

Observations and analysis:
1. Does the bulb give light? What does this indicate?
2. What will happen if the nail is replaced by wood or plastic in this
experiment?
3. Write a report about your observations and present it to the class?
Experiment 2.2
Title: identify unknown substance based on their physical properties
Objective: to investigate the physical state, color and solubility of substance
27
Materials: five unknown substance, water, five small beakers, spatula and
glass rod.
Your teacher will provide you five small beakers with five substances: use the
following procedure to identify the substances.
Procedure
1. Examine each of the five substances and record your observation regarding
their state and color.
2. Take the five small beaker and add 50mL water to each beaker then add a
spatula full of each of the substance to each beaker. Stir the mixture in each of
the five beakers with a glass rod and observe the result.
Observation
Substance State Color solubility

A
B
C
D
E
Activity 2.8
Discuss the activity in groups and present your findings to the class
Among the metals listed in the table identify the metal(s):
a. With brown color
b. With magnetic property
c. With the lowest density
d. With the highest density
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Write a report about your observation and present in to the class.
Metals Color Magnetic property Density

Copper Brown Not magnetic 9.0
Iron Silvery gray Magnetic 7.9
Aluminum Silvery white Not magnetic 2.7
Lead Gray Not magnetic 11.29
2.2.4 Chemical properties

Chemical properties are a characteristic of a particular substance that can be
observed in a chemical reaction. For example, flammability, toxicity, heat of
combustion, decay, and chemical stability are chemical properties.
Chemical property relates to a substance‘s ability to undergo changes that
transform it in to different substances while physical property is a
characteristic that can be observed without changing the identity of the
substance.
For example: When we tear a piece of paper in to smaller pieces, only its size
changed but its identity or nature is not changed. This type of change in
behavior is called physical property. However, when we burn that piece of
paper it changed in to ash and the identity of the paper is changed this means
new material is produced with new properties. This type of property is called
chemical property.
Exercise 2.2
I. Write true if the statement is correct or write false if it is wrong
1. Air does not occupy space and has no mass.
2. Two different substances can have the same set of properties.
3. Physical properties depend upon the matter itself.
4. All matter have fixed density independent of any condition.
5. Everything in the world that has mass and occupies space is matter
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II. Match the following physical properties in A with the changes found in
A B
1. Freezing/solidification A. gas → liquid
2. Condensation B. liquid → solid
3. Melting C. solid → liquid
III. Choose the correct answer for the following question.
1. Which property of a substance is not measurable?
A. density B. melting point C. Color D. boiling point
2. Which property describes the taste and color of water respectively?
A. bitter and colorless C. tasteless and colorless
B. sour and white D. sweet and colorless
IV. Give short answer for the following question.
1. What is the difference between ice, liquid water and steam?
2. Do you think plastic and rubber conduct electricity?
3. Identify the difference between physical property and chemical property
4. Assume there are three students Kemal, Aster and Ubah. They are
determining the boiling point of the water standing at three different
altitudes below sea level, at sea level, and above sea level (mountain)
respectively. Give the following information, the data of boiling point of
water obtained by Aster at sea level is 1000C, predict the data regarding
the boiling point of water obtained by Kemal standing below sea level
and of Ubah standing above sea level on mountain.
Name of student Location of attitude Boiling point of water

Aster At sea level 100 0C
Kemal Below sea level Prediction
less than 100 0C -------------
Greater than 1000C ----------
Ubah Above sea level Prediction
Less than 100 0C ------------
Greater than 100 0C----------
30
2.3 Classifications of substances (In terms of composition and

observable properties)
After completing this section, you will be able to
 use particle theory to describe the difference between pure substances and
mixture;
 differentiate between elements and compounds;
 classify common elements into metals and non-metals;
 investigate the properties of metals and compile a list of general
properties;
 investigate the properties of non-metals and compile a list of general
properties;
 describe and classify mixtures into homogenous and heterogeneous;
 use model /particles diagram to show differences between homogenous
and heterogeneous;
 describe the relationship among elements, compounds and mixture.
Why do chemists need to classify substance?
2.3.1 Pure substance and mixture

Activity 2.9
Perform the following task in groups and present your findings to the
class.
Name at least 10 kinds of substances that you see or know. For example,
you might list pencil, ink, tap water, window glass, milk, chalk, etc.
Classify the materials you listed as pure substances or mixtures.
A pure substance is a form of matter that has constant composition and

uniform properties throughout the sample.
Examples of Common pure substances: - water, iron, gold, copper, oxygen,
sugar, carbon dioxide, table salt etc.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances, which have not bond
together; each part in the mixture retains its own properties. The ratio of
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substances that make up a mixture is not fixed. We cannot write a formula for
a mixture.
Examples of Common mixtures:
Soil – a mixture of different sized particles and plant material
Cooking oil – a mixture of vegetable oils.
Ink—contains a mixture of dyes, dissolved in alcohol and water.
Milk— contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, water, minerals.
Air— contain oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide
Exercise 2.3
1. List some example of pure substances.
2. Explain why we classify bottled ink, milk and air as mixtures.
3. Use particle model diagram and describe the difference between pure
substance and mixture.
2.3.2 Elements and compounds

Startup activity
List things that you know as element and compound.
Elements and compounds are pure substance because they have constant
composition and uniform properties throughout the sample.
Element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down (decomposed) into

simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. An element is composed of
only one kind of matter (atoms). Elements cannot be broken down in to
simpler substances. At present more than 109 elements are known. Among
these elements, 92 of them occur naturally.
Compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements that are
combined chemically in definite proportion by mass. It is not a mixture of
elements. The properties of a compound are completely different from the
properties of the elements that make up the compound. Water (H2O) is a
32
compound made from two Hydrogen and one Oxygen but it is completely
different from Hydrogen and Oxygen. It can be broken down in to simpler
substances.
Classification of Elements
Element can be classified as metals and nonmetals.
Metals: -
Most elements are metals. Metals have general properties
The general properties of metals include thermal and electrical conductivity,

physical state, hardness, malleability, ductility, luster, sonorous, high melting
and boiling points. Metals generally have the following properties
1. Thermal and Electrical Conductivity: Conductivity is the property that
enables a metal to carry heat or electricity. Thermal conductivity is the
property of a metal‘s ability to conduct heat. Metals are good conductors
of heat and electricity. Silver and copper are the two best conductors of
heat and electricity.
2. Physical State: Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception
of mercury, which is a liquid.
3. Hardness: Hardness refers to the ability of a metal to resist abrasion
(scratch), penetration, cutting action, or permanent distortion. All metals
are hard except sodium and potassium, which are soft and can be cut with
a knife.
4. Malleability: Metals have the ability to be made into thin sheets known as
foils. A metal that can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes
without cracking or breaking is said to be malleable. This property is
necessary in sheet metal that is to be worked into curved shapes. Copper is
one example of a malleable metal.
5. Ductility: Ductility is the property of a metal that permits it to be
permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into various shapes without breaking.
33
Therefore, metals can be drawn into wires. For example, 100 g of silver
can be drawn into a thin wire about 200 m long.
6. Luster: Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surfaces and
can be polished. Most metal have characteristic luster or shiny appearance.
For example, gold, silver and copper.
7. Sonorous: Sonorous is a physical property of a metal by which sound is
produced when a metal is struck. For example, aluminum produces a high
pitch sound when struck. Many metals are used to make musical
instruments in order to exploit their sonorous properties.
8. Melting and Boiling points: Metals have high melting and boiling point.
Tungsten has the highest melting point. Sodium and potassium have low
melting points. The physical properties of different metals make them useful
for different purposes. For example, aluminum conducts heat, which makes it
a useful material for making cooking utensils and gold is shiny, which makes
it an attractive material for jeweler.
Example iron, gold, aluminum, zinc, copper, magnesium etc.

Non Metals
The number of non-metals as compared to metals in the periodic table are few.
Only eighteen elements of the periodic table are classified as non-metals. Non
-metals contribute a great deal to the growth of a country‘s development.
Nonmetals are used in the manufacture of fertilizers, medicines, fabrics,
plastics, building materials and other significant chemical substances. The
main components of food items are also made of non-metals.
Unlike metals, non-metals exist in three physical state such solid, liquid and
gas. Carbon, Iodine, Sulphur, phosphorous and Selenium are solid
Bromine is the only liquid non-metals Hydrogen, Oxygen Fluorine, Chlorine,
Nitrogen and inert gas are gaseous elements
34
General properties of non-metals

Non-metals generally have the following properties:
1. Non-malleable and non-ductile: Non-metals are generally brittle and
hence cannot be beaten into sheets or drawn into wires. In other words,
non-metals are nonmalleable and non-ductile. When stress is applied to
non-metals, they shatter in to pieces.
2. Poor conductors of heat and electricity: Non-metals are generally
poor conductors of heat and non-conductors of electricity. Carbon
(graphite) is an exception. It is a good conductor of electricity.
3. Physical state: Non-metals exist in solid, liquid or gaseous state at
room temperature. For example, carbon, sulphur, iodine and
phosphorus are solids at room temperature; bromine is a liquid and
hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, nitrogen are gaseous non-metals.
4. Non-lustrous: Non-metals are generally non-lustrous and dull. Iodine
and graphite are the only lustrous non-metals.
5. Tensile strength: Non-metals have low tensile strength. Tensile
strength is the ability to be stretched or the amount of weight it can
hold without breaking. Therefore, non-metals are not strong and get
easily broken.
6. Density: Non-metals possess low densities. They are light as compared
to metals.
7. Texture: Non-metals are generally soft. However, carbon (diamond) is
an exception. Diamond is very hard. In fact, diamond is the hardest
natural substance known.
8. Melting and boiling points: All non-metals (except carbon in the form
of graphite) possess low melting and boiling points. Carbon (graphite)
is a non-metal but possesses high melting point.
35
Activity 2.10
Do the following activities in groups and present your findings to the class.
Given the following elements: iron, oxygen, copper, gold, Sulphur, carbon,
hydrogen, silver, chlorine, phosphorus, nitrogen, iodine, zinc, aluminum,
lead, sodium, fluorine and calcium.
1 Classify the elements as metals and non-metals. What criteria did you use
to differentiate metals from non-metals in your classification?
2 Classify the non-metals as solids and gases at room temperature.
Compounds are pure substances formed by the chemical combination of two
or more elements that are united chemically in fixed proportions by mass.
Example: Carbon and oxygen combine form carbon monoxide
C + O  CO
Sodium chloride is formed by the combination of sodium and chlorine

elements.
Na + Cl → NaCl
Activity 2.11
Identify elements that are used to form the following compounds?
1. sodium chloride
2. calcium oxide
3. carbon dioxide
Compound can be decomposed in to two or more elements by chemical

means. Examples
H2O → H2 + O2
36
2.1: Differences between elements and compounds
Elements Compounds
Composed of one type of atom Two or more elements
chemically combined in a fixed
ratio
Cannot be broke down into simpler Can be broke down into simpler
substances under normal conditions. substances by chemical means.
Simplest type of matter that retains Property different from those of
characteristics property. their constituent elements.
Experiment 2.3
Title: Distinguish between compound and mixture
Objective: To investigate the difference between a compound and a mixture.
Materials required: iron filling, powdered Sulphur, test tube, Bunsen burner,
tong magnet and beam balance.
Part I
Procedure
1. Mix 10 g of iron filings with 6 g of powdered sulphur. Examine the
mixture using a magnifying glass
2. Place half of this mixture on a sheet of paper. Bring one end of a magnet
close to the mixture.
3. Observe the components of the mixture with a magnifying glass
Questions
1. What did you observe as you bring the magnet close to the mixture?
2. What did `you observe under the magnifying glass?
Part II
Procedure
1. Place the remaining half of the mixture in a test tube. Heat the test tube
strongly for a few minutes
37
2. Put off the flame and remove the test tube. After the reaction stops, break
the test tube by plunging the hot end into a beaker of cold water.
3. Take the product formed and powder it. Examine the product under a
magnifying glass. Bring a magnet over it.
Question
1. Under a magnifying glass, are the iron filling and Sulphur seen separately?
2. Is it possible to attract the iron or Sulphur by a magnet? Why?
Observations and Analysis
i. Which part of the experiment (part I or II) indicates a compound? Give
your reason.
ii. Which part of the experiment (part I or II) indicate a mixture?
Activity 2.12
Discuss the following phenomenon in groups and present your opinion to the
class.
1. When a teaspoon full of sugar is added to a cup of warm water, white
molecular crystals are seen at the bottom of the cup. Can you see the
components of the mixture separately?
2. Now the mixture is stirred until the sugar disappear. What is the
difference between these two mixtures? (Before and after stirring).
2.3.3 Mixture
Substances that are mixed in any ratio are called mixtures. Mixtures are not
pure substance because they have variable composition and no unique set of
properties. They can be separated by physical means. Mixtures are classified
i. Homogenous mixture
Homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is uniform
throughout the mixture. The components of homogeneous mixture cannot be
detected either by our naked eye or with a help of microscope. It contains
only one phase.
38
Examples: Sugar solution, Salt solution, gasoline, tea, window glass, brass is
some of examples of homogeneous mixture.
ii. Heterogeneous mixture
Activity 2.13
Discuss the following activity in groups and present your opinion to the
class.
1. Define homogeneous mixture and heterogeneous mixture?
2. Identify, which of the following is homogeneous mixture or a
heterogeneous mixture? Give your reason for each case.
a. Vegetable soup g. Cooking oil and water
b. Orange juice h. Chalk and stone
c. Salt solution i. Milk
d. Tea j. Blood
e. Injera k. Sugar solution
f. Doro wott
Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that does not have a uniform composition

throughout the mixture. The component of heterogeneous mixture can be
identified by our naked eyes or with the help of microscope or magnifying
glass. They contain more than one phase
Examples: mixture of sand and iron fillings, blood, granite rock, milk,
vegetable soup, sea water, blood, beer, soft drinks, etc
39
Table 2.2: Differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

It has uniform composition throughout It does not have a uniform
composition throughout
It has no visible boundaries of It has visible boundaries of
separation between the component separation between the components
Its component cannot be seen by our Its components can be identified by
naked eyes or by microscope our naked eyes.
It consists of only one phase It contains more than one phase
Activity 2.14
Do the following activity in groups and present your result to the class.
Create a concept map. Make substance or matter at the center with six
branches that shows the relationship among elements, compounds, mixtures,
homogenous mixture and heterogeneous mixture.
Exercise 2.4
1. Identify each of the following as element, compound or mixture
a. Salt d. Gold
b. Milk e. Ink
c. Sugar f. Pure Water
2. Describe whether each of the following mixtures are Homogeneous or
Heterogeneous?
a. Blood a. Milk
b. Air b. Soil
c. Tea with sugar c. Oil and water
d. Mixture of salt and sugar mixture
e. Sea water
3. Classify common element into metals and non-metals
a. Iron a. Carbon
b. Sulphur b. Copper
c. Silver c. Gold
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2.4 Changes around us: Physical and chemical changes

After completing this section, students will able to:
 Describe physical and chemical change;
 Distinguish the physical and chemical changes using their characteristics;
 Conduct some simple activities to show physicals and chemicals change
and write group report;
 Observe and describe physical and chemical changes that are important in
everyday life;
 Identify useful and harmful change.
2.4.1 Physical and chemical changes

There are two types of changes around our environment. They are chemical
change and physical change.
Physical change is a change in substance in which the original substance
remains unchanged. The change can easily reverse. It only changes the
appearance of a substance, not its chemical composition.
Example: Melting of ice, Evaporation of water, dissolving sugar in water,
formation of clouds in air etc.
Characteristics of physical changes
there is a change in physical changes
no new substance is formed
the change is reversible
no change of mass
necessarily energy is not involved
no change in composition occurs
Chemical change is a change of substance into a new one with new
properties. The change is generally difficult to reverse or get the original one.
41
Example: digestion of food, food poisoning, fermentation of sugar, fading of

dye in a cloth, souring of milk, rotten egg, growth of plant and animals, and
burning of wood etc.
Characteristic of chemical change are
Formation of new substances
Change of mass
Difficult to reverse
Change of energy
Change of composition of substance is involved
A change in the masses of the substances is involved
Activity 2.15
Classify the following in to chemical change and physical change, and give
reason to your answer
a. Burning of charcoal
b. Fermentation
c. Spoilage of food
d. Rusting of nail
e. Melts of ice
f. Evaporation of water
g. Dissolving sugar in water
h. Boiling of egg
i. Plant growth
j. Digestion of food
2.4.2 Importance of physical and chemical changes in our life
Chemical changes and physical changes are important in our life. Their
importance used for industrial production of materials:
For example: color dying in textile industries, cloth fashion design, in soft
drink industries, in brewery industries, production of building materials, drug
industries for production of medical drugs and equipment, in agricultural
material production, plant growth, food processed industries, etc. and also
42
used in our home to prepare food, making solution, washing with detergent
and soap, metallurgy for production of alloys and metals etc.
2.4.3 Physical and Chemical changes that are important in everyday life
Chemical change is very important in our day to day activities, for example
photosynthesis, respiration, digestion of food, burning of petrol, burning of
charcoal, fermentation, washing of close with soap and detergent, washing of
hair with shampoo, roasting of coffee etc.
Activity 2.16
Form a group and discuss the following questions together with your group,
after that report your work and present to the class.
1. Distinguish the following as physical change or chemical change and
give reason to your answer
a. compression of a spring
b. freezing of ice cream
c. evaporation of alcohol
d. Rusting of iron
e. burning of wood
f. change in mass
g. difficult to reverse
h. change in identity
Important physical changes in our daily life are dissolving salt or sugar,
cutting tomato, chopping onion, boiling water, freezing water, melting of
butter, squeezing wet cloth, drying of wet clothes by sun, grinding of cereals,
mixing of flour and water, etc.
2.4.4 Useful and Harmful Changes

Changes around us can be harmful or useful. Harmful changes are changes
that affect our health, our life or our environments. Example of harmful
chemical change are color fading, food spoilage, expansion, rusting, building
degradation by acid rain, souring of milk,etc. example of harmful physical
change are soil erosion, oil spills, car crush ,etc. useful change are changes
43
that are important in our life or in our environment. Useful chemical changes
are cooking food, digestion, washing with soap, fermentation in brewery
industries, soap production in industries, etc. example of physical changes are
boiling, freezing, solution preparation, etc.
Exercise 2.5
Write the general characteristics of chemical and physical changes
1. What is the difference between physical change and chemical change?
2. Describe whether each of the following changes are physical change or
chemical change
a. Tearing paper into small pieces
b. Rusting of Iron nail
c. burning magnesium ribbon
d. Burning candle
e. Burning of wood or charcoal
f. Grinding salt or sugar
g. Boiling of egg
h. Hammering of metals
44
2.5 Separation of Mixture and its Application

After completing this section, you will be able to:
 List methods of separation of mixtures;
 Give some specific examples of mixture that can be separated by filtration,
decantation, simple distillation, magnetic separation and using separatory
funnel;
 Name apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple distillation, using
separatory funnel;
 Assemble apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple distillation,
separatory funnel;
 Conduct and report on an investigation that uses physical means such as
particle size, density boiling point, solubility and magnetism to separation;
 Perform simple activities in group to carry out the separation of mixtures
using local materials and write a group report;
 Compare and evaluate the different ways of separating mixture from
products in community.
2.5.1 Methods of separation of mixtures
Activity 2.17
You are already familiar with some methods of separation from your daily
life experience. Discuss the following ideas in-group and present your
opinion to the class.
1. Mention some of the methods you recall.
2. What method is used to separate fine flour and coarse particles?
3. What is the difference between filtering and decanting?
4. Can you suggest a method employed to separate sorghum and sand?
Most of the substances around us exist in the form of mixtures. However,

these mixtures can be separated into pure substances using various separation
45
techniques. The methods used to separate mixture are mainly physical process.
This is because the substances in a mixture are physically combined.
Some of the methods used to separate mixtures are filtration, evaporation,
magnetic separation, decantation and simple distillation.
Note that: - The methods for the separation of mixtures into their components
depend on the differences in the density, melting point, boiling point,
solubility, magnetic property etc. of the components.
I. magnetic separation
This method is used to separate magnetic materials from nonmagnetic

materials of heterogeneous mixture.
For example, the mixture of iron filing and Sulphur or mixture of Iron filing
and sand can be separated by using magnet. The iron filings (magnetic
component) are attracted by the magnet, while the sand and Sulphur do not
attract.
Figure 2.5: Magnetic separation of substances

II. Filtration
Filtration is a method used to separate the components of a mixture containing

an insoluble solid and a liquid. When the mixture of solid and liquid is poured
into a filtering material the liquid passes through it and the solid is retained.
This method is done by using filter paper (filtering material). A filter paper
46
has a lot of fine holes that allow only the liquid to pass through, but not the
solid particles. The liquid that is collected after filtration is called filtrate and
the solid left on the filter paper is called residue.
Filtration can be used to separate mixtures like soil and water, sand and salt
solution, powdered chalk and water, etc.
In practical application, filtration is a key step in the purification of water in
rural area of Ethiopia using towel or a piece of clothes as filtering material to
separate water from the impure or muddy water.
Figure 2.6: Filtration

III. Evaporation
Evaporation is a method used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid in a

solution. For example, A mixture of sodium chloride (or any other soluble
salt) and water forms a solution which can be separated by evaporation – if the
solution is left in an open dish on a windowsill the water will evaporate the
salt will be left behind. Evaporation is quicker if the solution is placed in a
broad dish, such as an evaporating basin, which exposes a large surface area of
the solution to the air. This process of escaping of water in the form of vapor
is called evaporation.
47
Figure 2.7: Evaporation of solution
IV. Decantation
This method of separation is used when one component of a mixture is a

liquid and the other one is an insoluble solid denser than the liquid component.
For example, a mixture of sand and water can be separated using decantation.
During the decantation process, first the mixture is allowed to stand in a
beaker for some time. The insoluble solid settles down to the bottom of the
beaker. This is called sedimentation. The liquid above the solid can be poured
carefully into another beaker such a method of separation is called
decantation.
Figure 2.8: Decantation of solid from solid – liquid mixture

The decantation process is also used to separate two immiscible liquids like oil
and water. Immiscible liquids do not mix and thus they form two layers. A
48
mixture of oil and water can be separated using a separatory funnel. When the
mixture is poured into a separatory funnel, the oil and water separate into two
distinct layers since water is denser than oil, it is collected at the bottom of the
funnel.
Figure 2.9: Separating a mixture of oil and water

V. Simple distillation
Distillation is a method of separating the components of a liquid mixture or a

soluble solid from a liquid in a solution. It consists of both evaporation
(boiling) and condensation processes. In the distillation process, the separation
of a mixture is based on the difference in the boiling points of the components.
During distillation, when the mixture is heated in the distillation flask, the
liquid with low boiling point is vaporized first. This vapor is passed through a
cooling tube, called a condenser, where it is condensed into a liquid. The
liquid is then collected in a receiver. This clear liquid is known as a distillate.
49
Figure 2.10: Simple distillation
2.5.2 Application of separation techniques

Separation technics can be applied to separate different types of mixtures
such as solid-solid mixture, solid-liquid mixture and liquid-liquid mixture.
The most important separation techniques for a given mixture depend on:
- The type of mixture, and
- Which substance in a mixture we are more interested in.
We will discuss the application of methods that are used to separate
- A mixture of iron filings and Sulphur powder
- A mixture of cooking oil and water
- A mixture of chalk particles in water
- A mixture of alcohol and water
- Salt solution
1. Separation of a mixture of iron filings and Sulphur powder
Iron is magnetic substance but Sulphur is non-magnetic. To separate their
mixture using we use a magnet.
Experiment 2.4
Title: Separation of a mixture using a magnet.
Objective: To separate a mixture of iron filings and sulfur using a magnet
50
Materials Required Magnet, iron filings, powdered Sulphur, beaker, sheet of

paper, spatula.
Procedure:
1. Take two spatulas of each of iron filings and powdered Sulphur, and mix
them thoroughly, in a beaker
2. Place some of this mixture on a sheet of paper
3. Bring a magnet close to the mixture
Observations and Analysis:
i. Which component of the mixture is attached to the magnet?
j. ii. What can you conclude from the experiment?
2. A mixture of cooking oil and water
A mixture of oil and water is a mixture of two immiscible liquids. This
mixture can be separated using a separatory funnel. When the mixture is
poured into a separatory funnel, the oil and water separate into two distinct
layers. Water is denser than oil, it is collected at the bottom of the funnel.
Experiment 2.5
Title: Decantation
Objective: To separate oil from water.
Materials Required separatory funnel, stand, oil, water and beaker.
Procedure:
1. Mix about 150 mL of oil and 150 mL of tap water in a beaker.
2. Pour the mixture in to a separatory funnel.
3. Open the stopcock until all the water poured in to the beaker.
1. What did you observe in the separatory funnel?
2. Which liquid is denser?
3. A mixture of chalk particles in water
Chalk is insoluble solid in water. Filtration is used to separate this mixture.
When the mixture of chalk and liquid is poured into a filter paper the water
passes through it and the chalk is retained.
51
Experiment 2.6
Title: Filtration.
Objective: To separate a mixture of chalk and water by filtration.
Materials Required: Beakers, filter paper, funnel, flask, powdered chalk.
Procedure:
1. Put powdered chalk in a beaker containing water, and stir to dissolve it.
2. Fold the filter paper correctly and fitted in to the funnel.
3. Pour the mixture into the funnel fitted with a filter paper and collect the
filtrate in the flask.
4. Observe the result.
1. Does the powdered chalk dissolve in water?
2. Which substance is collected in the flask?
3. Which substance remains on the filter paper?
4. A mixture of alcohol and water
Alcohol and water are a mixture of two miscible liquids. Due to the difference
of boiling point. Simple distillation is used to separate alcohol and water
solution. The boiling point of water is 100oC and the boiling point of alcohol
is 78oC.
Experiment 2.7
Title: Simple distillation.
Objective: To separate alcohol from water.
Materials Required: distillation flask, condenser, Wire gauze, Bunsen burner,
conical flask, beaker.
Procedure:
1. Dissolve 100 mL of alcohol in 150 mL of pure water.
2. Set up the distillation apparatus.
3. Add 250 mL of the solution into the distillation flask.
4. Put a thermometer in the flask.
52
5. Heat the distillation flask, arrange the heat with boiling point of alcohol
and observe the results.
1. What is collected in the receiver (conical flask) and what remains in the
distillation flask at the temperature less than 100 ºC?
2. Why is the condenser connected two tap water in a simple distillation set
up?
5. Salt solution
To separate salt solution, we use two methods, if we need to separate only the
salt, evaporation can be used. However, to get both salt and water separately
the distillation process is applied.
Experiment 2.8
Title: Evaporation
Objective: To separate salt from a salt solution.
Materials Required Burner, evaporating dish, wire gauze, salt, beaker, watch
glass, beam balance, measuring cylinder.
Procedure:
1. Dissolve about 10 g of common salt in 30 mL of tap water in a beaker.
2. Pour the salt solution in an evaporating dish
3. Boil the solution until all the liquid evaporates and observe the results.
1. What did you observe in the evaporating dish?
2. What would happen to the level of the liquid if the evaporating dish is
covered with a watch glass? Is evaporation possible?
Separation of mixtures may require combination of two or more techniques.

For example, a mixture of common salt and sand can be separated by using the
process of dissolving, filtration and evaporation. The first stage of separation
is adding water to the mixture. The salt dissolves in water and forms a
solution, but not the sand. Then by using filtration, the sand can be separated
53
from the salt solution. Finally, evaporation of the filtrate will cause the water
to escape leaving the salt behind.
Activity 2.18
Discuss the following tasks in groups and present your conclusion to the
class.
The following mixtures can be separated using a combination of separation
techniques.
List down all the possible separation techniques and give your reasons in
each case.
1. Mixture of oil, water and sand.
2. Mixture of common salt and clay
2.5.3 Separating of mixtures using local materials
Locally in our environment, mixtures can be separated using indigenous
knowledge. For example, filtration of boiled coffee from its fine particles by
sedimentation which means leave the coffee for a few minutes to settle down
the fine particle after that decanting the coffee which means pour the coffee
from the kittle (Jebena) to the coffee cup.
Activity 2.19
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your conclusion to the
class.
By using any local materials that are found around you, try to separate table
salt from a mixture of table salt, Sulphur powder and iron filings
Hint:
Both powdered Sulphur and iron filing are insoluble in water whereas table
salt is soluble in water.
Write a group report: In your report indicate the separation techniques and
the materials used during the separation processes.
54
Activity 2.20
Ask your parents/guardians /grandparents/elders in the neighborhood on the
separation techniques used in their daily live. After that make/prepare a
table of such activities of daily life in which sedimentation, decantation,
filtration and evaporation are used/occurs.
Present your findings to the class in the form of an oral presentation, a
poster display, or multi-media presentation.
Exercise 2.6
What separation techniques can be used to separate the following mixtures?
A liquid and insoluble solid
B soluble solid and insoluble solid
C Two miscible liquids
D Two immiscible liquids
1. How would you convert a sample of dirty water into pure water?
55
UNIT SUMMARY
• Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
• Matter is made of particles too small to be seen that move freely
around in space.
• Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
• Physical change is a change in substance in which the original
substance remains unchanged.
• Chemical change is a change of substances into a new substance with a
new property.
• Substances can be classified as pure substances and mixtures.
• Element and compound are pure substances, and have constant
composition and uniform properties.
• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
form by chemical means.
• Compound is substance composed of two or more elements chemically
combined in a fixed proportion.
• Element are classified into metal and non-metal.
• A mixture is a substance, which consist of two or more pure substances
that are mixed together.
• Mixtures are classified into homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture.
• Mixtures can be separated into their components using different
methods such as magnetization, filtration, decantation, evaporation and
simple distillation.
• Homogeneous mixture is a mixture of two or more substances their
boundary cannot be detected either by our naked eye or with a help of
microscope.
56
• Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that does not have a uniform

composition known as heterogeneous mixture.
Review exercise on unit two

Part I Write true if the statement is correct or false if the statement is wrong
1. The density of liquid water is greater than ice.
2. Particles in liquids are less ordered than in solids.
3. If a substance changed from liquid state to the solid state its molecule,
become near to each other.
4. Heterogeneous mixtures are uniform throughout.
5. Ductile and malleability are the property of non-metal.
6. Solids are incompressible and highly ordered
7. Compound, element and mixture are pure substances.
Part II Match items given in column „B‟ with items given in column „A‟
Column A Column B
1. Melting of butter A. Anything that has mass and volume
2. Burning of paper B. Magnetic separation
3. Separation of homey from its comb C. physical changes
4. Matter D. Filtration
5. Homemade coffee involves E. Sedimentation and decantation
6. Steel from non-magnetic substances F. chemical changes
Part III multiple choice
14. The ability of metal to be converted into sheets is
A. Ductile B. Malleability C. Lustrous D. Solid
15. Which have a definite shape and a definite volume?
A. Liquid B. Solid C. Gas D. All the above
16. Two immiscible liquids can be separated by:
A. Decantation C. Separatory funnel
B. Distillation D. Filtration
57
17. A sample of matter has mass and takes up space. The main reason for this
because:
A. All matter is heavy B. Matter can be a gas
C. The earth is made of matter
D. Matter is made up of tiny particles that have mass and take up space
18. Water drops stay together on wax paper and they do not break apart easily.
This is mainly because:
A. Water molecules are small B. Water molecules are in motion
C. Water molecule are attracted to each other D. Water molecule are wet.
19. The apparatus used to separate two immiscible liquids is:
A. Condenser B. Filter funnel C. Filter paper D. Separatory funnel
20. The two stages that take place during distillation are
A. Evaporation followed by condensation. B. Filtration followed by
evaporation
C. Condensation followed by evaporation
D. Filtration followed by condensation
Part IV:
21. Complete the following table to describe three states of matter. The table
has been partially completed to help you.
Solid Liquid Gas
Shape not fixed ,takes the shape
of the container
Volume Fixed volume

Spaces between
particles
Movement of Can move freely and
particle quickly in all direction in
the container
58
UNIT 3
2. ELEMENTS, COMPOUND AND CHEMICAL

REACTION
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, you will able to:
 Compare elements to compounds and how they are represented by symbol
and formulae;
 Identify and write symbols of common elements or compounds;
 Name compounds give their formula and write formula given the name of
the compound;
 Use symbols and chemical formulae as a way of communicating
information about elements and compounds;
 State and apply the law of mass conservation to writing balanced
equations.
 Interpret chemical formulae of compounds in terms of the elements present
and the ratios of their atoms.
3.1 Elements and their representation

How do you define element and how can you represent elements in a simpler
and international way with specific symbol?
Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler form by any
chemical means.
3.1.1 Common elements

In chemistry, pure substances are whether element or compound, have their
own unique name, symbol and formula. The symbols and formulas of
elements and compounds are internationally recognized.
Elements are represented by symbols while compounds are represented by
chemical formulas.
59
3.1.2 Chemical symbol

Chemical symbol is a short hand representation of the chemical name of an
element. Examples: Nitrogen, N, Aluminum, Al, etc. No two elements can
have the same symbol.
Activity 3.1
Write the chemical symbol for the following elements using periodic table.
a. Phosphorus f. Iron
b. Lithium g. Oxygen
c. Magnesium h. Helium
d. Chlorine i. Calcium
e. Sulphur j. Fluorine
3.1.3 Writing symbol

A chemical symbol is usually the first letter of the English or Latin name of
the element. For example, H stands for hydrogen, O stands for oxygen and K
represents potassium. In the case of potassium, the symbol is derived from the
Latin name, kalium. Table 3.1 illustrate that name and symbol of some
common elements derived from English names.
Table 3.1: English name and symbol of elements
Name of element Symbol of element
Hydrogen H
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Sulfur S
60
Table 3.2: The symbols and Latin names of some elements

Name of element Latin Name Symbol of element
Iron Ferrum Fe
Lead Plumbum Pb
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Gold Aurum Au
Rules to write chemical symbols of elements:

- The name of the element represented by one letter is always capitalized.
Example:
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Boron (B), Nitrogen (N) etc.
- If the name of the element represented by two letters, the first letter is
capital letter and the second letter is small letter.
Example:
Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), Chlorine (Cl) etc.
- Chemical symbol of some elements does not correspond to the name of the
element‘s first letter.
Example:
Iron (Fe), Sodium (Na), lead (Pb)
Activity 3.2
Refer about the reason ―why the letter symbols of some elements do not
correspond to the element's name‖ at the library or other sources and
present your work to the class.
The names of some elements such as carbon, calcium, chlorine and copper
begin with the same letter ―C‖. Therefore, we cannot use the letter ―C‖ as a
symbol for all these elements. Hence, two letters are used for all these
elements except one. The first letter ―C‖ is assigned as a symbol for carbon.
61
The other elements are represented by two letter symbols. Thus, the symbols
for these elements will be Ca for calcium, Cl for chlorine and Cu for copper
(Latin name: Cuprum)
Activity 3.3
1. Write the symbol of the following elements
a. Lead b. Calcium c. Argon d. Sodium e. Iron
2. Use periodic table and write the name of the following symbols
a. Cu b. Zn c. Au d. Ag e. Br f. I
3.2 Compounds and their representation

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Define compound as a substance formed when two or more elements
chemically combined together;
 Define valence number as the combining power of an atom;
 Write the formula of simple binary compound using symbols and valences;
 Name binary compounds;
 Describe polyatomic ion;
 Write the chemical formula of common compounds that contain
polyatomic ions;
 Name compounds containing polyatomic ions;
 Identify the elements and number of the atoms, give a chemical formula.
What will formed when one element combines with another element?
3.2.1 Compound
Compound is a substance, which consists of two or more elements chemically
combined together. The chemical formula of a compound represents this
combination.
62
3.2.2 Meaning of formula

Chemical formula is a short hand representation of the chemical symbol of a
compound. The formula of an element consists of one kind of symbol whereas
the formula of a compound contains the symbols of two or more different
elements.
Example
Water (H2O) is compound of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). It contains two
hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom.
3.2.3 Valence number

Valence number is the combining power of an element. Atoms of different
elements have different combining power, which we call valence number.
Table 3.3: Elements and their valence number
Valence No 1 Valence No 2 Valence No 3
Elemen Name symbo name Symbo name symbo
t l l l
Metal Lithium Li Calcium Ca Aluminum Al
Sodium Na Magnesiu Mg Iron (III) Fe
Potassiu K m Cu
m Cu Copper (II) Pb
Copper Ag Lead (II) Fe
Silver Iron (II)
Non- Hydrogen H Oxygen O Nitrogen N
metal Chlorine Cl Sulphur S Phosphorou P
Bromine Br s
Activity 3.4
1. What is valence number?
2. What is the principle behind using valence number to write a formula?
3. Write the combining power (valence number) of the following elements
a. Ca b. Na c. Br e. Al f. N g. Fe
63
3.2.4 Formula of binary compounds

Binary compounds are compounds, which contain only two types of atoms.
Formula of binary compounds with the same valency can be write using the
symbol of the metal first and then symbol of the nonmetal next.
Table 3.4: Formula of compounds with the same valence number
Metals nonmetals Valence Name of compound Formula of

number formed compound
K I 1 Potassium iodide KI
Cu O 2 Copper (II) oxide CuO
How to write the formula of compound that have different valence number
of elements?
The formulas of binary compounds in which the constituent elements have
different valence numbers are written in a way that balances the combining
powers of the elements. For example, let us see how to write the formula of
calcium chloride. Since Ca has a combining power of 2 and Cl has a
combining power of 1, we need two chlorine atoms to go with one calcium
atom. Hence, the formula is CaCl2.
Method of writing formulas of binary compounds with different valence
number is shown in the following steps:
Step 1: Write down the symbol for the element in the compound.
Let us consider some examples:
Aluminum Oxide Al O
Step 2: Write the valence numbers above the symbols.
Al3 O2
Step 3: Now Crisscross the valence numbers and put the numbers below the
Symbols
Al3 O2 Al2O3
Thus, the formula of aluminum oxide is Al2O3
64
3.2.5 Naming Binary Compounds

The two constituent elements of binary compounds are usually metals and
nonmetals. For example, NaBr, CaO and AlCl3. There are also binary
compounds, which consist of non-metallic elements only. For example, H2O,
CO2 and NH3.
Rules in naming binary compounds
1. The name of a binary compound is the combination of the names of the
two constituent elements.
2. For binary compounds that consist of metals and non-metals, the metal is
named first followed by the non-metal.
3. The suffix -ide replaces the last letters of the name of the non-metal.
Example: Table 3.5 indicates the name of some binary compounds.
Table 3.5: The names of nonmetals in binary compounds with example
Name of Name in binary Example of Name of the binary
non-metals compounds binary compound
compound
Fluorine Fluoride NaF Sodium fluoride
Chlorine Chloride MgCl2 Magnesium chloride
Bromine Bromide LiBr Lithium bromide
Iodine Iodide KI Potassium iodide
Oxygen Oxide CaO Calcium oxide
Nitrogen Nitride Mg3N2 Magnesium nitride
Sulphur Sulphide CaS Calcium sulphide
Hydrogen Hydride NaH Sodium hydride
4. If the metal has variable valence numbers, the valence number of the
metal used in the formula should be placed in parenthesis using capital
Roman numerals after the name of the metal.
Example: - Cu2O – Copper (I) oxide
- CuO - Copper (II) oxide
- FeO – Iron (II) oxide
- Fe2O3 – Iron (III) oxide
65
5. If the binary compound consists of non-metallic elements only, we name

the first element in the formula followed by the name of the second element
with the suffix -ide.
Example: HCl - Hydrogen chloride
HBr – Hydrogen bromide
NH4Cl – Ammonium chloride
KOH –Potassium hydroxide
3.2.6 Polyatomic ions

A polyatomic ion is a group of atoms that exists in several compounds but
does not exist on its own. Polyatomic ions are sometimes called radicals.
For example: Nitrate, NO3- is a polyatomic ion that consists of nitrogen and
oxygen atoms. Its valence number is 1. Nitrate exists in compounds like
sodium nitrate (NaNO3) but not by itself.
Table 3.6 shows some examples of polyatomic ions with their symbol and
valence number
Table 3.6: valence number of some polyatomic ions
Name Symbol Valence number
-
Hydroxide OH 1
-
Nitrate NO3 1
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3- 1
Ammonium NH4+ 1
-
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4 1
2-
Carbonate CO3 2
2-
Sulphate SO4 2
3-
Phosphate PO4 3
66
Activity 3.5
Write the chemical formula for the following compounds:
a. Iron (III) sulphate
b. Calcium carbonate
c. Magnesium phosphate
3.2.7 Writing chemical formulas
If we know the symbols and valence numbers of the elements and the
polyatomic ions, we can write formulas of compounds. To write formulas of
compounds that contain polyatomic ions, follow the same steps you used for
writing formulas of binary compounds. Refer to Table 3.6 for the valence
numbers of polyatomic ions.
For Example, to write the formula of aluminum sulphate follow the
following steps:
Step 1: Write down the symbol for the element and the poly atomic ion
Aluminum sulphate Al SO4
Step 2: Write the valence numbers above the symbols.
Al3+ SO42-
Step 3: Now Crisscross the valence numbers and put the numbers below the
Symbols
Al3+ SO42-
Thus, the formula of aluminum Sulphate is Al2(SO4)3
Activity 3.6
1. Write chemical formula of the following compound
a. Ammonium phosphate
b. Calcium carbonate
c. Sodium sulphate
d. Lithium hydroxide
67
3.2.8 Naming simple chemical compounds

Naming chemical compound that contains polyatomic ions, the name of the
metal or ammonium ions is written first, followed by the name of the
polyatomic ions.
Example:
a. CaCO3 - The metal is Ca (calcium) and the polyatomic ion is CO32-
(carbonate). Therefore, the name of compound is calcium carbonate.
b. Mg(OH)2 – The metal is Mg (magnesium) and the polyatomic ion is
OH- (hydroxide). Therefore, the name of compound is magnesium
hydroxide.
c. (NH4)2SO4 - The positive ion is (ammonium ion) and the negative is
(sulphate ion). Therefore, the name of compound is ammonium
sulphate.
Activity 3.7
Name the following compounds
a. Al(OH)3 d. Fe(NO3)3
b. BaSO4 e. CuSO4
c. Mg3(PO4)2 f. Cu2SO4
3.2.9 Interpreting formula
Symbols and formulas describe both qualitative and quantitative aspects of the
substances.
Qualitatively a symbol represents the identity (kind) of the element. For
example, the symbol O represents an atom of oxygen. No other element can be
represented by the symbol O.
Quantitatively a symbol represents the number of atoms of the elements. The
numbers written in front of the symbol of elements or formula of compounds,
and also the numbers as subscript are express quantitatively.
A number written in front of a symbol or a formula is called a coefficient. It
shows the number of atoms or molecules or formula units of the substances.
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Example:
1. Cl2; the subscript 2 shows quantitatively there are two atoms of Cl in
chlorine molecules and qualitatively there is Cl atom in chlorine molecule.
2. 3H2O; the coefficient 3 shows that quantitatively there are 3 molecules of
water and qualitatively there are H and O atoms in water molecules.
3. H2O; quantitatively the coefficient 1 shows there is one molecule of water,
2 atoms of hydrogen and1 atom of oxygen in a water molecule.
Qualitatively there are H and O atoms in water molecule.
A number written in front of a symbol or a formula is called a coefficient. It
shows the number of atoms or molecules or formula units of the substances.
The coefficient multiplies the whole atoms of the elements in the formula, not
only the first element. For example, 2HNO3 represents two molecules of nitric
acid which contains (2x1) = 2 atoms of hydrogen, (2x1) = 2 atoms of nitrogen
and (2x3) = 6 atoms of oxygen.
Subscripts are used in writing formulas. A subscript is a number written at the
bottom right-hand side of a symbol. In the formula of an element, the subscript
qualitatively shows the element is in a molecular form. For example, Cl 2 is a
chlorine molecule, P4 is a phosphorus molecule and S8 is a Sulphur molecule.
Quantitatively a subscript in a formula stands for the number of atoms in the
formula.
Note that: if the formula contains polyatomic ions, quantitatively we can
express the formula using the polyatomic ions as a group. For example: CaO,
there is one atom of calcium and one atom of oxygen; in Ca(NO3)2, there is
one atom of calcium and two nitrate groups.
Example:
1. quantitative expression of formula
a. 5H2O; it contains for 5 molecules of water which contains 10 atoms of
hydrogen and 5 atoms of oxygen.
b. 2Cu; it contains 2 atoms of copper.
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c. 2H; it contains 2 atoms of hydrogen.

d. H2; it contains 1molecule of hydrogen contains 2 atoms of hydrogen.
(Note that: 2H differs from H2)
e. (Na)2SO4; it contains 2 sodium atoms and 1 sulphate group.
2. Qualitative expression of formula
a. 5H2O; it shows there are H and O atoms in water molecules.
b. 2Cu; it shows there is Cu atom.
c. 2H; it shows there is H atom.
d. H2; it shows there is H atom in hydrogen molecules.
e. (Na)2SO4; it shows there is sodium atoms and sulphate ion.
Exercise 3.1
Describe the following compounds qualitatively and quantitatively
a. 5H2SO4 e. 5N2
b. 3O2 f. 4S8
c. SO2
d. CaO
Activity 3.8
Form a group and refer other chemistry books/ science books or from
internet about the formula of some common compounds such as baking
soda, Vinegar (acetic acid), lime and interpret them in terms of the elements
present and the ratios of their atoms. Present your result to the class.
3.3 Simple chemical reaction and equation

 Define chemical reaction and give examples;
 Describe evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred;
 State the law of conservation of mass;
 Conduct an experiment in group to show simple chemical reaction;
 Write a chemical equation;
 Balance simple chemical equation by inspection;
 Create and use models of particles to demonstrate balanced equations.
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What do you observe when a piece of paper is burned? What product do you
get? Is it the same as the original one?
You are already familiar with chemical changes in Unit 2. In chemical
changes, the composition and properties of the substances change and we
conclude that a chemical reaction has taken place. You will encounter many
types of chemical reactions in chemistry.
3.3.1 Simple chemical reaction

A chemical reaction is a process in which a substance is changed into one or
more new substances.
The substances that take part in a chemical reaction or the starting materials in
a chemical reaction are called reactants. The substances formed or produced
as a result of a chemical reaction are called products. In chemical reaction,
reactants are transformed into products as shown below.
Reactant Product
Reactants are always written on the left-hand side of the arrow. We put a plus
sign (+) in between if, there are two or more reactants. The ―+‖ sign means
―combines with‖ or ―reacts with‖. The arrow is directed from reactant(s) to
product (s) to mean ―produces‖ or ―gives‖ or ―yields‖. The product is written
on the right-hand side by putting ―+‖ sign if there are two or more products.
Example
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
when carbon burns in air (oxygen) it produces carbon dioxide.
Reactants Product
Activity 3.9
Explain some examples of chemical reaction those are common in our daily
life?
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3.3.2 Evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred

When chemical reaction is occurred, new material is formed as a product.
Evidences that show chemical reaction occurred is change in color, change of
odor, gas production and change of composition (paper turning to ash when
burned) and heat given off or light (burning of candle). For example; when we
eat bread or ‗injera‘ or any food, after some hour we discharge faeces. The
food we eat initially produces as faeces. This indicates that new material with
new properties is formed during digestion.
Activity 3.10
Describe evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred in the
following chemical process:
a. Rusting of iron
b. Fermentation
c. Souring of milk
d. Growth
e. Burning of paper
3.3.3 The law of conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass states that in all chemical reactions the total
mass of the reactants is equal to that of the products. Mass is conserved during
a chemical reaction. The law of conservation of mass is also known as the law
of conservation of atoms. This means atoms cannot be created nor destroyed
in a chemical reaction.
The law of conservation of mass can be verified by weighting the reacting
substances and the products formed after the reaction is completed.
For example: consider the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form
water
2H2 + O2  2H2O
4 (1g) + 2(16g) = 2(18g)  mass is conserved
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4H atom and 2 O atom = 4H and 2 O atom  atom is

conserved
Mass of reactants (H and O) and mass of the product (H2O) are equal, and
also, the number of atoms in the reactant side and the product side are equal.
Exercise 3.2
Consider the following reactions: -
a. C + O2  CO2
b. 2Mg + O2  2MgO
c. N2 + 3H2  2NH3
Is conservation of mass occurred in the above reaction? Explain your reason
depending on the following questions.
- Are new atoms formed or lost during chemical reaction?
- Is the number of atoms in the reactant equal to the number of atoms
in the product?
- Is the mass of reactants equal to the mass of the product?
3.3.4 Investigating chemical reaction

Form a group and perform experiment 3.1with your group members to
investigate simple chemical reaction. Submit your lab report to your teacher
and present your work to the class.
Experiment 3.1
Title: simple chemical reaction
Objective: investigate simple chemical reaction by burning magnesium in air.
Material and Chemical: Bunsen burner, tong, crucible and magnesium
ribbon.
Procedure:
- Hold a magnesium ribbon with a tong and heat it on the Bunsen burner.
- collect the product on the crucible.
- Record your observation
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Fig 3.1: Burning of Magnesium ribbon

Observations and Analysis
1. What is the importance of heat for the reaction?
2. What are the reactants?
3. What product is obtained?
4. Compare and contrast the properties of the reactants with the product.
3.3.5 Writing and balancing simple chemical equation

Can you write any chemical reactions using symbols and formulas? How can
you explain conservation of atoms and mass during chemical reactions?
The most concise way to describe a chemical reaction is to write the symbols
and formulas for each substance involved in the form of a chemical equation.
A chemical equation summarizes a great deal of information about the
substances involved in the chemical reaction. It is not only a qualitative
statement describing what substances are involved, but also a quantitative
statement, describing how much of each reactant or product is involved.
3.3.6 Writing Chemical Equation

The representation of a chemical reaction with symbols and formulas of the
substances is known as a chemical equation. To write the chemical equation
for a reaction the word equation is written first then the correct symbol or
formula for each reactant and product are written next.
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For example: The reaction between Hydrogen and oxygen produce water. We
can write this chemical reaction as follow: -
Hydrogen + Oxygen  Water
2H2 + O2  2H2O
Hydrogen and oxygen are starting materials called reactant and water is the
final material produced called product.
Activity 3.11
Write the chemical equation for the burning of carbon in oxygen. Explain
what each part of the equation represents.
3.3.7 Balancing Simple Chemical Equation

A balanced chemical equation means an equation in which the total number of
atoms on the left hand side is equal to the total number of atoms on the right
hand side. This follows the law of conservation of mass. Chemical equations
are balanced by putting the correct coefficients before the symbols or formulas
of the substances involved in the reaction.
In chemical equations, there are numbers as subscript and as coefficient.
Subscripts are part of the chemical formulas of the reactant and products.
Coefficients are numbers placed in front of symbols and formulas to indicate
how many molecules of that substance is used or produced.
Note that: Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations not subscript.
The simplest method used to balance simple chemical equations is Inspection
Method.
Inspection method is a trial and error method. The following rules are to be
followed to balance chemical equation by inspection method.
1. Write the word equation for the reaction.
2. Change the word equation to chemical equation i.e., write the correct
symbol or formula for each reactant and product.
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3. Check those atoms of elements that are not equal on both sides of the
equation and balance them by writing appropriate numbers in front of the
symbols and formulas.
Example 1:
Balance the equation for the reaction between magnesium and oxygen to form
magnesium oxide.
Step 1: magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide (word equation)
Step 2: Mg + O2 → MgO (chemical equation)
Step 3: 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO (balanced chemical equation)
Check:
- The number 2 in front of the MgO is for both oxygen and
magnesium.
- 2 Mg in the reactant and 2 Mg in the product.
- 2 O in the reactant and 2 O in the product.
- The equation is already balanced because the number of atoms in the
Reactant and the product side are equal.
Example 2:
Balance the equation for the burning of hydrogen with oxygen to form water.
Step 1: Hydrogen + oxygen →water (word equation)
Step 2: H2 + O2 → H2O (chemical equation)
Step 3: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (balanced chemical equation)
Check:
- 2x2 = 4 H in the reactant and 2x2 = 4 H in the product.
- 2 O in the reactant and 2 O in the product.
- The number of atoms in both sides of the equation is balanced (atoms
are conserved).
Such types of balancing equation are called inspection or trial and error
method.
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3.3.8 Demonstrating balancing equation by using model

Example: Balance the equation for the burning of carbon in oxygen and
Word Equation: Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide
Chemical Equation: C + O2 → CO2
+ 
1 carbon atom 1 molecule of oxygen 1 molecule of carbon dioxide

This means that one atom of carbon reacts with one molecule of oxygen to
form one molecule of carbon dioxide. This chemical equation obeys the law of
conservation of mass or atoms since it is balanced.
3 atoms 3 atoms
Notice that: Check the number of atoms in each side of the equation after
Activity 3.12
Balance the following equations by inspection method
1. C + O2 → CO
2. C + O2 → CO2
3. Al + O2 → Al2O3
4. P + O2 → P2O5
5. Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
6. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
7. H2O2 → H2O + O2
8. Al + H3PO4 → AlPO4 + H2
9. HNO3 + H2S → NO + S + H2
10. S + O2 → SO2
balancing. During balancing of equation, only coefficient is changed.
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Activity 3.13
Form a group and form a model that demonstrates balanced chemical
equations.
Using locally available materials. You can use paper clip with different size
or colors and other materials.
3.4 Uses of chemical reaction in every day situation

 Describe the uses of chemical reactions in everyday situations.
Activity 3.14
Form a group, give some examples of useful chemical reactions, and discuss
about their uses in your daily life in your group.
3.4.1 Uses of chemical reaction

Chemistry happens in the world around you, not just in a lab. Matter interacts
to form new products through a process called chemical reaction or chemical
change. Every time you cook or clean, it is chemistry in action. Your body
lives and grows thanks to chemical reactions. There are reactions when you
take medications, light a match, and draw a breath. These examples of
chemical reactions from everyday life are a small sampling of the hundreds of
thousands of reactions you experience as you go about your day.
Examples of useful chemical reactions in everyday life is given below:
1. Burning/combustion:
Every time you strike a match, burn a candle, burning wood, or light a grill,
you see the chemical reaction. During burning match, wood, propane in as
grill, or candle combine with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
2. Soap and detergent reactions:
Soap and detergents clean by chemical reactions. Soap emulsifies grime,
which means oily stains bind to the soap so they can be lifted away with
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water. Detergents act as surfactants, lowering the surface tension of water so it

can interact with oils, isolate them, and rinse them away.
3. Cooking:
Cooking uses heat to cause chemical changes in food. For example, when you
hard-boil an egg, the hydrogen sulfide produced by heating the egg white can
react with iron from the egg yolk to form a grayish-green ring around the yolk.
4. Photosynthesis:
Plants apply a chemical reaction called photosynthesis to convert carbon
dioxide and water in to food (glucose) and oxygen. It‘s one of most common
every day chemical reactions and also one of the most important because this
is how plants produce food for themselves and animals and convert carbon
dioxide in to oxygen.
5. Respiration:
Respiration is the opposite process of photosynthesis in that energy molecules
(glucose) are combined with the oxygen we inhale to release or produce the
energy needed by our cells plus carbon dioxide and water.
6. Acid - base reactions:
When acid react with base produces salt plus water. This chemical reaction is
neutralization reaction. Examples of useful chemical reaction in our daily life
are the following
- Toothpaste contains bases that neutralize the acid produced by bacteria in
our mouth.
- Baking powder is usually used to help the cakes rise.
- Conditioner is used with shampoo to prevent small scales on hair that
make you hair unmanageable.
Key Terms
Binary Compound Coefficient
Chemical Equation Valence Number
Reactants Interpreting Formula
Chemical Formula Word Equation
Subscript Inspection Method
Chemical Reaction Law of conservation of mass
Symbol Polyatomic Ion
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UNIT SUMMARY
• A chemical symbol is a short hand notation for the chemical name of
an element.
• The first letter of a symbol is always capitalized, but the next is small.
• A chemical formula is the symbol representation of a substance giving
the ratio of different kind of atom in it.
• The formula of an element consists of one kind of symbol.
• Formula of compound consists of two or more kinds of symbols.
• The combining power of an element or polyatomic ion is called
valence number.
• Polyatomic ion is a group of atoms that exists in several compounds
but does not exist on its own.
• Binary compounds contain atoms of two different elements only.
• A number in front of a symbol or a formula is called a coefficient.
• A subscript is written on the bottom right hand side of a symbol.
• A chemical reaction is a process by which a substance is changed into
one or more new substances.
• The substances that take part in a chemical reaction are called
reactants.
• The law of conservation of mass state that in all chemical reaction the
total mass of the reactant is equal to that of the products.
Review exercise on unit 3

Part I: Write true for the correct statements and false for the wrong
statements.
1. H2 and 2H have the same meaning.
2. Every element has its own symbol.
3. Symbol always represented by one letter.
4. The valence of all elements is constant
5. The symbol for an element gold is Au
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6. The number written in front of the symbols is coefficient.
PART II. Mach the following items from column B to column A

A B
1. Common salt a. H2O
2. Magnesium oxide b. NaCl
3. Water c. CuSO4
4. Lead oxide d. MgO
5. Copper sulphate e. PbO
Part III. Chose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. A short hand representation of the chemical name of an element is
A. Symbol B. Subscript C. Formula D. Coefficient
2. One of the following does not represent symbol of an element
A. He B. Na C. Fe D. HF
3. The formula for magnesium nitride is
A. Mg2N3 B. Mg3N2 C. MgN D. Mg3N
4. The chemical name of CaSO4 is
A. Calcium Sulphate C. Calcium sulfide
B. Calcium sulfite D. Calcium bi sulfate
5. One of the following represent a compound
A.Ca B. CO C. Co D. C
6. One of the following symbols is not match with its name.
A. Au – gold B. Fe –iron C. Na – sodium D. CO –copper
7. The combining power of an element is called
A. Electron B. Valency C. Coefficient D. Symbol
8. The qualitative meaning of symbol
A. Tells us the kind of elements involved
B. Represent the name of the element.
C. The number of atoms
D. A and B
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9. A short hand representation of a chemical reaction through symbol and

formula is
A. Balancing B. Formula C. Chemical Equation D. Symbol
10. The new substance produced during chemical reaction is called
A.Reactants C. Products C. Arrow D. Balancing
PART IV. Give suitable answer for the following questions
1. write the chemical symbol for each of the following elements
A. Lithium B. Potassium C. Silver
D. Aluminum E. Boron D. Lead
2. What is the chemical formula of the following compounds?
A. Carbon dioxide
B. Carbon monoxide
C. Sodium fluoride
D. Iron (II) oxide
E. Iron (III)oxide
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UNIT 4
4. CELL AS THE BASIS OF LIFE

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will be able to:
 Define a microscope;
 Explain the use of a microscope;
 Distinguish the different types of microscopes;
 Describe the basic parts and functions of a microscope;
 Use a microscope to view objects;
 Define a cell;
 Explain how cell was discovered and who discovered it;
 Draw a cell and label its major parts;
 Describe the functions of the major structural parts of a cell;
 Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms;
 Give examples of cell shape;
 Explain why cell shape and structure vary;
 Discuss the differences of cell, tissue, organ, and organ system;
 Define respiration and write its chemical equation;
 Define photosynthesis and write its chemical equation.
Introduction
All living things would it be unicellular or multicellular are made up of cells,
most of these cells cannot be seen with naked eyes. Scientists need to be able
to see cells to understand living organisms. Therefore, biologists use
different tools to help them study living organisms. One of the most
important tools is the microscope. In this section, you will learn about
microscopes and in the next section, you will be learning about the cells.
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4.1. Microscope
After Completing this section, you will be able to:
 Identify the major parts and functions of a basic microscope;
 Use a microscope to view objects;
 Discuss the role of a microscope;
 Differentiate between simple and light microscope;
 Draw diagram of a microscope and label the major parts;
 Build microscope from locally available materials.
Activity 4.1
1. Do you think all organisms around you can be seen with naked eyes?
2. What you could use to see the organisms that you cannot see with your
naked eyes?
There are numerous forms of life around us, which are invisible to the naked
eyes except with the help of magnifying lenses or microscopes. Everything
we know about the structure of cells has depended on the development of the
microscope. A microscope is an instrument that is used to observe objects
too small to be seen clearly with the naked eyes. It uses lenses or a system of
lenses to produce a magnified image of an object under study. Organisms
that can be seen only by the use of a microscope are called microorganisms.
The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called
microscopy.
Experiment: What does 'microscopic' mean?

Materials required:
 hand lens or magnifying glass
 Flowers from different plants (from a rose)
 Leaves from different plants
 Body parts of small insects (like a housefly, ants, and grasshoppers)
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Procedures
 Collect flowers and leaves from different plants and bring samples of
insects to the laboratory.
 Pick your hand lens and the objects you are going to observe.
 Sit in an area with good lighting or sunlight.
 Observe the flower from a rose plant (try to observe the anther and the
stigma) with your naked eyes and note what you observe.
 Hold the rose plant flower on the opposite side of the hand magnifier
from your eyes.
 Move the object or the hand lens until you can see clearly through the
lens and draw what you see.
Do the same for the other samples you have brought to the class or
laboratory, and note the difference between what you have observed with
your naked eyes and with the hand lens. Also, observe the skin at the back of
your hand, and note the difference between your observation with the hand
lens and with your naked eye.
Questions:
1. What do we mean by the term 'naked eye'?
2. Describe some of the differences when you viewed the objects using just
your eyes and when you used a hand lens.
4.1.1. Purpose and invention of Microscope

Activity 4.2
1. What is the role of the microscope in the studies of living things?
2. Discuss the contributions of different lens makers to the discovery of
the microscope.
The study of cells and other microorganisms began with the discovery of the
invention of the microscope. Different glassmakers contribute, to the
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discovery of the microscope. In1590 eye glassmakers, Zacharias Janssen

experimented with multiple lenses placed in a tube. He viewed objects in
front of the tube that appeared greatly enlarged, creating both the precursor
of the compound microscope and the telescope. In 1665 Robert Hooke, an
English man, make a compound light microscope version. In 1673 Anton van
Leeuwenhoek built a simple microscope with only one lens and observed
unicellular organisms including bacteria and protozoan in pond water.
Microscopes are useful because they magnify things, making them look
bigger than their actual size. Light microscopes magnify an object up to
around 2000 times. Therefor knowing how to use a microscope is essential
because most cells are too small to be seen and to study details. Generally,
microscope is used in learning to view a fantastic world of discovery.
Medical uses from analysis to advanced research in many and varied
disciplines, used as inspection and measurement tools in different industries.
Government and scientific uses for public safety and discovery.
4.1.2 Types of Microscope

There are two types of microscope (Figure.4.1). These are simple microscope
and light microscope. A simple microscope uses only one curved lens
system. The light microscope uses two lens systems at the same time. The
two lens systems are eyepiece lenses and objective lenses. Therefore, the
total magnification power of a light microscope is equal to the product of the
magnification power of the eyepiece lens and the particular objective used.
A. Light microscopes B. Simple microscopes
Figure 4.1: The different types of microscopes
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4.1.3 Basic parts of a light microscope

Activity 4.3
1. Calculate the total magnification of a light microscope using low

power, medium power, high power objectives and eyepiece lens with
magnification power of 10x.
2. Draw and label the basic parts of a light microscope and their
function?
Light microscope consists of different parts (Figure 4.2). The first column
represent parts and the second column represent functions (Table 4.1).
Figure 4.2: Basic parts of a light microscope

Table 4.1: parts and functions of the microscope.
Parts Functions
Arm Supports the body tube and is used to grip to carry the
microscope.
Base Gives firm and steady support to the microscope
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Ocular(eyepiece) A lenses system of the microscope with a

lens magnification power of 4x, 10x.
Objective Lens It is closed to the object placed on the stage has several
alternative lenses that are switched one at a time. Low
power (10 x), middle power (40x), high power (100 x)
gives the largest magnification. The oil immersion lens
(400 x), giving even larger magnification.
Nose piece The revolving part to which the objective lenses are
attached.
Body tube This may be monocular or binocular, where the
eyepiece and objective lenses are supported, at a
known distance and angle. The lower end of the tube
possesses a revolving nosepiece on which the objective
lenses are screwed.
Stage This is a broad flat surface with a circular opening at
its center that serves as a passage for light from the
condenser to the objectives. The stage is also used to
support the glass slide that holds the object.
Knobs These are used to move the stage up and down to bring
the specimen into focus.
Coarse Moves the body tube or stage up and down, depending
adjustment on the design of the microscope, to approximate the
right position so that the specimen is in focus.
Fine adjustment This is used to move the stage or body tube up and
down to exactly the right position so that the specimen
is in focus. It uses to get fine focus with the low power
objective and for all the high power and oil immersion
objectives
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Iris diaphragm This is controlled by a lever that can be moved back

and forth. It is used to regulate how much light and
lamp heat goes through the specimen.
Condenser This is a lens located above the diaphragm, which
concentrates the light before it passes through the
specimen.
Mirror Collects light and directs it to the condenser
Stage clip This is located on the stage and hold the glass slide in
position( place)
Project work.
In-group build or construct a light microscope from locally available
materials and submit to your teacher.
Exercise 4.1
Choose the correct answer for each of the following questions
1. One of the following is not the function of a microscope.
A. Magnifying the image of the sample.
B. Minimizing the size of the sample.
C. Enabling one to observe something difficult to see with the naked eye.
D. Resolve parts of the sample.
2. Which of the following is a simple microscope?
A. Compound binocular microscope.
B. Compound monocular microscope.
C. Hand lens.
D. A microscope with eyepiece and objectives.
3. Why are a hand lens and a compound microscope known as light
Microscopes?
A. Because they produce light.
B. Because they use light as a source of energy.
C. Because they are not heavy in their weight.
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D. None of the above.

4. A simple microscope consists of ?
A. Three lenses B. Two lenses C. One lens D. Four lens
5. Which of the following is the function of the Iris diaphragm in the light
microscope?
A. Regulating light entering the specimen.
B. Holding the glass slide in position.
C. To bring the specimen into focus.
D. Revolving the objective lenses.
4.2. Cell
After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Explain how cell was discovered;
 Draw and label the basic structures and functions of a cell;
 Explain why cell shape and structure vary;
 Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms;
 Differentiate among cell, tissue, organ and organ system with examples;
 Examine and weigh the importance of cellular respiration;
 Examine and weigh the importance of photosynthesis.
Bricks in a building and cells in the living organisms are basic structural
units. The buildings, though built of similar bricks, have different designs,
shapes, and sizes. Similarly, in the living world, organisms differ from one
another but all are made up of cells. Cells in the living organisms are
complex living structures, unlike non-living bricks. Most cells are
microscopic. As you have learned in section one, the discovery of cells was
closely associated with the invention of the microscope. In addition, the
study of structures, biochemical processes, and functions becomes possible
with a microscope. The study of the cell is called cytology. Therefore, it is
expected to apply your skill of using the microscope that you have learned in
section one to learn cell and its structure.
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4.2.1. The discovery and definition of a cell.

Activity 4.4
1. What is a cell?
2. How the cell was discovered?
Even if biology is one of the oldest in the history of science, recognition of
cells came very late. Robert Hooke in 1665 observed slices of cork under a
simple magnifying device.
He took thin slices of cork and observed them under a microscope. He
noticed partitioned boxes or compartments in the cork slice (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Cork cells as observed by Robert Hooke

These boxes appeared like honeycomb. He also noticed that one box was
separated from the other by a wall or partition. Hooke coined the term ‗cell‘
for each box. What Hooke observed as boxes or cells in the cork were dead
cells.
Cells of living organisms could be observed only after the discovery of
improved microscopes. Very little was known about the cell for the next 150
years after Robert Hooke‘s observations.
Today, we know a lot about cell structure and its functions because of
improved microscopes having high magnification. In 1674, Anton van
Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe, draw, and describe a variety of cells
including bacteria, other one-celled organisms, and sperm cells. These and
other discovery lead to the definition of cell. All living things are made up
of one or more units called cells.
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4.2.2. The structure of cells

Activity 4.5
What are the difference and similarities between the structure of animal cells
and plant cells?
There are different types of cells in the human body. The cells that form our
body include skin cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, blood cells, sperm cells,
ova (egg cells). Cells are the basic structural unit of life. Cells in turn are
made up of different tiny structures called organelles. Different sets of
organelles perform different functions in the cells. Some organelles are
common to plant and animal cells. The common organelles in plant and
animal cells when observed under a light microscope include the cell
membrane, the cytoplasm, the nucleus (Figure 4.4).
Cell Membrane
The basic components of a cell are the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and
nucleus. The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane,
also called the plasma membrane. The membrane separates cells from one
another and also the cell from the surrounding medium. The plasma
membrane is porous and allows the movement of substances or materials
both inward and outward the cell.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane
and the nucleus. It consists of other components, or organelles, of cells. It is
inside these organelles different chemical processes take place in living
things.
The nucleus
Nucleus is an important component of the living cell. It is the central part of
the cell. It controls reproduction and other activities of the cell. It can stain
and be seen easily with the help of a light a microscope.
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Even though there are these similarities in the structures of plant and animal
cells, there are the following main differences. These differences include:
The Cell wall
In the cells of plants, the cell membrane is covered with an outer thick layer
additional layer called cell walls. The cell wall of the plant is made up of
cellulose. This additional layer surrounding the cell membrane is required by
plants for protection. Plant cells need protection against variations in
temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric moisture, etc. They are exposed
to these variations because they cannot move.
Chloroplast: is an organelle in plant cells that contains chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that can absorb the energy of sunlight used
for photosynthesis. Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.
.
Figure 4.4; Parts of typical animal and plant cells
Experiment 4.2: Observing onion epidermal cell
Material required:
1. Onion,
2. Forceps/blade/,
3. Water dropper,
4. Microscope glass slide,
5. Coverslip,
6. Iodine solution
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Procedure
1. To observe the basic components of the cell, take an onion bulb.
2. Remove the dry pink coverings (peels). You can easily separate these from
the fleshy white layers of the bulb with the help of forceps or even with your
hand.
3. You can also break the onion bulb and separate thin layers.
4. Place a small piece of the thin onion peeling on a drop of water on a glass
slide.
5. The thin layer can be cut into smaller pieces with the help of a blade or
forceps.
6. Add a drop of iodine solution to the layer and place a coverslip on it.
7. While placing the coverslip ensure that there are no air bubbles under the
coverslip. Observe the slide under the microscope. Then draw and label what
you see.
Experiment 4.3: Observing human cheek cells.

Material required
1. Water,
2. Glass slide,
3. Methyl blue solution,
4. Coverslip light microscope,
5. Tip broken scrape or Stikine
Procedure
1. Take a clean toothpick or matchstick with the tip broken.
2. Scrape inside of your cheek without hurting it
3. Place it in a drop of water on a glass slide.
4. Add a drop of methyl blue solution and place a coverslip over it.
5. Observe the slide under the microscope. Then draw and label what you
see. You may notice several cells in the scraped material
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4.2.3. Cell Shape and Size

Activities 4.6
Do you think cells are similar in size and shape? If not, why cells varied in
shape and size?
Can you guess the number of cells in a tall tree or huge animal like an
elephant? The number runs into billions and trillions. The human body and
other multicellular organisms have trillions of cells that vary in shapes and
sizes. Their organs also vary in shape, size, and number of cells. The
different shapes are related to their specific functions. Generally, cells are
round, spherical, or elongated (Figure 4.5). Some cells, like muscle cells are
long and pointed at both ends, a spindle shape, contract and relax result in
movement. Some are branched like the nerve cell or neuron. The nerve cell
receives and transfers messages.
Figure 4.5: The different shape of cells in human body
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Size of Cells
The size of cells in living organisms may be as small as a millionth
micrometer or micron or maybe as large as a few centimeters. Most of the
cells are microscopic and are not visible to the unaided eye. They need to be
enlarged or magnified by a microscope to study. The smallest cell is 0.1 to
0.5 micrometric bacteria. The largest cell measuring170 mm ×130 mm is the
egg of an ostrich.
Table 4.2: Some of the different types of cells, their shapes, and sizes
Cell Type Size in Micrometer (µm) Shape
Red blood cell 9 Round disk
Human egg 100 Oval
Amoeba 90 Shapeless
Most of our cells 10-30 Different
Frog egg 2 mm Circular
Experiment 4.4. Cell size in multicellular organisms.

When you boil a hen‘s egg and remove the shell, white material surrounding
the yellow part exists. The white material is albumin, which solidifies on
boiling. The yellow part is the yolk. It is part of a single cell. You can
observe this single cell without any magnifying device.
Material required
 Boiling flask or local material boiler
 Stove or Bunsen burner
 A hen‘s egg
 Water
 Forceps' or our hand.
Procedure
1. Makes fresh an egg available
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2. Add a small amount of water into boiler and put an egg into it.
3. Waite until the water boiled.
4. Then take out the egg
5. peel the egg and observe the cell
The size of the cells has no relation with the size of the body of the animal or
plant. The cells in the elephant do not need to be much bigger than those in a
rat. The size of the cell is related to its function. For example, nerve cells,
both in the elephant and rat, are long and branched. They perform the same
function that of transferring messages.
4.2.4. Unicellular organisms

Activity 4.7
1. What is the difference between unicellular and multi-cellular organisms?
2. List down and draw some of the examples of unicellular organisms and
multicellular organisms.
Unicellular organisms are organisms in which whose bodies are made up of
a single cell. These organisms perform all the necessary functions that
multicellular organisms perform using the single cell. A single-celled
organism, like an amoeba, captures and digests food, respires, excretes,
grows, and reproduces. Similar functions in multicellular organisms are
carried out by groups of specialized cells forming different tissues. Tissues,
in turn, form organs. Examples of unicellular organisms are different
bacteria, most algae, and protozoans such as amoeba and paramecium, yeast.
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Figure 4.6: Unicellular organisms

Experiment 4.5: Cell size in unicellular organisms.
Examining different water samples for the presence of living organisms. Use
a prepared slide of amoeba or bring a water samples from places nearby your
school and observe fresh samples.
Materials required
Compound light microscope,
Slide and coverslip
Dropper
Pond, river, lake water
Standing water or hay infusion.
Procedures
1. using a clean eyedropper place a drop of a sample at the center of the
microscope slide and cover it with a coverslip. Avoid the trapping of air
bubbles by tapping the slide gently to remove any air bubbles.
2. Place the slide at the center of the hole on the stage of the microscope and
fix it with clippers.
3 Adjust the amount of light using the iris diaphragm on the condenser.
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N.B: Since amoeba will be inactivated when exposed to light, either adjust
the light so that it will not be much for them or take a few minutes till they
get activated.
4. Use the coarse adjustment knob to focus on the cells under the low power.
5. Switch to medium power and use the fine adjustment knob to bring the
cells into focus once more.
6. Draw what you observe and compare it with a picture of the amoeba.
Have you seen amoebae?
How are they moving?
4.2.5 Multicellular organisms

Organisms made of more than one cell are called multicellular (multi: many;
cellular: cell) organisms. Most plants around us humans being (Figure 4.7),
dogs, and other animals are multi-cellular. For example, a rose plant has
different types of cells, like stem cells, root cells and leaf cells.
Figure 4.7: Multicellular organisms
4.2.6. Cell, Tissue, Organ, and organ system

Activities 4.8
1. How do you think the tiny cells come together to form animals and plants?
2. Do you expect tissue level of organization in unicellular organisms?
3. What are the commonly known external and internal organs of human
body?
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Cell
There are many kinds of cells in animals including human body such as
muscle cells, bone cells, skin cells, blood cells, etc. Each kind of cell acts a
little differently to suit its role in the body. The plant body is also made up of
many and different types of cells. For example, types of cells in different
parts of a plant body include leaf epidermal cells; leaf palisade cells; and root
tip cells. These different types of cells have different functions (Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8 : A. Types of cells in animals B. Types of cells in plants
Tissue
A group of cells that are similar in shape, size and that carries out the same
function are called a tissue. The tissue contributes to the functioning of the
organs in which it is found.
There are four main tissues in the body of animals including humans,
epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nervous tissue (Figure 4.9).
Epithelium (or epithelial tissue) is found all over the body with several
functions. In the skin, it protects us from the outside world, in the stomach
and intestines it absorbs. In the kidney, it filters and in the glands, it secretes.
Muscle tissue is responsible for body movement, moves blood, food, waste
through the body‘s organs, and is responsible for mechanical digestion.
Connective tissue wraps around, supports, cushions, and protects organs. It
stores nutrients and gives the skin strength. As tendons and ligaments, it
protects joints and attaches muscles to bone and each other. It includes some
specialized tissues including cartilage, bone, and blood.
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Nervous tissue conducts impulses to and from body organs via neurons. It
makes up the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Tissues in plants include
epidermal tissue, conducting tissue, photosynthetic tissue (mesophyll tissue),
and strengthen tissue.
Figure 4.9: A. Types of tissues in animals B. Types of tissues in plants.
Organs
An organ is a group of tissues precisely arranged to accomplish specific
functions. In plants stems, leaves, flowers, and roots are all organs. These
organs are made of different types of tissues and perform specified functions
or functions. For instance, the leaf is an organ that is made of tissues like
epidermal, photosynthetic, and conducting tissues. Examples of organs in
animals including humans are brain, heart, stomach, lung, and ear are found
commonly in animal, they contains different types of tissues used in their
specific function (Figure 4.10).
Figure 4.10: A. Types of organ in animals B. Types of organ in plants
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Organ systems
An organ system is a group of organs that all contribute to a particular
function. Plants have two major organ systems: the root system and the shoot
system (Figure 4.10.B). The root system includes the underground body parts
of plants, namely the main root, lateral roost, and root tips. The aboveground
parts of the plant form the shoot system. In the body of animals including
humans, the digestive system is an organ system that is made up of several
organs including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small and
large intestines, and anus. Other organ systems that are found in the bodies of
animals include the circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system,
musculoskeletal system, and nervous system.
Summary of level of organization in multicellular organisms.
Cell Tissue Organ, organ system Organisms
4.2.7. Respiration and mitochondria

Respiration is the process that releases energy from the food. Involves both
respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Cellular respiration is the
name for energy production within cells. Respiration is one of the key ways a
cell gains useful energy to fuel cellular reformations. Nutrients commonly
used by animal and plant cells in respiration include, glucose amino acids
and fatty acids. Many chemical reactions are involved, but in its simplest
form,
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This reaction shows us that glucose and oxygen combine to yield carbon
dioxide, water, ATP.
Food, glucose, in the presence of oxygen is broken down into the simpler
molecules carbon dioxide and water. The chemical in the glucose molecule is
released in the form of ATP. Each of these three products of respiration
process has a purpose or significance in the body. The carbon dioxide is a
waste product that moves from the cells into the blood to be carried to the
lungs and eventually exhaled. The water formed is useful and becomes part
of the intracellular fluid. ATP contains life sustaining chemical energy,
which is used for cell processes such as protein synthesis, and muscle
contraction, all of which require energy.
Figure 4.13: Respiration and mitochondria
Mitochondria
It is a cell organelle where energy is released from the glucose in inside the
cell the process of aerobic respiration. In the cell the enzymes that catalyze
the individual steps involved in respiration and energy conservation are
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located in the mitochondria. Site where large molecules of ATP are

produced. Therefore, it is the powerhouse of the cell. In microorganisms, the
enzymes occur as components of the cell membrane. A liver cell has about
1,000 mitochondria; large egg cells of some vertebrates have up to 200,000
.The numbers of mitochondria determines the activities of the cell. Highly
active cells of the body such as muscles and nerve cells have more numbers
of cells.
Anaerobic respiration is type of respiration that takes place in the absence of
oxygen. Produce only 2 molecules of ATP per glucose molecules. Glycolysis
that takes place in the cytoplasm‘s of the cell is an examples.
Aerobic respiration is the type of respiration that uses oxygen. Yields as
many as 32 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule.
4.2.8. Photosynthesis and chloroplast

Photosynthesis is a process by which green plants combine carbon dioxide,
and water in the presence of sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll to produce
sugar, mainly glucose
Carbon dioxide + water sunlight Glucose+ Oxygen (word equation)
Chlorophyll
6 CO2 + 6 H 2 O sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2(chemical

Chlorophyll
equation)
Chloroplast
Photosynthesis takes place inside the cell organelle called chloroplasts. The
chloroplast is a cell organelle found only in algal and plant cells. It can
produces energy through photosynthesis. Chloroplast contains high amounts
of green pigment called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is molecule that captures
(absorbs) light energy, and this gives many plants a green color. The energy
of sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll is used to split the water molecule into
hydrogen ions and oxygen in the light reaction of photosynthesis. The
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process is called photolysis. The hydrogen ion combines with carbon dioxide
to form the glucose molecule in the dark reaction of photosynthesis. Therefor
photosynthesis in green plants converts solar energy into chemical energy
used by themselves and. It is the building up of glucose molecules from
carbon dioxide and water is called anabolism.
Function of Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are the part of plant and algal cells that carry out
photosynthesis. In the process of photosynthesis, light energy converts to
chemical energy stored in the form of sugar that the plant and all other
heterotrophs use it.
Figure 4.14: Photosynthesis and chloroplast
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Figure 4.15: The relationship between respiration and photosynthesis.

In general, without photosynthesis, animals and humans including plant
themselves do not get energy and oxygen for respiration, life would not be
possible. Therefore, photosynthesis and respirations are opposite, highly
important and interrelated process. (Figure 4:15)
Group Activity
1. Compare and contrast the importance of photosynthesis and respiration to
living things.
2. What could happen to the living things if both respiration and
photosynthesis do not occur?
3. How do we get energy from the food that we eat?
4. What is the use of oxygen we inhale in the process of respiration?
5. Is respiration a function of both animals and plants? Why?
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Exercise 4.2
Choose the correct answer for each of the following questions.
1. One of the following is true about cells.
A. Cells are generally too small to be seen with the naked eye
B. Cells are the structural and functional units of all life forms.
C. Cells are the smallest units that carry out all processes of life
D. All of the above
2. One of the following parts of a cell is only found in a plant cell
A. Cell membrane B. Cell wall C. Cytoplasm D. Nucleus
3. Plant cells manufacture their food due to the presence of a cell part known
as:
A. Vacuole B. Cell membrane C. Chloroplast D. Cell wall
4. One of the following is a unicellular organism.
A. Tree B. Cat C. Man D. Bacterium
5. One of the following is true about onion epidermal cells observed under a
microscope.
A. Are flat and regular in their shapes. B. Irregular in their shapes.
C. They look green without staining. D. Are flat and irregular
6. One of the following is true about cheek cells observed under a
microscope,
A. Look green without staining.
B. Are irregular in their shapes.
C. Are flat and irregular in their shapes.
D. Are flat and regular in their shapes.
7. Stains are used during microscopic observation of cellular structures is to:
A. Enlarge the size of the image.
B. Makes some parts of cells colored and easily observable.
C. Makes the specimen to be observed more beautiful.
D. Resolve the parts of the cell
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8. One of the following statements is true about all cells.

A. They are similar in their size.
B. They are similar in their size and shape
C. They are similar in their shapes.
D. They vary in their sizes and shapes.
9. One of the following is a characteristic of a unicellular organism.
A. Is made up of many cells.
B. It is made up of a single cell.
C. It requires the assistance of other cells or their biological activities.
D. It is seen with the naked eyes.
10. One of the following is not found in plants.
A. Organ B. Organ system C. Tissue D. Blood cells
11.Which sequence demonstrates the increasing complexity of levels of
organization in multicellular organisms?
A. Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → System → Organism
B. Cell → Organelle → Issue → Organ → Organ System → Organism
C. Organelle → Tissue → Cell → Organ → Organ System → Organism
D. Cell → Organism → Organ system → Organ → Tissue → Organelle
15. Which of the following is different from the others?
A. Epithelial tissue B. Palisade tissue C. Muscle tissue D. Nerve tissue
16. Which of the following is different from the others?
A. Root B. Shoot C. Heart D. Leaf
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UNIT SUMMARY
• A microscope is an instrument that is used to observe objects too
small to be seen clearly with the naked eye
• The main parts of the microscope are the eyepieces, body tube,
nosepiece, objective, mechanical stage, condenser, coarse and fine
focusing knobs, and light source.
• The light microscope has an objective and an eyepiece lenses.
• The smallest living part of an organism is a ‗cell‘.
• Robert Hooke first observed cells in cork in 1665. Cells exhibit a
variety of shapes and sizes.
• A number of cells vary from organism to organism.
• Some cells are big enough to be seen with the unaided eye. Hen‘s egg
is an example.
• Some organisms are single-celled, while others contain the large
number of cells.
• The single cell of unicellular organisms performs all the basic
functions. In many celled organism function are performed by variety
of cells.
• The plant cells and animal cells have three common parts: (i) the cell
membrane, (ii) cytoplasm which contains smaller components called
organelles, and (iii) the nucleus.
• The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear
membrane.
• Plant cells differ from animal cells in having an additional layer
around the cell membrane termed cell wall.
• Colored bodies called plastids are found in plant cells only. Green
plastids containing chlorophyll are called chloroplasts.
• A plant cell has a big central vacuole unlike small vacuoles in animal
cells.
• The tissue consists of cells of the same shape and size, which carry
out the same function .
• Respiration is the reverse process of photosynthesis in which energy
from the food is released in inside mitochondria and photosynthesis
converts energy of sunlight in to chemical energy in the food.
• Respiration is the characteristics of all living things where as
photosynthesis function only in organisms containing chlorophyll.
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Review questions
Part I: Choose the best answer for each of the following questions.
1. One of the following cell structures is not seen through a light microscope.
A. Nucleus B. Cell membrane C. Ribosome D. Cell wall
2. The magnification power of middle power objective is:
A. 4X B. 10X C.40X D. 100X
3. One of the following is the function of a condenser.
A. Magnifying the image
B. Scattering the image
C. Collecting light and passing it through the stage openings
D. Holding a specimen at the stage.
4. One of the following is true about coarse adjustment. It is used to:
A. Focus under high power objective.
B. Adjust the amount of light.
C. Focus under low power objective.
D. Move back and forth to the stage of the microscope.
5. One of the following makes a plant cell different from an animal cell ?
A. Cytoplasm B. Cell wall C. Nucleus D. A and B only
6. One of the following is found in both animal and plant cells.
A. Chloroplast B. Large vacuole C. Cell wall D. Cell membrane
7. The regular shape of plant cells, which is observed under the microscope,
is due to having:
A. Vacuoles B. Cell membrane C. Cytoplasm D. Cell wall
8. Plant cells manufacture their food due to the presence of a cell part known
as:
A. Vacuole B. Cell membrane C. Chloroplast D. Cell wall
9. The shape of a human red blood cell is:
A. Disk-like B. Flat C. Short and branched D. Pointed at both ends
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10. The sizes of most of our body cells are about:

A. 1 μm B. 1 mm C. 100 μm D. 20 μ
Part II. Match items given in column „B‟ with items given in column „A‟
Column A Column B
11. Coarse adjustment knob A. Sharp focusing
12. Plant cell B. Without large vacuole
13. Animal cell C. Inner region of a cell
14. Cell membrane D. Rough focusing
15. Fine adjustment knob E. Outer region of a cell
16. Cytoplasm F. With large vacuole
PART III. say true or false
17. Organisms are simpler and less complex than organs
18. Organ systems group together to create a whole organism
19. Epithelial Tissue covers the surface of our major organs
20. There are five main types of tissue in the human body.
21. Tendon and ligament are Examples of Connective tissue.
22. All living things are made of cells.
23. Cells are smaller and simpler than either tissue or organ.
24. Unicellular organisms have a one-celled body
25. Muscle cells are branched.
26. The basic living unit of an organism is an organ.
27. Amoeba has an irregular shape.
Part IV. Give short answer
28. Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What do nerve cells perform?
29. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
30. Make sketches of animal and plant cells. State three differences of them.
31. Cells are the basic structural units of living organisms. Explain.
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UNIT 5
5. LIVING THINGS AND THEIR DIVERSITY

Learning Outcomes
 Distinguish between living and non-living things by describing the
features that characterize living organisms;
 Discuss if movement i.e. locomotion can characterize all living things or
not;
 Define classification and its purpose;
 Explain the purpose of scientific name;
 List down the hierarchical levels in the classification of organisms;
 Describe the distinguishing characteristics of kingdom Animal, Planate,
Protest Monera, and Fungi;
 List common examples of animals, Planate, Protest, Monera and Fungi;
 Describe the body plan of common animals, Planate, Protesta, Monera,
and Fungi;
 Describe habitats of animals, Planate, Protesta, Monera, and Fungi.
Introduction
There are different kinds of species found in the biological world on our
planet earth. All of these species are classified based on very basic, shared
characteristics. The study of naming and classification of these species is
called taxonomy.
5.1. Living Things

After Completing this section, you should be able to:
 Differentiate between living and non-living things;
 Organize and describe characteristics of living things;
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 Justify why movement or locomotion from one place to another cannot be

a defining characteristic of all organisms;
 Relate diversity with classification of organisms;
 Justify why scientific names of organisms should be used in science than
the local names;
Activity. 5.1
1. What is the difference between living and nonliving things?
2. Did plants categorized as living things or non-living things, and
justify why?
3. Movement or locomotion from one place to another can be taken as a
defining characteristic of all living things, and why?
4. Analyze and describe the relationships of the hierarchical levels
(Kingdom to Species) in the classification of organisms.
5.1.1 Characteristics of living things

To biologists, ―life‖ is identified as a combination of characteristics common
to all living organisms and absent from non-living things. The following
characteristic activities are common to ―all‖ organisms. The possession and
practice of these characteristics activities of organisms is the way biologists
identify and define life. There are the following major characteristics that
make living things different from non-living things
Nutrition or feeding
All living organisms need to take substances from their environment to
obtain energy, to grow and to stay healthy. Nutrition is the process by which
organisms obtain energy to maintain the function of life and get matter to
create and maintain their structure.
Energy and matter are obtained from nutrients. Most plants are autotrophs
(self-nourishing) and undergo the process of photosynthesis. Animals are
heterotrophs; they depend upon existing foods, which have to be broken
down before they can be used.
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Cellular organization
All organisms are composed of one or cells, which are complex, organized
assemblages of molecules, enclosed within membrane. In unicellular
organisms, single cell carries out all vital activities of life. In multicellular
organisms, numbers of cells unite together to perform various functions.
Cells are organized to form tissues, tissues to form organs and organs to form
organ systems.
Respiration
All living things need energy to perform the life processes. Organisms
release energy from their food by a process called cellular respiration.
Growth
Growth involves an increase in size of the organism from within (living
things), or by an increase in size at the outer surface (non-living objects) or
an increase in number of cells. It is the characteristics of all living things.
When living things feed they gain energy. Some of this energy is used in
growth. Living things become larger and more complicated as they grow.
Reproduction
All organisms have the ability to perpetuate themselves through
reproduction, thereby ensuring the survival or continuation of the species.
Reproduction is the ability to produce other individuals of the same species;
reproduction may be sexual type where special sex cells or gametes are
involved. Asexual reproduction is the second type of reproduction, which
does not involve the sexual process. Humans make babies, cats produce
kittens and pigeons lay eggs. Plants also reproduce. Many plants make seeds
which can germinate and grow into new plants.
Sensitivity
The ability of plants or animals to respond to stimuli (change in the
environment) is called sensitivity. A stimulus might be an external or it
might be an internal. The response to a stimulus may result the movement of
the whole animal, perhaps in pursuit of food or away from danger. In plants
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the response is always made by organs such as leaf, root, stem etc. In general
all living things can sense and respond to stimuli around them such as light,
temperature, water, gravity, and chemical substances.
Excretion
All living things excrete. As a result of the many chemical reactions
occurring in cells, they have to get rid of waste products which might poison
the cells. Excretion is defined as the removal of toxic materials, the waste
products of metabolism and substances in excess from the body of an
organism.
Movement or locomotion
Only some living organisms, such as animals and some bacteria and algae,
have the ability to move from place to place. This is necessary in order for
them to obtain their food. Stationary organisms, such as green plants can
manufacture their own food from raw materials obtained from the
environment. Nevertheless, some movement of some body structures can
occur in plants, as when a leaf grows towards the sun or a flower closes at
night.
In general, movements in animals are usually associated with obtaining food,
finding mates or escaping from predators. In contrast, most plant movements
are relatively slow growth movements, involving only part of the organism.
They occur in response to an environmental stimulus.
The difference between living things and non-living things
In order to stay alive animals, plants and other living organisms require
(need) certain things or specific conditions. The requirements necessary to
sustain life includes
Energy: All living organisms need energy to stay alive and perform the life
processes. Plants need energy from sunlight in order to photosynthesis. Other
organisms get their energy from the food that they eat.
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Gases: All living things require oxygen for cellular respiration. Oxygen is
used to release energy from nutrients and carbon dioxide and water is
produced as a waste product of respiration. Green plants also need carbon
dioxide to
Photosynthesis.
Water: is vital to life. Every organism on our planet needs water to live.
Soil: sustains life on Earth. Most plants depend on soil for support, minerals
and water. Without the soil, plants would not be able to produce the food that
animals and other organisms depend on.
Favorable temperatures: All organisms are adapted to live in a particular
temperature. In general, our planet has favorable temperatures to support life.
Exercise 5.1
Part I. Choose the correct answer.
Answer question number one based on the diagram below in which some
yeasts, sugar and water are mixed in a test-tube. The diagrams show the test-
tube at the start and after one hour.
1. Which process causes this change?

A. Growth B. Irritability C. Reproduction D. Respiration
2. Excretion, irritability and reproduction are characteristics of:
A. All animals and plants B. Animals only
C. Plants only D Some animals and some plants only
3. Which one of the following functions is carried out by green plants but not
by animals?
A. Excretion B. Growth C. Photosynthesis D. Respiration
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Look the diagram given below that shows how fish react when it is in the
glass.
4. What characteristics of living organisms does this demonstrate?

A. Excretion and movement C. Growth and irritability
B. Excretion and nutrition D. Irritability and movement
Part II. Complete the space below by choosing the words from the list:
Growth, Movement, Nutrition, Organisms, Reproduction, Respiration
1. Living things are often called ______________.
2. All living things release energy from their food in a process called
______________, which take place inside the cell.
3. Some of the energy is used for ________________, which usually
happens more quickly in animals than in plants.
4. The food from which the energy is released is taken into the body in a
process called ________________.
5. The production of young is called ____________________.
6. Waste substances are removed from organisms by the process of
____________________.
5.1.2. Classification and scientific names of organism
Activity. 5.2
1. If you go to a library, you will know how much easier it is to find a book
on a particular subject if the books are arranged in subject groups. Why?
2. How can we make sense of all the organisms on Earth?
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On Earth today there are many types of living things. This great variety of
life is called diversity or biodiversity. To help us understand the great
diversity of living things we put them in to groups. This grouping of similar
living things is known as classification. All living organisms are classified
into groups based on very basic, shared characteristics. Classifying living
organisms is central to understanding the variety of life on Earth. The
process of classifying living organisms is known as taxonomy. The system of
using groups of living things into categories is called taxa.
Naming living things
The many varieties of living organisms means there are even more names!
People in different areas of Africa speak many different languages. In
Ethiopia, alone we have 85 living languages and at least 11 of those have
over a million native speakers! And many of us speak more than one
language, often including English! All of the different languages will have
different names for the same animal or plant. For example, the Ethiopian
wolf is also known as the Abyssinian wolf, Simien fox, Ethiopian jackal, red
jackal and Simien jackal in English, as Qey kebero in Amharic and jedala
dima in Afan Oromo and Keyih Wukaria in Tigrigna. It is also named
differently in different other Ethiopian languages. Around the world, you
also have to add languages such as English, French, Russian and Chinese
into the mixture. It becomes impossible for one scientist to know what
organism another scientist is talking about! The problem is solved because
every organism that is classified is given a scientific name.
Taxonomy began with the work of Aristotle, a philosopher who lived in
Ancient Greece from 384–322 BC.
 He divided all organisms into either animals or plants.
 Then he divided animals into those 'with blood' and those 'without blood'.
 Lastly, animals are divided into three groups based on their method of
movement: walkers, flyers or swimmers.
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Taxonomy became a serious science with the work of Carl Linnaeus in the
18th century. He suggested a way of organizing living organisms from the
kingdoms downwards, with a binomial system of naming them that is still
used today. Binomial means two names. The two names of an organism are
in Latin. Example, the wolf with so many names in Ethiopia is known to all
scientists as Canis simensis - so no one gets confused. The first the name
refers to the genus that the organism belongs to. This is always written with a
capital letter. The second part of the name refers to the species to which the
organism small letter.
Table 5.1: Examples of scientific names of some common organisms
Common name Scientific name
Human beings Homo sapiens
A dog Canis familiaris
A housefly Musca domestica
Domestic cat Felis domesticus
Maize Zea mays
Bean Phaseolus vulgaris
Lion Panthera leo
Living things are classified and named for the following main reasons:
I. To create an internationally accepted way of referring to a particular living
thing.
II. To avoid confusion created by different languages.
III. To help in simplifying classification and study of living things.
5.1.3 Hierarchy in the classification of organisms (Kingdom to species)

The main taxonomic categories are kingdom, phylum (or for plants,
division), class, order, family, genus and species. The largest groups into
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which living organisms are divided are the Kingdoms. Kingdoms are
subdivided into phyla, each phylum into classes, each class into orders, each
order into families, each family into genera and each genus into species. The
species is the smallest unit of classification. There will be many different
types of organisms in a phylum, all of which have a few characteristics in
common. There will be far fewer organisms in a genus but they will all have
a lot of features in common. A species only contains one type of organism,
which have all their main features in common (Figure 5.1). It is the most
important the lower unit of classification. Species is a group of organisms
that can breed successfully with one another to produce fertile offspring.
Figure 5.1: Classification hierarchy

The names we use for organisms are their binomial names – but to reach
those names, the organism needs to be completely classified from the
kingdom downwards. Here are some examples:
Table 5.2: Hierarchy of groups
Human Honeybee Teff Mushroom
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Fungi
Phylum Chordata Arthropoda Angiospermophyta Basidiomycot
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Class Mammalia Insecta Liliopsida Basidiomycetes

Order Primates Hymenoptera Cyperales Agaricales
Family Hominidae Apidae Poaceae Agaricaceae
Genus Homo Apis Eragrostis Agaris
Species sapiens mellifera teff campestris
Exercise 5.2
Choose the best answer
1. All living things are classified grouped together based on ------------
A. Their structural similarity C. Their feeding style
B. Their location D. All the above
2. Which one of the following hierarchical classification organism represents
highest to lowest level?
A. Species genus family Order Class phylum kingdom
B. Kingdom- phylum - Class- Order - - genus - species
C. Kigdom - genus- family - Order- Class- phylum
D. Kigdom Class- Order - - genus - species phylum
3. Scientifically name of human species ------
A. Homo sapiens B. Canes lupus C. Moringa olivera D. Juniferes procera
II. Give short answer
1. Scientific name drive from two binomial word---------------- and --------
2. Why local name is not as good as scientific name in classification of
organism-----
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5.2. Kingdoms of Life

After Completing this section, the student will be able to:
 Compare the five Kingdoms of living things by describing their
distinguishing characteristics;
 Summarize the commonest examples of organisms belonging to each
Kingdom;
 Describe the body plans of insects such as butterfly, amphibians such as
frogs, mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers such as junipers, flowering
plants, Paramecium, Algae, and Mushroom;
 Relate each Kingdom of organisms to their major habitat types as
aquatic, terrestrial, or moist;
Living things are put into groups called taxa based on their similarities and
differences. The main taxa are kingdom, phylum (division for plants), class,
order, family, genus and species. A kingdom is the largest taxon and consists
of all the other taxa. In general, living things can be classified into five broad
categories at the Kingdom level as (Figure 5.2).
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Figure 5.2: The five kingdom of life.
5.2.1 The Kingdom Animalia

All the animals in the world grouped under the animal kingdom. Animals are
multicellular and heterotrophic; they feed on other organisms. They differ
from the members of the other four kingdoms in that they exhibit
locomotion, that is, can move their bodies from one place to another, and
their cells do not have cell walls. They have nervous systems so they are
sensitive to their surroundings. There are two distinct divisions or groups of
animals within the animal kingdom: the vertebrates and the invertebrates.
Animals that have a backbone with a hollow tube inside to hold the nerves
are vertebrates. There are 33 animal phyla. Most of the phyla consists
invertebrate animals.
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Figure 5:3: Common vertebrates and invertebrate animals

Activity 5.3
1. Identify the kingdom of the following organisms. Birds, Mammals, plants,
mushrooms, Paramecium.
2. Why the organisms are assigned to any one of the Kingdoms, and explain.
3. Why insects are the most successful animals on the earth?
The major characteristics of an animal
These organisms are multicellular, eukaryotic, and without
chlorophyll.
The cells possess no cell walls and plastids.
Central vacuoles are absent but small vacuoles may occur.
Most of them are free-moving.
Nutrition is primarily digestive.
Reproduction is generally sexual and the haploid stage is represented
only by gametes.
The body plan of an animal is called its symmetry. Animals that do not have
symmetry, like sponges, are called asymmetrical. Some animals, like sea
urchins, have radial symmetry. Radial symmetry means that the body parts
are arranged in a circle around a central point. Other animals, like insects and
all vertebrates, have bilateral symmetry. In bilateral symmetry, the body
consists of two similar halves.
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The major group of animals and their habitat

Scientists divide the Kingdom Animalia in to two major groups these are:
invertebrates and vertebrates. A vertebrate is an animal with a backbone. An
invertebrate is an animal without backbone.
Invertebrates
The invertebrates make up more than 99.9% of the animals alive on earth
today. All invertebrates lack a backbone. They either have a hard outer shell
or a fluid-filled structure that acts as a skeleton (for example jellyfish and
slugs). All invertebrates are ectothermic. The invertebrates are divided into
several phyla. Some of the phylum includes Arthropod; Platyhelminthes
(flatworms) and Nematode (roundworms) Phylum Mollusca, Phylum
Annelida.
Insects
Insects are member of Arthropod, adaptable creatures that live in almost
every habitat on Earth. They live in hot deserts, freshwater, streams, tropical
rainforests, up snowy mountains, and of course, in your garden. While some
insects do live in water, about 97% of insect habitats are on land.
They have a body divided into three parts; head, thorax and abdomen. They
have three pairs of jointed legs on the thorax along with one or two pairs of
wings. On their head, they have a pair of antennae, Antennae are organs that
respond to smell, touch, and taste. One pair of compound eyes that are
made of many identical light-sensing cells. They have bilateral symmetry
and a true body cavity.
Insects include flies, butterflies and moths, beetles, wasps and bees and
many other common groups.
Insects possess an amazing diversity in size, form, and behavior. It is
believed that insects are so successful because they have a protective shell or
exoskeleton, they are small, and they can fly. Their small size and ability to
fly permit escape from enemies and dispersal to new environments.
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Figure 5.4: A dung beetle

Phylum Platyhelminthes – flatworms
The flatworms show a relatively high level of organization. They range from
1 mm to 30 cm in length. They possess a front end where the mouth, major
sense organs and the main integrating region of the nervous system is sited.
They have flattened bodies with a mouth but no anus. They have no body
cavity and rely on diffusion for everything. They are hermaphrodites they
contain both male and female sex organs. They live in other animals as
parasites or are free-living in fresh water.
Examples of platyhelminthes include Planaria spp, which live in fresh water,
tapeworms and liver flukes like Fasciola hepatica.
Figure 5.5: Tape worm that live in the intestinal wall.

Phylum Nematode- Round worms
Roundworms are thought to be the most numerous animals in the world. It
has been estimated that there are around 5 billion roundworms in the top 7
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cm of an acre of soil. They are found in almost all environments, from the
deepest ocean floor to the
Antarctic. Nematodes have narrow, thread-like bodies, which are pointed at
both ends and bilaterally symmetrical. Their bodies are not segmented and
are round in cross-section, which is how they get their name. They do not
have a circulatory system but they do have a complete digestive system with
both mouth and anus. The phylum contains many important parasites, such
as Ascaris, which infects the guts of both humans and pigs, and the family
Filariidae, which cause elephantiasis affecting the lives of up to1.2 billion
people in Africa and Asia. Nematodes are also a very important part of a
healthy soil. (Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6: Nematodes or roundworms
Vertebrates
Vertebrates that belong to the Phylum Chordata. Comprise only about 0.1%
of all animals. Vertebrates are divided in to five classes these are: fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals. As the name suggests, vertebrate
animals have a vertebral column (backbone). In addition, they also have the
following features:
An internal skeleton (endoskeleton) made of bone or cartilage.
A closed blood circulatory system consisting of blood vessels.
A well-developed nervous system.
Two pairs of limbs.
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Kidneys as excretory organs.

Vertebrate animals form the largest group of the phylum Chordata and they
are divided into five classes:
Fish
Fish are ectothermic, aquatic vertebrates with fins, gills, and a streamlined
body. Fins are fanlike structures that help fish move, balance, steer, and stop.
Fish have strong muscles attached to their backbones allowing them to move
their bodies and increase their speed through the water. The bodies of many
fish are covered with scales for protection. Most fish have a lateral line
system that consists of rows of sense organs along each side. This system
detects vibrations. To breathe, fish have gills that extract oxygen from the
water and remove carbon dioxide from the blood. Fish have many
adaptations for life in water.
Figure 5.7: Typical bony fish

Bony fish (teleosts) – examples include Tilapia, Nile perch, cod,
mackerel and catfish.
Cartilaginous fish (elasmobranchs) – examples include sharks, skates
and rays
Amphibians
Amphibians are ectothermic, smooth-skinned vertebrates, such as frogs and
salamanders. The amphibians were the first vertebrates to colonize the land.
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They have simple sac-like lungs (which are not very efficient) and smooth,
moist skin, which is also used as a respiratory surface. Their lifecycle
includes metamorphosis, and they need water for Amphibians breathe by
taking oxygen into their lungs. But many also absorb oxygen through their
skin. Many amphibians have thin skin that is smooth and moist. Oxygen can
easily diffuse across the skin and into their blood and tissues. Body with
distinct head and trunk, no neck and the heart is three chambered. Many
amphibians are adapted to live part of their lives on land. Many live in damp
habitats and some live in the water (Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8: Amphibians.

Reptiles
The reptiles are mainly terrestrial animals that were for many millions of
years the dominant group of animals on the Earth. They have dry skin with
scales and their gas exchange takes place exclusively in the lungs. They have
developed internal fertilization. Reptiles are ectothermic, egg-laying
vertebrates that have external covering of scales and breathe with lungs.
Examples of reptiles are lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodiles, and dinosaurs
(now extinct). Reptiles are adapted for life on land, although some, like
crocodiles, live in water. The most important adaptation for life on land are
keratinous skin, kidney that can conserve water by producing less urine,
reproduction, a hard shell around their eggs, fully developed lungs, basking,
on rocks to warm its blood for hunting since body temperature depends on
surrounding environment.
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Figure 5.9: Reptiles

Birds
Birds are endothermic, egg-laying vertebrates with forelimbs modified to
form wings. Birds have beaks instead of jaws. They also have many
adaptations for flight such as feathers, wings, hollow bones, and air sacs. The
structures of bird and their functions are shown below. Boat-shaped body is
divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail (Figure 5.10).
Example : chicken, house sparrow, crow, pigeon, parrot, peafowl peacock,
owl.
Figure 5.10: Birds

Mammals
Mammals are endothermic vertebrates that have mammary glands.
Mammary glands are organs that produce a nutritious fluid called milk. Most
mammals are covered with hair or fur and have specialized teeth that help
them to cut or chew their food. Mammals have highly developed nervous
systems and large brains. As a result, many mammal species have evolved
intelligence and resource full ness. Almost all mammals are endothermic.
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This means they are also able to maintain (keep) their body temperature at a
constant level. The largest mammal is the blue whale that can grow to be
over 30 meters long. The smallest mammal is the bumble bee bat that is only
about 3 centimeters long and weighs about 2 grams. Mammals have evolved
to live-in different habitats. Modern mammals include animals that live on
land and in water (Figure 5.11).
Figure 5.11: Mammals

Activity 5.4
1. List some of the habitat and body plan of animal kingdom
2. What is the difference between vertebrate and invertebrate?
Exercise 5. 3
1. Classify each organism as either an invertebrate or avertebrate:
A. Spider
B. Ascaris
C. Earthworm
D. Tape worm
E. Bat
5.2.2 Kingdom Plantae

The kingdom Plantae includes a great variety of organisms, which range
from tiny mosses to giant trees. So far botanists have identified around 300
000 living plant species, and over 80% of these are flowering plants. Plants
are enormously important they are the source of the fossil fuel coal and
through photosynthesis, they provide food and oxygen for all other living
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organisms. We human beings use plants to provide us with food, building

materials, clothing, medicines and many other things.
Activity 5.5
What are the two main groups of plant?
What is the difference between the two groups of plants?
Major characteristics of plants

 Plants are producers and use photosynthesis to make food. Most
plants are green. This is because they contain the pigment
chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs energy of sun light and uses that
energy to make carbohydrate molecules.
 Plants have eukaryotic cells with cell walls. Plant cells have a true
nucleus and are surrounded by a cell wall. The cell wall surrounds the
cell membrane, protecting the plant and providing a rigid structure.
 Most plants have a cuticle. A cuticle is a waxy layer that covers the
parts of a plant that are exposed to air like leaves and stems. The
cuticle is an adaptation for living on land that keeps plants from
drying out.
 They are multicellular organisms.
 They are predominantly land dwelling.
Major groups of plant
The kingdom Plantae consists of non-flowering plants and flowering
plants. The kingdom is split into a number of four divisions. These are
Bryophyta ; mosses and liverworts
Pteridophyta ; ferns
Gymnospermae ; the conifers
Angiospermae) ;the true flowering plants
Division Bryophyta
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Bryophytes are the simplest land plants. They do not have a true root system
so they cannot reach water under the soil or anchor themselves very firmly to
the ground. They are non-vascular (do not have xylem and phloem) and so
cannot transport food or water around the body of the plant.
They are small – the largest species is less than 60 cm tall – and are found in
damp places. A large percentage of bryophytes live in tropical rainforests.
The best examples of bryophytes are
Mosses like Etodon concinnus, found in the Bale Mountains, and Funaria
spp. A moss plant has a simple, slender stem. They also have thin simple
leaves, which are only one cell thick (and therefore useful for looking at
under a microscope). Mosses also have simple root-like structures called
rhizoids that have slender filaments and attach the mosses to the soil but
without any strength.
The other example is the liverworts, which only grow in very wet places.
Bryophytes are commonly found in rainforests and at high altitudes on
mountains.
Figure 5.12: A. Mosses B. Liver worts

Division Pteridophyta
In this division the plants have true leaves, stems and roots. Fern stems have
rhizomes, which grow horizontally just below the surface of the soil. Their
stems contain vascular tissue similar to that found in flowering plants, and so
do their roots. They produce spore-forming bodies on the underside of the
fronds. The spores are dispersed by wind. However, they still rely on water
for reproduction, which limits where they can live. Most ferns live in damp,
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shady places – they are very common in tropical rainforests where conditions
are ideal for their growth. However, some ferns – such as Pteridium spp
(commonly known as bracken) – are an exception because they can grow and
do well in full sunlight.
Figure 5.13: A. Fern B. Spore on the underside of fern leaf.

Another example of a pteridophyte is the fern Dryopteris spp.There are a
number of different Dryopteris ferns in Ethiopia, and Dryopteris concolor is
a recently discovered one. The next two divisions of the plants that you are
going to look at are the seed-bearing plants or spermatophytes. These are the
most successful of all land plants. They form the most common plants on
earth. Spermatophytes are the most successful because of the following
characteristic features that they possess:
They have well-developed roots, stem and leaves.
They have well-developed vascular tissues.
The male gametes are contained within pollen grains and the female
gamete is contained within the embryo sac.
Division Gymnospermae
These are more commonly known as the conifers or ‗naked seed plants‘. Pine
trees, spruces and cedars are just some of the more common conifers. They
grow around the world. About one third of the world‘s forests are coniferous
and are often cultivated for timber as some of them are relatively fast
growing. They are usually the dominant vegetation in cold and mountainous
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regions. Some conifers have developed relatively fleshy tissue around their
seeds (e.g. juniper and yew), but the majority produce bare cones.
The main characteristics of the gymnospermae are:
Their seeds are not enclosed in fruits.
They have small needle-shaped leaves with a thick waxy cuticle that
reduces water loss and minimises damage by excess heat or cold.
They are evergreen so they can photosynthesize all year long.
The reproductive structures are found in cones.
A conifer tree produces two different types of cone. The male cone forms
huge numbers of pollen grains that are blown by wind to a female cone.
Fertilisation results in a small winged seed.
The genus Pinus (for example, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus resinosa, Pinus
radiata) is a good example of a conifer. Members of this genus grow all
around the world. They are evergreen – they maintain their leaves throughout
the year, even in temperate climates. This means they shed and replace a few
leaves all the time rather than spending part of the year leafless and
dormant.Conifers have been imported and planted in East Africa because of
their importance as a source of timber and for ornamental purposes.
Division Angiospermae
The flowering plants are the biggest group of land plants on the Earth. Their
m reproductive structures are carried in flowers. Whatever their size, flowers
carry the reproductive parts of the plant. The main characteristics of the
angiosperms are:
They have flowers as reproductive organs.
They have their seeds enclosed in a fruit.
They have well-developed xylem and phloem tissue.
Subdivisions of angiosperms
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Angiosperms are subdivided into two main classes according to the number
of cotyledons they have in their seeds. These classes are monocotyledons and
dicotyledons.
Class Monocotyledons (monocots)
The monocotyledons (monocots) are a group of enormous importance
because the cereal plants that form the staple diet of most of the world‘s
population are monocotyledons. So are the grasses that feed domestic
herbivores, which supply so many cultures with meat and milk. The grasses
also feed many of the large wild herbivores such as zebra, wildebeest and the
many different types of antelope that live in Ethiopia and beyond. The main
characteristics of the monocotyledons are:
The embryo has a single seed leaf (cotyledon).
Leaves are generally long and thin with parallel veins.
The stem contains scattered vascular bundles.
In general, monocots do not reach great sizes (palms are the
exceptional)
They are often wind pollinated.
Common examples of monocot plants include the grasses, sorghum and
maize. Maize (Zea maizes) has been used for food and animal fodder by
people for centuries. Teff is another example of a monocotyledonous plant.
Class Dicotyledons (dicots)
The dicotyledoneae (dicots) make up most of the trees with which we are
familiar, as well as many vegetable plants in our gardens and almost all of
the coloured flowering plants in the world. The main characteristics of the
dicotyledons are:
The embryo has two seed leaves (cotyledons).
The leaves are often relatively broad and have a network of veins.
The stem contains a ring of vascular tissue.
Some dicots reach great sizes.
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They are often insect pollinated.

Some common examples of dicots include sunflowers, peas, roses and beans.
Most trees, such as Jacaranda, Eucalyptus, Acassia mangos and oranges.
are dicotyledons. 
Exercise 5.4
Part I. Give short answer.
1. Define the following and give one example of each:
A Non-vascular plant
B Vascular plant
2. What are seeds?
3. Give two examples of a gymnosperm and two examples of an angiosperm.
Part II. Match each plant with the group to which it belongs
1. Non-vascular plants A. Cycads
2. Gymnosperms B. Club mosses
3. Seedless, vascular plants C. liverworts
4. Angiosperm D. grasses
5.2.3. Kingdom Protesta

Major characteristics of Protista
All Protista are eukaryotic organisms that do have a nucleus.
They can be quite complex in their shapes.
Most Protista are aquatic, others are found in moist and damp
environments.
Most are unicellular; however, there are a few multicellular Protista
such as the giant kelp.
They include plant-like organisms that can move around and animal-
like organisms that cannot move.
They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature
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Protista makeup much of the plankton found in the oceans and are the
basis of the food supply for all the organisms in the sea.
Some protista cause serious disease in human beings.
FigureMembers of protista
Major groups of Protista and their habitats
Protista live in a variety of environments. Some of them float in water, while
some live at the bottom of a body of water. Some live only in freshwater,
others in saltwater. Some live on moist surfaces, such as those of fallen
leaves and branches of trees. Some are said to be free-living. Those that live
inside or on the bodies of other organisms are said to be parasitic.
Kingdom Protista includes two big groups of organisms:
Protozoans,
Eukaryotic algae.
Algae
Their size ranges from microscopic unicellular to a giant multicellular
They have distinct, visible nuclei and chloroplasts, eukaryotic
Harvest energy of sunlight to form carbohydrates through a process
known as photosynthesis.
Some of the examples
Chlorella is a single-celled non-motile alga that often forms a symbiosis
with aquatic invertebrates and protozoa. The cells contain a stigma (eyespot)
that functions in the absorption of light.
Volvox
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It is a type of colonial algae . They live in a variety of freshwater habitats.

Each mature Volvox colony is composed of numerous flagellate cells
embedded in the surface of a hollow sphere.
Spirogyra is a filamentous green algae of named for the helical or spiral
arrangement of the chloroplasts. It is commonly found in freshwater areas.
Spirogyra is called a filamentous alga, because it grows as long, filament-like
chains of cells. This body plan provides a ratio of surface area to volume,
which is important because each cell must independently absorb nutrients
and sunlight directly from the environment.
Protozoans
Unlike plants, fungi, and most types of algae, protozoan's do not typically
have a rigid cell wall but are usually enveloped by elastic structures of
membranes that permit movement of the cell. Heterotrophic organisms that
occupy marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. Characterized by
their mode of locomotion. Reproduce asexually or sexually. Includes
single-celled, usually microscopic, eukaryotic organisms. Some members of
protozoa , Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria, Entamoeba
histolyca, which causes amoebic dysentery, and Trypanosoma, the blood
parasite that causes sleeping sickness .
Amoeba
unicellular heterotrophs (they must eat food, as do animals)
They have one or more nuclei and a simple contractile vacuole to
maintain osmotic equilibrium.
Use pseudopodia as locomotory structure.
Reproduce asexually .
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Figure 5.15: Structure of amoeba
5.2.4 Kingdom Monera

Major characteristics of Monera
The Monerans are prokaryotic, unicellular organisms. They lack
organelles like mitochondria, lysosomes, plastids, Golgi bodies,
endoplasmic reticulum, centrosome, etc.
The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycan.
They show different modes of nutrition such as autotrophic, parasitic,
heterotrophic, or saprophytic.
Activity.5.6
1. What are Monerans?
2. What are the mode of nutrition in kingdom monerans?
3. What is the habitates?
Major groups of Monera and their habitats
They are unicellular organisms found everywhere in the environment. They
are found in air, in the soil, in the water, or as parasites in other organisms.
Major group of monera

Eubacteria
Eubacteria are also known as ―true bacteria‖.
There are several shapes, sizes and arrangements.
Bacterial cells come in three main shapes:
- Cocci (singular, coccus) – spherical bacteria
- Bacilli (singular, bacillus) – rod-shaped bacteria
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- Spirochaetes – spiral or corkscrew-shaped bacteria
Figure 5.16: Different shapes of bacteria

It moves with the help of flagella.
Most bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fusion.
Blue green algae (Cyanobacteria)
These bacteria are photosynthetic in nature.
Blue-green algae are considered to be more closely related to bacteria
than to other algae
They contain chlorophyll, carotenoids and phycobilins.
They are found in the aquatic region.
Some of these even fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Nostoc, Anabaena, are some cyanobacteria.
5.2.5. Kingdom Fungi

Major characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are eukaryotic and usually multicellular.
Fungi cannot make food by photosynthesis; they are heterotrophic,
either absorbing nutrients directly from their food or secreting
enzymes to digest their food outside the fungus and then absorbing
the nutrients.
They vary in size from single-celled yeasts to enormous puffballs.
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Major groups of Fungi and their habitats

Fungi are found in just about any habitat but most live on the land, mainly in
soil or on plant material rather than in sea or fresh water. Fungi can be
parasites, feeding on living organisms.
They attack plants more than animals, although some fungi, such as Candida
albicans (thrush) and Tinea pedis (athlete‘s foot) affect people and other
animals.
Fungal parasites such as the mildews cause enormous damage to plants.
Many fungi are saprotrophs , which means they feed on dead material. They
play a vital role with in ecosystems as decomposers. Examples of this type of
fungus are Rhizopus (bread mould), Mucor and Penicillium (the fungus that
produces the antibiotic penicillin). Some fungi are mutualists. Yeast, which
makes injera rise and allows us to make alcohol, is one of the few single-
celled fungi.
Multicellular filamentous Moulds.
Macroscopic filamentous fungi that form large fruiting bodies;
mushrooms.
Single celled microscopic yeasts.
Table 5.1: Summary of the five kingdom system
Kingdom Eubacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
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Cell Type prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic eukaryotic
Cell Cell walls Cell walls Cell walls are Cell walls No cell walls.
Structures composed of composed of composed of Composed of Nom
peptidoglyca Cellulose in chitin. Cellulose. chloroplasts.
ns some organisms. No chloroplasts Chloroplasts
Some have are present.
chloroplasts.
Cell Unicellular Most unicellular Most Multicellular Multicellular
Organizati .Some colonial. multicellular.
on Some Some
multicellular unicellular
Food Autotroph Autotrophy Heterotrophy Autotrophy Heterotrophy
Getting? Or Or Heterotropy
Heterotroph
Examples Staph E. coli Ameba Mushrooms Mosses Ferns
Paramecium Yeasts Liverworts
Algae Puffballs Molds Cone-bearing
Slime molds Mildews Smut Plants
Giant kelp Rust
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UNIT SUMMARY
• There are different characteristics of living things the major common
characteristics includes , respiration, excretion, growth, sensitivity
and reproduction, movement.
• Scientists have always tried to organize and classify the objects,
including living organisms, around them. Classification can be
defined as grouping organisms according to their structural
similarities.
• The binomial system of naming species means giving organisms two
names in Latin (scientific names).
• Animals are multi cellular, heterotrophic. They are classified into
two major groups vertebrate and invertebrate. Vertebrate animal are
animals with backbone. Includes amphibians, reptile, mammals, bird
and fish. Invertebrate are animals without backbone that comprise
99.9% of the animal kingdom.
• Plants are autotrophies organism the cell contain cellulose and
chlorophyll.
• The group plant kingdom classified as bryophyte, petreidiophayta,
Gymnosperms and angiosperm
• Bryophyte, petreidiophayta are all of them have naked embryo, which
are known as spores.
• All protests are eukaryotic organisms; Kingdom Protista includes
three big groups of organisms: protozoans, eukaryotic algae.
• Kingdom Monacans are unicellular organisms found in every
environment. They are found in hot springs, deep oceans, or as
parasites in other organisms
• Major group of mineral includes Eubacteria, Cyano bacteria.
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REVIEW QUESTION
PART I. Choose the best answer
1. The character of living things used to able to sense and response to stimuli
around them
A. growth B. reproduction C. sensitivity D. All
2. Which one of the following function is carried out by green plant, but not
animal ---
A. excretion B. growth C. photos synthesis D. respiration
3. Living things systematical grouping based on their structural similarity is
called ------
A. classification B. reproduction C. hierarchy D. binomial
4. In classification of living things their name drive from two binomial name
A. genius to specie B. order to family C. kingdom to phylum D. none
5. The hierarchal classification living things more related to ------
A. flag ceremony ordering student
B. The library book arrangement
C. The classroom student arrangement
D. All the above answer
6. Which classification organism ordering to smallest to highest
A. kingdom - phylum - class- order -family - genus --species
B. Species--genus --family --order ---class- phylum --kingdom
C. kingdom --class---phylum --family --genus ---species D. All
7. The contracted form of seven-hierarchy classification from higher to lower
A. KCPOGS B. SGOPCK C. KPCOFGS D. GPCSGFO
PART II. Give short answer
8. Write the two major animal kingdom -----------------,------------------
9. Write three differences between thallophytic and petridiophyta
10. Write among the major character of Protista at least two.
11. What is the difference between living things and nonliving things?
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12. What is the relationship between administrative structures in your school

with classifications of organism?
13. Why scientific name should be used over the local name.
Part III. Say “TRUE” If the statement is correct and “FALSE” if the
statement is incorrect.
14.In the rule of scientific naming genus name is written first species written
second.
15. Animal are autotrophic in which the cell contains cellulose and
chlorophyll.
16. Non vascular plant have defined root, steam, and leave.
17. Some parasites that live only on the surface of the host body are called
end parasites.
18. Moneta lack organelles like mitochondria, lysosomes, plastid and other.
19. The major group of mineral are eubacteria, cyanobacteria.
PART IV. MATCH COLUMN " B" WITH COLUMN " A"
Column A Column B
1. Vertebrate animal A. Worm, snail, spider. Jellyfish
2. Invertebrate B. Fungi
3. Protozoan Protista C. true bacteria
4. Eubacteria D. Cow, frog, fish, snake
5. Cyano bacteria E. Blue-green algae.
6. Single celled microscopic yeasts F. Zoo flagellates,
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UNIT 6
6. EARTH IN SPACE
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
 Describe the shape of the earth;
 Identify evidences supporting the shape of the earth;
 List local and global ideas about the shape of the earth;
 Name dimensions (circumferences, diameters, and angular distances) of
the earth;
 Recognize all parts of the earth;
 Describe the organization and contents of the different parts of the earth;
 Explain different observations about the earth in terms of the nature and
behaviors of the different parts of the earth;
 Demonstrate movements of the earth (revolution and rotation);
 Explain the effects of motions of the earth;
 Construct the model of earth and use it to explain phenomena related to
its motion;
 Identify atmospheric and lithospheric systems;
 Explain their cycle effects of the earth;
 Describe the measuring techniques for too big (Earth) and to small
(continental drift) quantities measurement and estimation.
Introduction
Earth is one of the eight planets in the solar system, the only planet known to
harbor life, and the ‗home‘ of human beings. From space earth resembles a
big blue marble with swirling white clouds floating above blue Ocean. About
71 percent of earth‗s surface is covered by water, which is essential to life,
the rest is land, mostly in the form of continents that rise above the oceans.
Earth is the biggest of the four planets closest to the Sun.
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6.1. SHAPE AND DIMENSION OF THE EARTH

After completing this section you should be able to:
 Describe the shape of the earth
 Identify evidences supporting the shape of the earth
 List local and global ideas about the shape of the earth
 Name dimensions (circumferences, diameters, and angular distances) of
the earth
Activity 6.1
Build the model of the earth from locally available material.

Discuss in a group about its shape?
The earth on which we live is one of the planets in the universe, but the
shape of the earth has remained questionable throughout history. Because the
earth is round, however, it is not a perfect circle. It has almost a spherical
shape. The globe is the best model of the earth
Figure 6.1: shapes of the earth
Activity 6.2
1. Discuss about circumferences, diameters, and angular distances of

the earth by using model of the earth?
2. Calculate the circumferences and diameter of the earth?
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Earth‟s Circumference is the distance around the earth.
Figure 6.2: Circumference of the earth around the pole
Figure 6.3: Circumference of the earth around the equator
Diameter of the earth (D) is the length of the line through the center that
touches two points on the edge of the earth.
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Figure 6.4: Diameter of the earth

Figure 6.4. Indicates that the equatorial and the polar diameters are slightly
different. Thus, the diameter from pole to pole is shorter than the diameter at
the equator. In fact, the difference is small.
Angular Distance: The latitude of the equator is zero degrees (0°). Lines of
latitude north and south of the equator are numbered to 90° because the
angular distance from the equator to each pole is one-fourth of a circle, or
one-fourth of 360°.Angular Distance is a separation between line of latitude
north and south and line of longitude north and south the symbol of
angular distance is .
Activity 6.3
1) Search evidences supporting the shape of the earth from different

source and present in the class.
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Exercises 6.1
Fill in the Blank space.
1. _________ is the best model of the earth.
2. Angular distance is measured in ______.
3. The earth is slight _______ at the poles and slight _____ at the equator.
1. Describe the shape of the earth
2. List local and global ideas about the shape of the earth
3. Name dimensions of the earth
6.2. Parts of the Earth (Body &Atmosphere)

After completing this section, you should be able to:
 Recognize all parts of the earth;
 Describe the organization and contents of the different parts of the earth;
Explain different observations about the earth in terms of the nature and
behaviors of the different parts of the earth
Activity 6.4 Do the following in group
1. Name all parts of the earth

2. Discuss organization and contents parts of the earth
The Earth is an oblate (flattened) spheroid. It is composed of a number of

different layers as determined by deep drilling and seismic evidence. There
are three layers inside the earth as shown in figure 6.5.
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Figure 6.5: layers of the earth surface

The crust: - is the outer and the thinnest layer of the earth, it only
comprises 0.01% of the volume of the earth. Its thickness ranges 0-70 km.
It is the solid or rocky layer upon which we live. The crust can be divided
into two parts: The continental crust (20-70 km) and the oceanic crust (4-7
km thick).
The crust is made up of various elements. These elements are oxygen,
silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium.
Moreover, it also comprises rocks and minerals.
The mantle:- is the second layer of the earth, shares over 80% of the
earth‘s total volume. It has a diameter or thickness of approximately 2900
km.
The mantle is made up of a semi molten rock called magma. At the upper
part of the mantle, rocks are harder but moving farther interior, the rocks
are soften and begin to melt.
The core:-it is the inner most part of the earth. Its Radius is about 3470
kilometers. It is mainly composed of iron and nickel.
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The core has two sections: The Inner and the Outer core. The Inner core is
found in the center, it is solid and the hottest part of the earth by nature. Its
temperature reaches up to 55000C. The Outer core is the layer surrounding
the inner core and it kept in a semi-molten state.
Figure 6.6: parts of the earth layers

Activity 6.5 assignment
Explain about the earth in terms of the nature and behaviors of the
different parts of the earth and present for your classmates.
Exercise 6.2
Complete the sentences by choosing words from a given box below.
Crust Continental Magma Outer core Oceanic
1. Very hot and solid part of the earth is called____.

2. The two part of the crust is ________ crust and________ crust.
3. The mantle is made up of a semi molten rock called____.
4. ___________ is the thine layer of the earth.
1. Write down layers of the earth?
2. Explain the nature and behaviors of the different parts of the earth?
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6.3. MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH

 Demonstrate movements of the earth (revolution and rotation);
 Explain the effects of motions of the earth;
 Construct the model of earth and use it to explain phenomena related to
its motion.
Activity6.6
Take the model of the earth and place it in front of torch lighting. Move the
model from west to east in front of the torch.
1. Show movement of the earth
2. Explain effects of motions of the earth
Everything in the universe moves. So earth is one of the planets in the

universe that makes two movements. These are
Rotation:-the earth makes one complete movement on its axis from west to
east once in every 24 hours.
Revolution:-the earth makes one complete movement round the sun in an
orbit in every 365¼ days; the two movements go hand in hand
6.3.1 EFFECTS OF ROTATION OF THE EARTH

6.3.1.1 Day and Night
When the earth rotates on its own axis, only one half of the earth gets the
sun‘s light at any rotational movement. The part of the earth on which the
sun is shining has day and the other part which is hidden from the shining of
the sun experiences night.
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Figure 6.7: Light from the Sun only reaches one half of the earth as it rotates
As the earth turns from west to east, the part of the earth which was facing
the sun will turn away from the sun and the part of the earth which was away
from the sun will face the sun. This is how day and night succeed one
another.
The difference between daytime and nighttime is that in day time the sun is
above the horizon while during night time it is below the horizon
6.3.1. 2. Apparent Movement of the Sun
The Sun does not really move, it just appears to move because the Earth is
turning on its axis. So, it is the Earth's rotation that causes the apparent
movement of the Sun across the sky during the day. From a fixed location on
Earth, the sun appears to move throughout the sky.
Fig. 6.8: The apparent movement of the sun around the earth
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6.3.2 EFFECTS OF REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

6.3.2.1 Difference in the length of day and night
Day and night are not of equal length at all places. This is because of the
inclination of the earth‘s axis. The inclination of the axis is 23½ from its
vertical position. This inclination of the earth‘s axis makes the sun seem to
be "moving" north and south of the equator.
Variation in the length of the day is observed due to incoming and outgoing
seasons. The length of the daytime and nighttime varies from season to
season and from place to place. This is mainly due to the tilting of the earth‘s
axis. If the earth‘s axis were not tilted, each night and day everywhere on
earth would always be 12 hours long and there would be no seasons.
Fig. 6.9: Tilted axis of the earth
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6.3.2.2 Seasons
Weather changes from day to day. Then weather remains the same for a long
period, we call it season. Season is a period of the year that is divided by
typical weather conditions. Each season has its own weather pattern.
There are some months that are very hot or cold. It rains heavily during some
months. The seasons change in the same order every year. It is a period of
the year that is divided by typical weather conditions. Each season has its
own weather pattern.
Two reasons are responsible for the seasons. The first is the motion of the
earth around the sun once every 365 ¼ days, which is one year. The second
is the tilt of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit around the sun, which is
23 ½ degrees.
Seasons have an enormous impact on us, affecting the conditions in the
atmosphere and on the earth that create our weather. As the earth revolves
around the sun, it is tilted at a 23.5° angle in relation to the sun. Because of
the earth‘s revolution and its tilt, different parts of the earth receive the direct
rays of the sun for more hours of the day at certain times in the year. This
causes the changing seasons on the earth.
157
Fig 6.10: The seasons as the Earth revolve around the Sun.
In the fig. 6.10. You can see the Earth travelling around the Sun in its orbit.
The Earth's axis always points in the same direction in space. Because of
this, sometimes the Southern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun and
sometimes it is tilted away from the Sun. Let's follow the path of the Earth
around the Sun as it completes one revolution from points 1 to 4.
At position 1 the light falls directly on the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 o S).
This occurs when we, in the Southern Hemisphere, are having summer, and
is called a solstice. The day of the summer solstice is the longest day in the
year. In the Southern Hemisphere, this is usually around 21 December. At
position 3, the light falls directly on the Tropic of Cancer (23.5o N). This
occurs during our winter, whilst the Northern Hemisphere is having summer.
This is called the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere and occurs
around the 21 June. The winter solstice is the shortest day of the year. At
position 2 and 4, the equator receives direct sunlight. This is called an
equinox.
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An equinox occurs twice a year, around 20 March (when our autumn

equinox occurs at position 2) and 22 September (when our spring equinox
occurs at position 4) the days and nights all over the world are equal in
length. The equinoxes mark the beginning of spring and autumn.
As the earth moves around the sun, it also spins about its axis. The rotation
of the earth about its axis (i.e. about the line through its North and south
poles), and making one complete rotation every 24 hours. This creates day
for the half of the earth‘s surface facing the sun and night for the other half.
Exercise 6.3
1. Explain the movement of the earth?
2. What effects happen when the earth move on its axis?
3. Write down the phenomena related to the earth motion?
4. What happen if the earth‘s axis was not tilted?
5. How many seasons do you know write their name?
6.4 System and cycles

6.4.1 Components of the Earths Physical Environment
 Identify atmospheric and lithospheric systems;
 Explain their cycle effects of the earth;
 Describe the measuring techniques for too big (Earth) and to small
(continental drift) quantities measurement and estimation.
Activity 6.7
Search from different source about atmospheric and lithospheric

systems of the earth and discuss in a class
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The geo-sphere is considered as geography‘s scope. The geo-sphere itself is

made up of four sub spheres, namely the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, biosphere. Each system is unique, yet each interacts with the
others.
1. Lithosphere
Lithosphere describes the solid inorganic portion of the Earth (composed of
rocks, minerals and elements). It can be regarded as the outer surface and
interior of the solid Earth. On the surface of the Earth, the lithosphere is
composed of three main types of rocks:
Igneous - rocks formed by solidification of molten magma.
Sedimentary - rocks formed by the alteration and compression of old
rock debris or organic sediments.
Metamorphic - rocks formed by alteration of existing rocks by
intense heat or pressure.
2. Atmosphere
The blanket of gases that surrounds our planet is called the atmosphere.
Earth‘s atmosphere contains about78 nitrogen and 21 oxygen,
0.93 argon and 0.03 carbon dioxide, and there are also rare gases such as
neon, helium, methane, etc.

Earth‘s atmosphere provides oxygen for living things, protects Earth‘s
inhabitants from harmful radiation from the Sun, and helps to keep the planet
at a temperature suitable for life.
3. Hydrosphere
All the water on Earth, including the water in the atmosphere, makes up the
hydrosphere. About 97 of Earth‘s water exist as salt water, while the
remaining 3 is freshwater contained in glaciers, lakes and rivers, and
beneath Earth‘s surface as groundwater. Only a fraction of Earth‘s total

amount of freshwater is in lakes and rivers.
160
4. Biosphere
The biosphere includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. It also
includes all living organisms, and also dead organic matter on Earth as well
as the environments in which they live. Most organisms live within a few
meters of Earth‘s surface, but some exist deep beneath the ocean‘s surface,
and others live high a top (on the top) Earth‘s mountains.
All of Earth‘s life-forms require interaction with at least one of the other
systems for their survival.
6.4.2 System and cycles of spheres
A cycle is something that never stops. It has no beginning and has no end.
An example is the water cycle, where the water goes through a basic journey
rains fall and end up in rivers, rivers end in the sea, seawater evaporates and
forms rain clouds, and the rain fall again
The entire spheres in the system interconnect and overlap. No sphere works
on its own. Consider the figure bellow
Figure 6.11: All of Earth’s systems are interdependent.

Think of the many ways that the hydrosphere and the atmosphere
connect. Evaporation from the hydrosphere provides the medium for
cloud and rain formation in the atmosphere. The atmosphere brings
back rainwater to the hydrosphere
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Water provides the moisture and medium for weathering and erosion
of rocks in the geosphere (lithosphere). The geosphere (lithosphere),
in turn, provides the platform for ice melts and water bodies to flow
back into the oceans.
The atmosphere provides the geosphere (lithosphere). With heat and
energy needed for rock breakdown and erosion. The geosphere
(lithosphere), in turn, reflects the sun‘s energy back into the
atmosphere.
6.4.3. Continental Drift
Activity 6.8
1. Discuss cycle effects of the earth by finding from different source

2. Describe measuring techniques continental drift how too big and
too small earth
Continental drift was a theory that explained how continents shift position on
Earth's surface.
In 1912, Alfred Wegener of Germany presented a new idea about continents,
the continental drift hypothesis. It maintained that the earth was once a
supercontinent that divided and slowly drifted apart over millions of years.
Wegener called the supercontinent Pangaea (from a Greek word meaning
Pangaea (pan means all and gaea means earth) a Greek word meaning
Pangaea ―all earth‖. An ocean called Panthalassa surrounded it.
162
Figure 6.12: Supercontinent named Pangaea

The supercontinent split into many plates that drifted, crashed into each
other, and split apart several times before they came to their current
positions. This process occurred over millions of years.
163
Figure 6.13: Supercontinent split apart

In the 1960s, scientists studying the sea floor discovered that the youngest
rocks were in the middle of the ocean, at long cracks in the crust. This
164
suggested that the new sea floor was being added, pushing the continents
apart.
Figure 6.14: Super continent now a day
Exercises 6.4
Fill in the Blank space
1. Pangaea is splits in to___________ and ___________.
2. The earth is too big in supercontinent _____________.
1. Which spheres contains all earth‘s water?
2. What is lithospheric?
3. Explain their cycle effects of the earth.
4. Describe the measuring techniques for too big and too small earth in
terms of Continental drift?
165
UNIT SUMMERY
• The shape of the earth is almost spherical.
• The distance around the earth is circumference of the Earth‘s
• The length of the line through the center that touches two points on
the edge of the earth is diameter of the earth.
• The position of places on the earth‘s surface is Angular Distance
• The earth has three layers, from out to inside, namely the crust, the
mantle and the core.
• Axis of the earth is tilted by from the vertical position.
• The noticeable movements of the earth are rotation and revolution.
• The path the earth follows when it revolves round the sun is called
orbit. It is elliptical in shape.
• Effects of rotation include changing day and night and apparent
movement of the sun.
• Effects of revolution consist of difference in the length of day and
night and manifestations of seasons as well.
• Seasons are divisions of the year caused by the earth‘s revolution
• The earth system can be divided into four physical systems: the
atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere.
• Continental drift theory suggests that continents were once joined
together and later split and drift apart.
166
Review Questions
Instruction I: Write TRUE if the statements are correct or write FALSE If
the statements are incorrect
1. The earth rotates from east to west.
2. Position of places on the earth‘s surface is called angular distance
3. The earth‘s shape is likened to perfectly circular object
4. Continental drift suggests that continents were once joined together and
later split and drift apart.
5. Days and nights all over the world are equal in length at the beginning of
spring and autumn
Instruction II: Match the following definition with their appropriate
words From column ‗B‘ with column ‗A‘
Column A Column B
1. Solid part of the Earth A. Biosphere
2. Blanket of air B. Hydrosphere
3. Water found on the Earth C. atmosphere
4. All life is found D. Lithosphere
Instruction III: Choose the best answer from the given alternative.
____1. What do you call the complete movement that the earth makes on its
Axisevery24hours?
A. Rotation B. Revolution C. Day and night D.
Season
____2. What two important elements constitute the earth‘s innermost core?
A. Granite and basalt C. Potassium and magnesium
B. Magma and lava D. Nickel and iron
____3. The layer that makes up most of the earth‘s mass and volume is:
A. Mantle B. Core C. Crust D. Magma
____4. The thin outermost layer of the earth is?
A. Mantle B. Magma C. Crest D. Core
167
____5. About 0.03% of the Atmospheric gas is ?

A. Oxygen B. Nitrogen C. Carbon dioxide D. Hydrogen
____6. Who was the first person who tried to explain the present location and
distribution of the seven continents, using the Continental Drift
theory?
A. Darwin B. Alfred Wegener
C. Harry H. Hess D. Sir Francis Bacon
___7. Which gas constitutes the largest share of the atmosphere?
A. Carbon dioxide B. Nitrogen C. Argon D. Oxygen
___8. Among the gases of the earth‘s atmosphere which one is the most
important gas for living things to exist?
A. Carbon dioxide B. Nitrogen C. Helium D. Oxygen
Instruction IV: Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words or Phrases.
1. The middle layer of the earth is known as___________________.
2. The two sections of the crust are __________and________________
the distance around the earth _________________.
3. Rocks formed by solidification of molten magma called_______ .
4. The two reason for manifestations of seasons are_________
and________.
5. How much of earth water exist as salt__________.
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UNIT 7
7. MOTION, FORCE, ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Learning Outcomes:
 Describe the term motion;
 Identify types of motion (motion on straight line, circular motion, rotary
motion and curvilinear motion);
 Show those types of motion in the class;
 Explain the term force;
 Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force;
 Explain gravitational force;
 List all effects of force;
 Demonstrate some effects of force.;
 Relate effects of force with their daily life experience;
 Name measuring device of force;
 Identify different measuring scales on measuring device of force;
 Explain parts of measuring device of force;
 Define energy as a property of matter that can be converted;
 List all forms of energy;
 Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy.
 List sources of energy.
 Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable forms of energy;
 Describe how energy is used wisely. List the strategies of conservation of
energy;
 Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation.
169
Introduction
This unit is made up of nine sub-topics. It treats definition and types of
motion, definition of force and gravitational force, effects of force,
measuring force definition of energy, forms and conversion of energy,
energy sources, wise use and conservation of energy and resource depletion
and environmental degradation.
It discusses motion and types of motion, force and types of forces, effects of
force, measuring force, Newton's laws of motion, mass and weight, work,
energy, forms of energy, conversion of energy, renewable source energy,
non-renewable source energy, wise use of energy, conservation of energy,
natural resource, resource depletion and environmental degradation.
7.1 Definition and Types of Motion

After completing this section you should be able to
 Describe the term motion;
 Identify types of motion (motion on straight line, circular motion, rotary
motion and curvilinear motion);
 Show those types of motion in the class.
Activity 7.1 Discuss the following equation in groups
1) What do you think about motion?

2) When would you say an object is at rest?
3) What do you understand by the term" reference frame"?
7.1.1 Definition of motion

Motion is one of the most noticeable features of the world around us. All of
the changes that we see in the world about us are the result of motion. The
earth in which we live in filled with moving things, such as
A train moves from Dire Dawa to Djibouti.
170
A bird flies from one tree to another.

A bus moves from Harar to Dire Dawa
All these bodies change their position relative to some reference frame.
Every motion is described in a frame of reference. A reference frame is
something in which all other motions are defined. Motions that takes place
on the earth‘s surface the earth is used as a reference frame.
A body can be at rest or in motion depending on the reference frame
If the position of a body changes with time in a reference frame, the body is
said to be in motion in that reference frame.
A body which does not move is said to be at rest.
Motion is a continuous change in position of an object relative to the

position of a fixed object called reference frame.
7.1.2 Types of motion
Activity 7.2
Discuss in a group about types of motion by searching from different

sources and present in to the class
There are various types of motion that we can observe in our daily life.
Based on the path followed, a motion is classified into five types.
1. Rectilinear motion is the motion of a body along a
straight line
Examples
Usain Bolt is running 100m race along a straight

track
Motion of a train along a straight rail.
171
The walking a woman along a straight road.

Motion of a bus along a straight level road
2. Curvilinear Motion is the motion of a body along a

curved path.
Examples
The motion of a ball thrown horizontally from a

certain height
A path followed by a javelin thrown by an athlete
A car moving on the curved road
3. Circular motion is a special case of curvilinear motion, in which the

body moves along a circular path.
Examples
A girl whirling stone tied at the end of a string.
The motion of a satellite around the earth
Athlete running in a circular track.
The motion of the moon around the earth.
4. Rotary motion is the motion of a body about a fixed axis and every point
of the object moves about a fixed axis.
Examples
The motion of blades of a windmill
The motion of the second or minute hand of a wrist watch,
The motion of a wheel of a car.
The motion of blades of a fan
5. Vibratory or Oscillatory motion is a 'to and fro' or back and forth or

up and down motion of a body. It repeats under a regular interval of
time this motion does not have constant velocity.
172
Examples
The motion of a pendulum,
The motion of objects suspended on a spring
The motion of the wings of bees
The motion of a swing
Note: Both rotary and vibrational motions are periodic
motions.
Exercises 7.1
Write down some examples of motion for each type from your daily
experiences.
Types of motion Practical Examples
1. rectilinear ________________________________
2. curvilinear ________________________________
3. circular motion ________________________________
4. vibrational motion _________________________________
5. rotary motion _________________________________
7.2 definition of force and gravitational force

 Explain the term force;
 Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force;
 Explain gravitational force.
Activity 7.3
1) Select two students from your group to show the pulling/pushing
activities in front of the class
2) What do you think about force from the above demonstration?
173
7.2.1 Definition of force

Force is a very important physical quantity. It is used to describe interaction
in nature. It causes change in state of motion and lows of motion are
described in terms of force.
When we push, pull, kick, lift, throw, press, open, and close an object these
actions are nothing but the application of force. It is used to describe
interactions between two bodies in nature. Hence, in physics, the term 'force'
is used to describe a 'push' or a 'pull' exerted on a body
Force is a push or a pull exerted on a body by another body. The SI unit

of force is Newton (N).
Activity 7.4 group work
Material required magnet, table, comb, human hair
1) Discuss the type of force by searching from different reference

source and show it using the above materials in the class?
7.2.2. Types of forces

Forces are classified into two broad categories
1. Contact forces are forces, which are exerted when two objects are in
touch or direct contact.
Examples, of contact force include frictional forces, tension forces,

normal forces, air
Resistance forces and applied forces.
174
A man is pushing a car. Losa is kicking a ball.

Figure 7.1 Contact forces
2. Non-contact forces are forces that are exerted without direct contact
between bodies, yet are able to exert a push or a pull at a distance.
Examples of non-contact (action at a distance) force include
Gravitational force, Magnetic force and electrical forces.
a) Attraction and repulsion force of magnets.
175
b) Electrostatic forces
Figure 7.2 Non- contact forces
Activity 7.5 Discuss in a group
1) Why every thrown object failed to the ground?
7.2.3. Gravitational Force

Gravitational Force is a force by which an object attracts another object
towards itself. All objects have a gravitational force, but it most noticeable in
massively large objects like the earth or the sun. The earth pulls all objects
towards itself due to its gravitational force.
Gravitational force is the force that exerted by the earth on every object,
which is near or on its surface.
Fig.7.3. Apple falling from a tree
176
Exercise 7.2
Complete the sentences by choosing the words from a given box below.
Contact force non-contact force
Gravitational force Newton
1. The SI unit of force is ______.

2. A force exerts a push or a pull at a distance is called _____.
3. _______ is a force that exerted by the earth on every.
4. Tension forces, normal forces and air resistance are examples of
____________.
1. What is a force?
2. Writ some example of non-contact.
3. Explain gravitational force
Activity 7.6
Material needed Ball, spring, Rubber band and Plastic foam

Show the effects of force in a group by using the given material?
7.3. Effects of force

 List all effects of force;
 Demonstrate some effects of force.
 Relate effects of force with their daily life experience
Force can have the following main effects, when it is exerted on an object.
1. It can change the shape and size of the objects. This change in shape or
size is known as deformation. There are two types of deformations
177
Permanent deformation
Temporary deformation
2. It can change the magnitude or direction of motion of the objects
a stationary body starts to move
a moving body increases its speed
a moving body decreases its speed and gradually stops moving
a moving body changes it direction
Exercise 7.3
1. List effects of force that are face in your daily life
7.4 measuring force
 Name measuring device of force;
 Identify different measuring scales on measuring device of force;
 Explain parts of measuring device of force
Activity 7.7
Which device is used to measure force?
Fig.7.4: Instruments of measuring force
178
Force is measured in an instrument called spring balance or Newton meter.

Spring balance consists of a spring attached to a pointer. A spring stretches
when a pulling force acts on it, and is squashed or compressed when a
pushing force acts on it. Consider the following spring mass system
Fig. 7.5: Different forces

When a mass is suspended from its end, it stretches.
The amount of stretch depends on the mass
The larger the mass is suspended, the more the spring stretches.
As illustrated in Fig. 7.5. Above, different masses are suspended on the
spring. For example, 30kg mass and 50kg mass are suspended. 50kg mass
stretch the spring more than 30kg mass.
Exercise 7.4
1. Draw the picture of spring balance or Newton meter on your exercise

book show and name all parts of the device?
7.4.1. Newton's Laws of Motion

In sub unit 7.1 you learned about the Definition and types of Motion of
bodies. And In the sub unit7.3, you learned the major effects of a force.
Combining these two backgrounds, it is now necessary to study the
relationship between force and motion.
179
Galileo Galilee (1564-1642 AD) and Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727 AD) tried
to explain the causes of motion of bodies in a certain direction or why bodies
stop their motion. These ideas were put together by Sir Isaac Newton in the
form of laws of motion called Newton's laws of motion.
Activity7.8 Discuss the following questions with your friends.
Place any object (textbook, or pen, or eraser) on a floor.

1. What happens to the state of motion of the object, when you do
not exert a force on it?
2. Exert a force (push or pull) on the objects. What happens to their
states of motion?
7.4.1.1 Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
Newton‟s first law of motion states that: "An object continues in its
state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is forced to
change that state by the application of an external force."
Inertia is the property of a body to retain its state of rest or state of

uniform motion in a straight line in the absence of an external force.
Activity 7.9
Place your book on the surface of a floor. Push the pen and observe its
motion. Similarly apply the same amount of force on a table; standing on a
floor.
What effects do you notice in both activities?
Is the speed of the table the same as that of the pen?
7.4.1.2 Newton's second law of motion (laws of acceleration)
180
Newton's first law describes the qualitative property of a force. It describes

how force changes the state of rest or uniform motion of a mass of body. In
other words, it states that every change in the magnitude or direction of a
body's velocity is caused by applying an external force.
In Newton's second law you will learn how to measure the magnitude of a
force required bringing a given body to rest or setting in motion.
Activity 7.10
Consider two boxes 'A' and 'B' as in Fig 7.6. Let the mass of ‗A‘ is 30 kg
and that of 'B‘ is 60 kg. Both are at rest. Suppose you push separately the
two boxes with the same force of 20N.
1) Which box changes its motion easily? Explain it
Fig.7.6: Different masses acted by the same force
Newton‟s second law of motion states that: “The acceleration of a

body is directly proportional to the force „(F)‟ acting on the body
mathematically ( ) and inversely proportional to the mass
„(m)‟of the body mathematically ( ).”The SI unit of force is
Newton, represented by 'N'. 1 N = 1 kg m/s2

1 Newton is the force needed to give an acceleration of 1m/s2 to a mass
of 1kg.
This law is valid for objects ranging from the size of atoms to size beyond
the distances of galaxies and everything in between. This is why Newton's
181
second law of motion is called the ‗universal‘ law. It describes the way
objects in the universe move.
7.4.1.3 Mass and weight

All objects are made up of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes
up space.
Mass is a measurement of the amount of matter in an object. In other words,
mass is how heavy an object is without gravity. Mass is not a force mass is
usually measured with a beam balance. The unit of mass is kilograms (kg) or
grams (g). Thus the mass of a given body is the same everywhere.
Weight is a force caused by gravity. In other words, weight is a
measurement of how much gravity pulls on an object. Weight depends on the
strength of gravity. Weight can be measured with a spring balance or a scale.
The unit of weight is also Newton (N) because weight is a force.
Activity 7.11
1. Push the wall of your classroom; do you feel that the wall is pushing
against you?
2. Place a book on a table and let it stay at rest. What are the forces acting
between the box and the table?
A man pushing a wall A book resting on a table

Fig.7.7: Action and Reaction forces
182
7.4.1.4. Newton‟s Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction)
Newton's third law states that "To every action there is always an
equal and opposite reaction”. That is, whenever one body exerts a
certain force on a second body, the second body also exerts an equal
and opposite force on the first.
Action and reaction forces always act on two different bodies and
always exist in pairs.
Exercises 7.5
Complete the sentences by choosing the words from a given box below.
Force Matter equal weight opposite
1. Mass is the amount of________ in an object.

2. The __________of an object is the downwards pull of gravity on it.
3. Action and reaction forces are always _______ in magnitude and
________in direction.
4. The cause for the change in the state of rest or motion of an object
is_______.

1. List parts of measuring device of force
2. What is inertia?
3. What is the difference between mass and weight?
7.5. Definition of Energy

After completing this unit you should be able to:
 Define energy as a property of matter that can be converted;
 Identify the relation between work and energy.
183
7.5.1. Work
Activity 7.12 Discuss the following questions with your friends

1. How do define work in a day-to-day life?
2. When do we say work is done?
The usual meaning of work is quite different from the scientific meaning of
work. In every day activity, the term work is used equally for mental work
and for physical work involving muscular force.
Reading a book
Carrying a bag and standing still.
Mentally in thinking about a simple or difficult problem.
In all these activities, according to the scientific definition, you are not doing
any work at all.
According to the scientific definition
Work is said to be done when energy is transformed from one form to
others
Work is done, when a force F is applied to a body and the body
moves through a distance s on the direction of the force.
Fig.7.8. A force (F) moves a block of mass (m) from point ‘P’ to ‘Q’ through
a displacement (s)
184
7.5.2. Energy
Activity 7.13
Find the relation between matter and energy from different

sources and present in to the class.
All living things need energy. We learnt in Life and living that energy is one
of the requirements for life. However, it is not only living things which need
energy to move and carry out various processes. The machines and
appliances in our world around us also need energy to do work.
For example, when you walk, you can walk and move because you use the
energy from the food you ate. When the truck moves, it is because it has
been filled with diesel. When energy is used, work is done.
Energy is a property that objects possess. The fact that a body possesses
energy means that it has ability to do work.
For example
Work is done when a ball is kicked because a force is needed and the
ball moves.
When driving a truck along a road; you need a force to move the
truck, so work is done when the truck moves.
Thus, the energy of a body is equal to the quantity of work that the body can
do.
Energy is the capacity to do work. Its SI unit is Joule (J).
185
Exercise 7.6
1. What is energy?
2. Write the three necessary condition work to be done
3. Identify weather work is done or not in the following condition
a) Pulling a block horizontally by applying horizontal force.
b) Carrying a 50 kg teff and standing still.
c) Pushing a wall horizontally by applying a large force.
d) Lifting a body vertically upward.
7.6. Forms and Conversion of Energy

 List all forms of energy;
 Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy.
7.6.1. Forms of Energy
Activity 7.14 Do the following equation in groups
1. List all forms of energy

2. Identify each forms of energy
3. Which energy is converted in to other forms of energy?
There are many different forms of energy around us such as; chemical, heat,
sound and electricity.
The forms of energies possessed due to its motion.
Kinetic energy Sound energy
Heat energy
The forms of energies possessed due to its position (storing)
Gravitational potential energy
water energy
186
Exercise 7.7
Identify the following forms of energy according to their property?
1. Elastic potential energy (strain)
2. Chemical energy
3. Electromagnetic energy (light)
4. Electrical energy
5. Nuclear energy
7.6.2 Conversion of Energy

The law of conservation of energy is one of the universal laws of nature and
it is stated as follows:
The law of conservation of energy, states that the total energy of a closed
system must remain constant. This means
Within an isolated system, energy may be transferred from one object to
another or transformed from one form to another, but it cannot be increased
or decreased.
In essence this means ―Energy is neither created nor destroyed.‖ It only
transforms from one form to another forms. The energy has been conserved;
it has not changed in value.
In hydroelectric power scheme, water stored in the dam has potential energy.
When the water is released it flows down pipes and gains kinetic energy.
This energy causes movement of the turbine and generator to produce
electrical energy. This energy can be used to produce heat or light in our
homes.
187
Figure 7.9. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam for Hydroelectric Power
a) A pendulum at rest b) A pendulum in motion

Figure 7.10. Pendulum
As the bob is lifted to position A the pendulum gains gravitational potential
energy then the bob is released and the gain in gravitational potential energy
is converted into kinetic energy at position B it is travelling fastest, it has the
most Kinetic energy but also the lowest gravitational potential energy then
the bob rises to position C, losing kinetic energy and gaining gravitational
potential energy as it does so. Figure 7.15 shows how the potential energy
and kinetic change over time.
188
Figure 7.11.A burning candle

When a candle burns Chemical energy of the candle changed to heat and
light at the same time
Exercise 7.8
Complete each sentence with the correct word.
1. When television is turned on, electrical energy is changed into _____and
____.
2. After a ball is bouncing off the ground, gravitational potential energy can
be changed to __________ energy.
3. Energy that is generated by moving turbines in a power plant is
______energy.

1. List all forms of energy
2. Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy.
7.7. Energy Sources

 List sources of energy;
 Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable forms of energy.
189
Activity 7.15 Do the following equation in groups
1. Why do we need energy?

2. List all source of energy.
3. Differentiate renewable and non-renewable forms of energy.
People need energy for cooking, heating, lightning and for many other
purposes. For this reason, we need to have a source of energy such as sun,
fuel, hydroelectric, wind, nuclear.
There are two types of source of energy

1. Renewable source energy is the energy sources are ones which can be
recycled or reused. There is an unlimited supply.
Example, wind, hydropower, geothermal, solar power and bio fuels
2. Non-renewable source energy is the energy sources cannot be recycled
or reused. There is a limited amount available.
Example, fossil fuels it consists coal, crude oil and natural gas and
nuclear fuels
Exercise 7.9
Complete the following table by writing renewable energy and non-
renewable energy
Energy source
Wind
Coal
Uranium
Water ( hydropower)
Sun
Bio fuels
Fossil
190
7.8. Wise Use and Conservation of Energy

 Describe how energy is used wisely;
 List the strategies of conservation of energy.
Activity 7.16 Assignment
1) Search the wise use and conservation of energy from different

sources and report to the class
7.8.1. Wise Use of Energy

Saving energy does not mean putting on a jacket and sitting in the dark.
It does mean using energy when you need it and not when you do not.
Paying attention to the energy we use not only saves money but can
actually improve the building environment in which we work and learn.
7.8.2. Conservation of Energy

Conservation of energy is the wise use of energy. It plays a significant role of
lessening climate change and the replacement of non-renewable resources
with renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most inexpensive
solution to energy shortages, and it is more environmentally kind alternative
to increased energy production.
Since we have limited quantity of non-renewable energy resources available
on earth, it is very important to preserve energy from our current supply or to
utilize renewable resources so that it is also available to our future generation
Energy conservation plays a very important role because utilization of non-
renewable resources also impacts our environment specially, usage of fossil
fuels supplies to air and water pollution such as carbon dioxide is produced
when oil, coal and gas combust in power stations, heating systems, and
engines of car.
191
As we all aware of the carbon dioxide works as a transparent layer in the

atmosphere that is part of the cause to the global warming of the earth, or we
can also name it as greenhouse effect.
Strategies of conservation of energy
1. You should walk or ride a bicycle instead of driving a car and as a result,
it Emits to roughly 60 of air pollution.
2. At our homes, you should use lights, which consume less energy and
continue till 10 times more than bright light bulbs.
3. For saving energy in normal daily routine activities like we should air dry
our clothes rather than using dryers.
4. We should fit a thermostat, which regulates the temperature
automatically.
5. Search for that energy appliances, which reduce your monthly electricity
bills.
Exercise7. 10
1. What is the use of energy conservation in your daily life?
2. Explain how energy is used wisely.
3. List the strategies of conservation of energy
7.9. Resource Depletion and Environmental Degradation

 Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation
Activity 7.17
What do you think about resource depletion and environmental

degradation?
192
7.9.1. Natural Resource

Natural resources occur naturally within environments when those
environments exist in their natural forms, relatively undisturbed by people. A
natural resource is often characterized by the amount of biodiversity that
exists in various ecosystems. Natural resources are derived from the
environment. Many of them are essential for human life, while others are
used for satisfying our wants. Natural resources include fertile soil, clean
water, minerals, wildlife, vegetation, and energy sources. People use all these
resources to improve their lives.
Natural resource can be classified into two
1. Renewable resources: are types of resources that can be replaced as they
are used. They can be replaced naturally or grown fairly quickly.
Example, Forests, water, soil, plant and animal life all can be
renewable resources if people manage them carefully.
2. Non-renewable resources: As their name suggests, non-renewable
resources cannot be replaced once they have been used.
Example, Fossil fuels like, coal, oil and natural gas and minerals.
These resources are generally non-replaceable in character.
7.9.2. Resource Depletion

Resource depletion is the consumption of a resource faster than it can be
replenished. Use of renewable resources and non-renewable resources
beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be resource depletion.
Major causes of resource depletion
Farming Mining
Over Population Pollution
Waste Overconsumption
Erosion Deforestatio
193
7.9.3. Environmental Degradation

Environmental Degradation is the deterioration of the environment through
depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of
ecosystem; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution.
It occurs when the earth‘s natural resources are depleted, and the
environment is compromised in the form of extinction of species, pollution in
the air, water and soil, and rapid growth in population.
Exercise 7.11
Answer the following equation
1. Which resources are includes as natural resources?
2. Write examples of resources cannot be replaced once they have been
used.
3. What is resource depletion?
4. What is environmental degradation?
194
UNIT SUMMERY
• Motion is a continuous change of position relative to a reference
point.
• Reference frame is something in which all other motions are defined.
• Force is a push or a pull and its SI unit is Newton (N). Forces can be
classified as contact force and non-contact force.
• Gravitational force is the force that exerted by the earth on every
object, which is near or on its surface.
• Spring balance is a device that are used to measured force.
• Energy is the capacity to do work. Its SI unit is Joule (J).
• Energy exists in different form; some of them are chemical energy,
electrical energy, solar energy, mechanical energy.
• The law of conservation of energy, states that the total energy of a
closed system must remain constant.
• source of energy can be classified as Renewable source energy and
Non-renewable source energy
• Natural resources are resources that exist without action of human
kind.
• Resources depletion is the consumption of resources faster than they
can be replaced.
• Environmental Degradation is the deterioration of the environment
through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the
destruction of ecosystem; habitat destruction; the extinction of
wildlife; and pollution
195
Review Questions
Instruction I: Write TRUE if the statements are correct or write FALSE If
the statements are incorrect
1. Environmental degradation is caused by elongated wise use of resources.
2. All mineral resources such as coal, petroleum, gold, copper are
nonrenewable resources.
3. In falling body kinetic energy are transferred to potential energy.
4. According to the principle of the conservation of energy, energy either
created or destroyed.
5. Fruits falling from a tree towards the ground due to Gravitational force.
6. Spring balance is an instrument that are used to measured force.
Instruction II: Match the following definition with their appropriate

words From column „B‟ with column „A‟
Column A Column B
I. 1. Motion of a train along a straight rail A. Vibratory motion
2. The motion of the earth around the sun B. Periodic Motion
3. The motion of a wheel of a car C. Rectilinear motion
4. The motion of a pendulum D. Curvilinear Motion
5. Rotary and vibratory motion E. Rotary motion
Instruction III: Choose the best answer from the given alternative.
1. Motion along a fixed axis is called
A. Rectilinear B. Curvilinear C. Rotary D. Vibration

2. Which one of the following is a contact force?
A. Magnetic force C. Frictional force

B. Gravitational force D. Electrostatic force
196
3. Which one is different from the other
A. Chemical energy C. Electrical energy

B. Sound energy D. Kinetic energy
4. One of the following is not a renewable source of energy.
A. Wind energy B. Coal C. Solar energy D. Biomass

5. When fuels are burnt, chemical energy is converted into
A. Heat B. Sound C. Light D. A and C

6. The wise use of natural resource is__
A. Misused B. Degradation C. Conservation D. Destruction

7. One of the following is not a renewable natural resource.
A. Coal B. Soil C. water D. Forest

Instruction IV: Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words or Phrases
1. _________is the deterioration of resources because of unwise use of
resource.
2. _________is the SI unit of force.
3. _________is the capacity to do work.
4. __________is the change in shape or size of the object.
5. Source of energy can be classified as ________and _________energy.
6. ______________ is the force that exerted by the earth on every object.
197

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BASIC CONCEPTS OF SCIENCE .......................................................................... 1

1.1. THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND ITS BRANCHES .................................................. 2

1.2.1. List and uses of common scientific equipment .......................................... 8

MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDDING ................................................................. 15

2.1. CHARACTERISTICS AND NATURE OF MATTER .................................................. 16

2.3.1 Pure substance and mixture....................................................................... 31

ELEMENTS, COMPOUND AND CHEMICAL REACTION ............................. 59

3.1 ELEMENTS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION ......................................................... 59

CELL AS THE BASIS OF LIFE ......................................................................... 83

UNIT 5 ..................................................................................................................... 112

LIVING THINGS AND THEIR DIVERSITY .................................................... 112

5.1. LIVING THINGS .............................................................................................. 112

UNIT 6 ..................................................................................................................... 147

EARTH IN SPACE................................................................................................. 147

6.1. SHAPE AND DIMENSION OF THE EARTH ............................................. 148

UNIT 7 ..................................................................................................................... 169

MOTION, FORCE, ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES ......................... 169

7.1 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF MOTION .............................................................. 170

1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF SCIENCE

1.1. The Nature of Science and its Branches

1.1.1. Definition of science

What do you think about science?

1.1.2. Branch of Science

Write about the branch of science by referring books in the library or

Natural science Social Science

Chemistry Biology Physics

Figure 1.1: Branches of science

Figure1.2: Relationship of natural science

1.1.3. Overlap between the disciplines

There is no clear boarder line between the different branches of natural

1.1.4. Science and technology

Gebisa Ejeta (born 1950), Gebisa Ejeta is an Ethiopian American plant

Sossina M. Haile (born 1966) Sossina M. Haile is an Ethiopian American

Isaac Newton English Physicist and Mathematician (1642–1727). Newton

Marie Curie (1867-1934) Co-discovered the chemical elements radium and

James Prescott Joule British Physicist (1818–1889) Jule was an English

1.1.5. Scientists and Ethical discipline

1.2. Common laboratory equipment, uses, safety rules and

1.2.1. List and uses of common scientific equipment

Table 1.1: Common scientific equipment (Apparatuses) and their use

Beam Balance is used to measure mass

Beaker is used as a container, like a cup.

Measuring cylinder is used to measurement

Tong is used to pick up or hold apparatus

Bunsen burner is used for are sources of

Test tube is used for holding small samples

Petri dish is used to culture cells producing

1.2.2. Making laboratory equipment (tools) from locally available materials

The process of producing or preparing teaching and learning materials, the

Careful study of the conventional apparatus,

In a Science laboratory, the major safety hazards include electrical circuits,

1.2.3 Some Basic Rules of Safety

1.2.4 Hazard signs (symbols)

Figure 1.3: Hazard symbols

4. Which one is not used to measure the length of an object?

2. MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDING

2.1. Characteristics and nature of matter

like color, odor, taste etc.

2.1.2 Particulate Nature of Matter

Four main characteristics of particles of matter:

2.1.3 Particle theory of matter (particle model of matter)