Agri-Innovations and Development

Challenges: Engineering, Value Chains

and Socio-economic Models Vanessa
Casadella
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Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges
 Innovation in Engineering
and Technology Set
coordinated by
Dimitri Uzunidis

Volume 8

Agri-Innovations and
Development Challenges

Engineering, Value Chains

and Socio-economic Models

Edited by

Vanessa Casadella
Dimitri Uzunidis
First published 2023 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
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© ISTE Ltd 2023

The rights of Vanessa Casadella and Dimitri Uzunidis to be identified as the authors of this work have
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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 Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Dimitri UZUNIDIS and Vanessa CASADELLA

Chapter 1. Big Changes in Global Food Security and the

Issue of Development: Challenges and Hopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jean-Luc HORNICK
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Food security issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3. Elements of hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Chapter 2. Agri-environmental Frugal Innovation and

Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Paul BOUVIER-PATRON
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2. From HighTech innovation to a satisfactory technological level . . . . 18
2.3. Sustainable food in a necessary context with respect to the Natural
Environment and global warming: sorghum in Africa and rice in Asia . . . 24
2.3.1. Sorghum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2. Thai rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
vi Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

Chapter 3. The National Innovation System as Applied to

Agriculture: A Methodological Proposal for Diagnosis in Africa . . . 37
Eveline M.F.W. SAWADOGO/COMPAORÉ and Natewindé SAWADOGO
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3. Linear model of agricultural innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4. Interactional models of agricultural innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4.1. Participatory approach to agricultural development or
“training and visits” approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4.2. In search of an interactional innovation diffusion approach . . . . . 43
3.4.3. Description of the framework of NISs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5. Beyond the NIS: taking context as a key aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.6. Practical methodology for the diagnosis of AISs in Africa . . . . . . . . 50
3.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Chapter 4. Adoption of Rice Technological Innovations for

Technical Efficiency in Senegal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Babacar NDIAYE and Albertine Bayompe KABOU
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2. Theoretical framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.1. Theoretical approach to the determinants of adoption . . . . . . . . 61
4.3. Empirical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4. Econometric model and data analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4.1. Specification of the production boundary method . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4.2. Analysis of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.6. Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.7. Appendix 2: empirical model of technical efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Chapter 5. Characterization of the Sectoral Cocoa Innovation

System in Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Syndhia MATHÉ, Eric Joël FOFIRI NZOSSIÉ and Ludovic TEMPLE
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2. Methodological framework for analyzing information in the
cocoa sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.1. The sectoral innovation system analysis framework . . . . . .. . . 80
5.2.2. Information collection system and databases. . . . . . . . . . . .. . 81
 Contents vii

5.3. Dynamics of the innovation system in the cocoa sector in

Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.1. The evolution of scientific knowledge production on cocoa . . . . . 83
5.3.2. A highly administered institutional governance of innovation . . . 84
5.3.3. “Liberalization”: a vector of sectoral transformation of
innovation in cocoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4. What are the consequences for the sector’s research and
innovation policies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4.1. Variable governance of the sectoral innovation system
questioned by agroforestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4.2. A challenge of innovation governance through the
hybridization of scientific and local knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
5.4.3. A potential reconfiguration of innovation models in the
cocoa sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Chapter 6. Valorization of the Date Industry in Tunisia by

Combining “Modern” and “Traditional” Knowledge
and Techniques: Difficulties, Successes and Prospects . . . . . . . . 97
Yasmine BOUGHZALA and Néfissa BEN MAHMOUD
6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2. Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.2.1. Sector and value chain: complementary but distinct concepts. . . . 98
6.2.2. Agricultural value chains in emerging countries. . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2.3. The date industry in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.3. Background and research design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.3.1. The economic and social context of the date industry
in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.3.2. Methods and data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.4. The results of the research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.4.1. An agricultural value chain in difficulty despite its global
leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.4.2. The guarantors of global leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.4.3. Challenges of sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
viii Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

Chapter 7. Technology, Innovation and Sustainability of the

Soybean Chain: Study of the Cameroonian Cotton
Front Facing Environmental Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Eric Joël FOFIRI NZOSSIÉ, Darryl Neil NITCHEU WAKPONOU and
Christophe BRING
7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.2. State of knowledge on the subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.2.1. Soybean in the socioeconomic diversification of rural Africa . . . . 126
7.2.2. The agribusiness industry as a lever for strengthening the
use of science and technology (S&T) policies and accelerating
soybean cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.2.3. S&T policies for the valorization of soybean in energy
diversification and the fight against climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3. Theoretical framework of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.4. Methodological approach adopted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.4.1. Diagnosis with soybean producers and resource persons . . . . . . 130
7.4.2. Analysis of the evolution of vegetation cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.4.3. Soil sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.4.4. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.5. Agro-technological and organizational innovation as the basis for
the development of the soybean value chain in the Cameroonian
cotton front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.5.1. The cotton crisis, a vector for the diffusion of soybeans . . . . . . . 136
7.5.2. An increase in soybean production supported more by the
expansion of cultivated areas than by technical innovation . . . . . . . . . 139
7.6. The development of the national agri-food sector: a lever for
the progressive construction of a soy value chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.7. Environmental issues of soybean production dynamics in the
Sudano-Sahelian region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.7.1. A significant regression of the vegetation cover in an
ecologically fragile area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.7.2. Soil degradation linked more to cultivation practices than
to soybean speculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Chapter 8. Impact of Good Agricultural Practices on Cashew

Nut Crop Yields in Senegal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Blaise Waly BASSE, Souleymane MBAYE and Omar DIOP
8.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.2. Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
 Contents ix

8.3. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

8.3.1. Presentation of the study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.3.2. Sampling and data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.3.3. Data analysis method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.4. Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.4.1. Sociodemographic characteristics of producers . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.4.2. Socioeconomic characteristics of adopters and nonadopters . . . . 166
8.4.3. The contribution of good practices to performance . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Chapter 9. Bioeconomy and Sustainable Conservation of

Plants and Forests in Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Hery Lisy Tiana RANARIJAONA, Tiantsoa ANDRIANASETRA, Liva Jackson
RAHARINAIVO, Vololoniaina RAMAHATAFANDRY, Michaël BEFINOANA,
Auguste Botovao RAMIANDRISOA, Cyrille MAHAROMBAKA, Sylvana
TOMBOANONA, Chéri Christian TOTONDRABESA, Fenozo ANDRIAMANANTENA,
Simon Georges ANDRIANASETRA, Ainazo ANDRIAMANANTENA and
Antoine Zafera RABESA
9.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.2. Study methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.3. “Vololona” Educational Botanical Garden (JBE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
9.4. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.4.1. Perception of Covid-19 in the city of Mahajanga . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.4.2. Perception of Covid-19 in Fokontany Antsanitia . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.4.3. Perception of the use of medicinal plants in the socioeconomic
field at the two target sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.4.4. Medicinal plants identified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
9.4.5. Medicinal plants used to prevent and treat Covid-19-related
diseases in Fokontany Antsanitia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
9.4.6. Medicinal plants to prevent Covid-19 collected in the JBE . . . . . 187
9.4.7. Suggested plants for the bioeconomy of Mahajanga . . . . . . . . . 187
9.5. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
9.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Chapter 10. Bricolage in Agriculture Sector: Emergence

Dynamic and Consequences in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Son Thi Kim LE, To The NGUYEN and Phuong Anh Thi NGUYEN
10.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.2. Bricolage in the agriculture sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
x Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

10.2.1. Bricolage and scarcity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

10.2.2. Three main domains stimulate bricolage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.3. Bricolage in agriculture sectors – How does it work? . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.4. Bricolage to improve Vietnamese agriculture in a scarcity context . . 204
10.5. Infrastructure resources and advanced technology . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.6. Financial resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.7. Human resources and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Chapter 11. The Contribution of Food Hubs in the Digital

Age to the Sustainable Agri-food Transition: A Review
of Research in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Gérard DE LA PAIX BAYIHA
11.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.2. Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11.2.1. Territorial innovation, a lever for the development of short
food circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11.2.2. Food hubs, an innovative model for supplying cities in the
transition process toward sustainable agri-food systems . . . . . . . . . . . 224
11.3. Methodology of the documentary research and results . . . . . . . . . 225
11.4. A lack of scientific work on food hubs in sub-Saharan Africa
despite their development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.5. Conclusion: a need for studies on food hubs in sub-Saharan
Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
11.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Chapter 12. Total Processing of Soy Glycine max through

Valorization of the Tofu Whey into Cosmetic Products . . . . . . . . . 239
Dinah ANDRIANJAFY, Helga RIM FARASOA and Felamboahangy RASOARAHONA
12.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.2. Interests in the valorization of soya whey in cosmetics . . . . . . . . . 240
12.3. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
12.3.1. Preparation of the tofu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
12.3.2. Tofu preservation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
12.3.3. Tofu acceptability test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
12.3.4. Tofu shelf life test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
12.3.5. Preparation of whey before its use in cosmetics . . . . . . . . . . . 242
12.3.6. Development of cosmetic products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
12.3.7. Quality and shelf life tests of cosmetic products . . . . . . . . . . . 243
 Contents xi

12.3.8. Efficacy testing of cosmetic products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

12.4. Results and interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
12.4.1. Tofu and whey yields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
12.4.2. Sensory analysis of tofu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
12.4.3. Preservability of processed tofu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
12.4.4. Whey stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
12.4.5. Characterization and stability of the developed cosmetic
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
12.4.6. Effectiveness of the manufactured cosmetic products. . . . . . . . 248
12.4.7. General discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
12.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
 Introduction

Agri-Innovations in Developing
Countries: Relevant Responses to the
Environmental, Food, and Social Crisis

I.1. Introduction

A total of 828 million people were suffering from food poverty in 2021,
representing 9.8% of the world’s population. In 2019 and 2020, this share was 8%
and 9.3%, respectively. Nearly 2.3 billion people (29.3% of the world population)
were moderately or severely food insecure. In 2021, 31.9% of the world’s women
were moderately or severely food insecure, compared to 27.6% of men. Note that
3.1 billion people could not afford a healthy diet. In most countries of sub-Saharan
Africa and South Asia, as well as in some Central American countries, the food
emergency is absolute. In the world, due to the increase in social inequalities,
conflicts and especially climate change, food is far from being guaranteed and the
conditions of agricultural production are worsening. The latest FAO report (2022) is
more than alarming. If nothing is done to curb global warming, improve the sharing
of wealth and stop military conflicts between nations, it is the world’s food security
that will be threatened: loss of nutrients in staple foods, reduced harvests, large-scale
climatic disasters in several regions, etc. The risks are high and the first signs of this
agricultural and food crisis are already visible. Food security will be increasingly
compromised by future climate change due to lower yields, especially in tropical
regions, higher prices, reduced quality of nutrients and disruptions in the supply
chain.

Introduction written by Dimitri UZUNIDIS and Vanessa CASADELLA.

xiv Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

Ecologically responsible agricultural production, less harmful to the environment

and biodiversity, requires targeted innovations through research processes,
dissemination of relevant knowledge, for the experimentation of this knowledge in
the field, productive adaptation, integration in crops, livestock and processing or by
promoting adapted commercial channels and creative entrepreneurship.

I.2. Food security, climate change and socioeconomic disorder

Food safety can only be understood holistically: it encompasses all elements that
can impact food safety at each stage of the agri-food value chain. Applying this
approach means that food safety is not only about the development of the final
product that starts with primary production, with it being processed in the factory
and sold in the market, but also emphasizes the need for interaction between all
stakeholders in the value chain and between these and the characteristics of their
environment, such as climate change, demographics, the state of the economy, social
structure, etc. (Gaitis and Ouzounidou 2017).

The correlation between food security and climate change is part of a

sociotechnical and economic context based on the following three pillars (Uzunidis
2019):
a) The rapid increase in the world population associated with malnutrition,
poverty and famine: the FAO estimates that by 2050, the global demand for food
and feed will increase by 60%. Two billion people in the world are overweight;
one billion are chronically undernourished.
b) The domination of the petrochemical paradigm in economic activity.
c) The socioeconomic organization and the global model of governance:
industrial and intensive agriculture and breeding, transnational oligopoly (Big
Food), conflicts of sanitary norms and patents, protectionist tendencies, unequal
distribution of income and access to food resources, decrease or sudden fluctuations
of raw material prices, etc. – “planet for profit strategies and policies” or “profit
strategies against planet and people”. The current food system generates one-third of
greenhouse gas emissions!

The correlation between agriculture, food security and climate change can be
seen in the definitions of these two concepts: food security is achieved when all
people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
 Introduction xv

nutritious food to meet their energy needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life.

The following four conditions must be met to achieve food safety:

– Food availability: this first condition refers to the quantity of food available
that is sufficiently abundant to satisfy the vital needs of the population. The growth
of agricultural production must therefore be positively correlated with the increase
in population.
– Physical, social and economic access to food: this second condition refers to
demand. The evolution of the supply of agricultural products must be correlated
with the evolution of demand, which, correlated with the level of income, must be
satisfied to cover vital individual and collective needs.
– The quality of the food consumed: this condition refers to the nature of the
products consumed and must be correlated with other parameters related to health,
the physical environment and the individual and collective socialization of the
populations.
– Stability or sustainability, in the sense that the food security sought is not a
one-time event and must be part of a sustainable and socially equitable development
perspective.

Food security is therefore a complex, multidimensional concept that depends on

agricultural and cooperation policies, economic choices, trade regulations and social
policies and standards.

Climate change refers to all variations in climatic characteristics. Air pollution,

resulting from human activities, modifies the climate, in the sense of a global
warming. This phenomenon can cause significant damage: rising sea levels,
increased extreme weather events (droughts, floods, cyclones, etc.), destabilization
of forests, threats to freshwater resources, agricultural difficulties, desertification,
reduction of biodiversity, extension of tropical diseases, etc.

The effects of climate change are increasingly felt in agricultural production.

Inaction in decision-making to adapt to this change is becoming an insurmountable
constraint, with the risk of leading to a total impasse. In any case, adjustments must
be multi-level and implemented at the international, national and local levels on the
basis of a set of precise and imperative actions to address the issues raised by
climate change. Climate change is a major concern in primary production, marketing
and processing, in particular, of plants, as extreme weather events in recent decades
have resulted in lower crop yields, loss of production and income due to harsh
xvi Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

bioeconomic conditions, and a decrease in the quantities of nutritious quality

products packaged and processed (Ortiz-Bobea et al. 2021).

The challenge, according to the experts (Christopoulos and Ozounidou 2021), is

to articulate an economic approach, environmental protection and new models of
technological, organizational and social innovation and social justice in a context of
economic globalization, privatization/commodification of natural resources and
deepening inequalities. Indeed, regarding the variations and the extreme climatic
conditions:
a) They are negatively impact the availability, access, use and stability of
agricultural and food resources, as well as feeding, care and health practices. Direct
and indirect climate impacts have a cumulative effect, leading to increased food
insecurity and malnutrition.
b) They are negatively correlated with agricultural productivity, food production,
cropping patterns, thus contributing to food shortages, and nutrition: the nutritional
quality and diversity of food produced and consumed deteriorates, and water stress
increases, resulting in increased health risks, diseases and poverty.
c) They lead to sharp increases and volatility in primary product and food prices,
often associated with losses of farm income reducing access to food and negatively
affecting the quantity, quality and dietary diversity of food consumed.

I.3. Paradigm shift

As climate change contributes to biodiversity loss, which poses an imminent and

ongoing threat to food security and livelihoods, the urgency of the paradigm shift is
equally clear (Schlaile et al. 2022). The food chain faces increasing threats each year
from repeated droughts, floods, wildfires, loss of wildlife and the emergence of new
pests, microbes and viruses. In response to these threats to cope with climate change,
there is a need to (a) implement measures to plan new plantings by selecting
appropriate varieties according to local climatic conditions, (b) promote research and
development (R&D) to discover/design stress-resistant varieties, (c) record climatic
parameters, (d) provide timely information to growers on the importance of
modifying conventional farming practices (e.g. use of chemicals and intensive
farming), (e) use modern technological tools (precision or smart farming), (f)
develop irrigation and flood protection infrastructure, (g) restructure some crops to
higher elevations where conditions are more suitable, (h) provide artificial soil cover
crops and (i) rely on traditional and endogenous knowledge and models of
community self-organization that can be compatible with “doing” and “sustaining”.
In animal husbandry, the use of on-farm technologies to improve herd management
for maximum production results at the lowest possible cost is another avenue
to explore. Finally, and for all this, water management is the key issue. The
 Introduction xvii

achievement of all these objectives, which are difficult to reach but urgent, requires
the introduction of major innovations in the productive systems.

To cope with extreme weather events, satisfy ever-changing consumer tastes,

and meet ever-increasing demand for high-quality food, or simply subsistence
products, farmers today and in the decades to come are called upon to grow more
crops using less water and inputs, adopt new technologies and invest in improving
the quality of their crops. The need for cooperation in the field of agricultural
technology is imperative for all of the above because more must be produced,
qualitatively and quantitatively, with fewer natural resources and inputs: more with
less. And in this endeavor, no institution, idea or technology can be left out.

In short, five main pathways are proposed to ensure the reduction of climate
change impacts on food security:
1) control of food production by the producer and the consumer – this leads to
the rationalization of the agricultural activity in relation to the available resources
and change in the “Big Food” paradigm;
2) developing ecological agriculture: change in the petrochemical paradigm;
3) promoting biodiversity;
4) strengthening the resilience of food systems;
5) promoting biochemistry and the bioeconomy in general.

It is a question of re-establishing a more balanced relationship between the

biosphere and the socioeconomic sphere. The bioeconomy associated with digital
technologies and frugality calls for the design and application of new sociotechnical
models. The implementation of ecodevelopment strategies based on the creation of a
development model linked to the needs of populations, the participatory and
contributive process and the characteristics and resources of the territories is not
without consequences for the agricultural world, which must both feed the
population and provide sufficient organic resources to meet our energy needs. Thus,
the diversity of environments, contexts, modes of coordination and the influence of
existing institutions must be taken into account to ensure structural changes (Debref
et al. 2022).

As the authors of this book show, it is a question of designing production

systems according to the functionalities offered by ecosystems: reduction of pressure
on the environment and preservation of natural resources. The challenge is to
articulate the economic approach with environmental protection and social justice
(equity in the distribution of wealth, pacification) in a context of economic
globalization, commercialization of natural resources and increasing inequalities.
xviii Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

The paradigm shift (in the sense of a new mode of production, consumption,
distribution and socialization) is a burning issue! However, the ecological transition
for food security comes up against insufficient efforts to reduce pollution on a global
scale, as well as the absence of a global governance of common goods and
resources. On the other hand, strategies for appropriating life by “Big Food”,
lobbying and standardization by anticipating the use of alternative technologies slow
down the diffusion of green innovations, increase their cost of design and
application, prohibit their use on a large scale and prevent design thinking in this
field from blossoming on a new trajectory of creativity and project engineering.

I.4. Capacities and potential for agro-innovations in the South

The environmental crisis is all the more perceptible in developing countries, as

their agricultural and agri-food production capacities are weak. In most countries in
Africa, Latin America and South Asia, citizen mobilization (farmers, consumers,
associations, small businesses, etc.) is taking shape through small-scale actions, but
they are bringing about innovations that are sometimes frugal, sometimes on a larger
scale. Value chains are taking shape, developing and asserting themselves in their
economies on both local and global levels.

The notions of innovation systems and capacities have been used both by public
policies and in the academic sphere to relate the innovation performance of
territories, sectors, regions and nations. Innovation systems are represented by the
connection between actors from the academic, political and productive worlds to
organize, mobilize and valorize material, financial and human resources for the
purpose of innovation. Innovation capabilities are defined both by the knowledge,
skills and techniques available to an economy, and by the interactions between
innovation actors in that economy to explore and exploit opportunities to develop
new products or services based on the needs of individual or collective consumers or
users (Casadella et al. 2015; Casadella and Uzunidis 2017).

In order for innovation capacities to become a system, it is necessary to multiply,

fluidify and strengthen interactions between private and public innovation actors
through the formation of value chains. The ability to innovate and adapt to economic
and socioecological hazards thus depends on institutional arrangements in addition
to technological development (Asayehegn et al. 2017). A value chain is constructed
by three sets of elements that characterize the systemic nature of the relationships
between the actors that form it: (a) the succession of integrated transformation
operations that are separable and identifiable, but that are linked to each other by
technological sequences that ensure their integration; (b) the commercial and
financial relationships between all stages of production and between customers and
suppliers that ensure the coordination of the activities of the parties involved; (c) the
 Introduction xix

strategies of the actors, which aim for joint valorization at all stages of the chain of
production and ensure the articulation of activities. The stages of integration concern
both the pathway from the raw material to the production and trade of products and
the successive valorization of scientific and technical knowledge necessary for the
emergence and diffusion of complementary and cumulative innovations.

These notions are more globally addressed in the approach to economic and
sustainable development and inclusion objectives set by international bodies (such
as the sustainable development goals (SDGs) set by the UN: eradicating hunger and
poverty, supporting sustainable agriculture and renewable energies, promoting
sustainable development and education, conscientiously managing and preserving
natural resources and ecosystems, combating social inequalities, etc.).

While the structure of innovation ecosystems in developing economies is very

heterogeneous depending on the contexts visited, it is clear that they are often
depicted as disorganized, fragmented or disconnected in their development process.
However, according to the studies presented in this book, these systems are carried
by actors of all categories who allow them to emerge, maintain and perpetuate
themselves. The actions of actors, more or less formal, more or less interconnected,
constitute significant dynamics that structure and shape innovation capacities.
Represented by different forms of organization of collective action (producer
groups, cooperatives, associations) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
they are called upon to play a key role in the definition of policies and actions in
favor of innovation and thus largely contribute to the formation and implementation
of innovation capacities. They are sometimes called upon to complement or replace
public authorities when public innovation policies are lacking.

But other actors are also stakeholders in local learning dynamics: civil society,
with village communities, trades, genders, cooperatives, through different forms of
learning, on the job, built by indigenous societies and communities mobilizing their
own institutions of social cohesion, constitutive of local knowledge and collective
social values.

This raises the question of the appropriation of this knowledge and the
endogenization of local knowledge, combining culture, identity, confidence and a
thirst for modernity. This bottom-up approach to capabilities, sometimes identified
in situations of frugal innovation or the “bottom of the pyramid”, is essential in
understanding the current dynamics of innovation and learning in southern
economies. The challenge is to be able to create learning capacities that reconnect
with the resources that generate this learning as much as with the macro-economic
conditions that territorialize it, and the sociopolitical locks or levers that activate it
and allow it to be mobilized in the productive and social sphere. We can see, thanks
to the studies presented by the authors of this book, that in countries where process
xx Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

engineering is quantitatively and qualitatively important, learning mechanisms are

rich and can be observed by the amount of energy spent by actors to solve problems,
but also by the capacity of actors to master new knowledge. Innovation here is the
result of a set of efforts and trajectories of use of local knowledge, and the capacity
to integrate the knowledge conveyed by foreign direct investment, international
academic and agro-industrial cooperation or repatriated skilled labor.

The following issues are addressed by the authors in the light of the diversity of
the countries and experiences studied: How do we protect the environment through
new knowledge? What transformations should be carried out with the aim of
improving the living conditions of populations? How do civil society actors
participate in the formation of innovation capacities and in their implementation?
How do public institutions integrate them into their operations? How can innovation
processes, whether formal or informal, generate learning and innovation capacities?
Engineering has a particularly revealing, mobilizing and integrating function for
these capacities. How do different professional and rural communities form and
structure knowledge that is the basis for learning capacities? What are the different
forms of learning that are localized and specific to the capacities of developing
country economies?

The book is structured around 12 presentations of experiences in different

developing countries (Africa, Asia, Central America), and around the above-
mentioned issues.

The first chapter by J.-L. Hornick, entitled “Big Changes in Global Food
Security and the Issue of Development: Challenges and Hopes”, discusses the
importance of capitalizing on new discoveries to ensure nutritional security for
future generations. In the current state of knowledge, global awareness of the issues
and the implementation of known technologies must be able to delay the advent of a
brutal decoupling of food supply and demand to respond to the important societal
changes around food security and safety. The question is: How do we move from the
potential for innovation announced by current technologies to the real and profitable
application of these technologies? The transition between the “potential” and the
“real” favors the emergence of agro-industrial sectors.

Taking into account the Natural Environment and global warming imperatively
requires the application of a qualitative model capable of responding to the
challenges of food, nature protection and wealth sharing. In Chapter 2, by
P. Bouvier-Patron, entitled “Agri-environmental Frugal Innovation and Sustainable
Development”, the formation of agri-food chains must mobilize technology in a
rational way to produce useful and adapted systems and products. This is the case
for frugal environmental innovation, which relies on innovative creativity, whose
main sources are “tinkering” and improvisation, within local communities of
 Introduction xxi

practice, to adjust to the constraints of the place and the time in the best way
possible. The author presents the possible evolution of the cultivation of two world
cereals that could be virtuous and indicative of the new model to follow: sorghum
and rice. The observation shows that value chains are created or completed through
frugal innovations.

The third chapter by E.M.F.W. Sawadogo/Compaoré and N. Sawadogo, entitled

“The National Innovation System as Applied to Agriculture: A Methodological
Proposal for Diagnosis in Africa”, shows the legitimacy of the national innovation
system (NIS) as a tool for policy analysis and governance in Burkina Faso. In this
country, the NIS has acquired strong legitimacy in policy and research circles for
some time. By borrowing a sectoral focus on agriculture and contextualizing a
number of tools provided by the model presented, the proposal made by the authors
consists of developing a practical methodological guide for the diagnosis of
agro-innovation systems in Africa.

The fourth chapter by B. Ndiaye and A. Bayompe Kabou, entitled “Adoption of

Rice Technological Innovation on Technical Efficiency in Senegal”, analyzes the
impact of the adoption of new rice technologies on the technical efficiency of
farmers in Senegal. According to the latter, fertilizer treatment levels have more or
less technical efficiency on rice farmers. In the end, Senegalese rice farmers who use
fertilizer, improved seed and motorized equipment simultaneously are more
economically efficient than those who only use fertilizer and improved seed.

Using the concept of the sectoral innovation system (SSI), S. Mathé, E.J. Fofiri
and L. Temple attempt to understand and organize public policy choices in the cocoa
sector in Cameroon in the fifth chapter entitled “Characterization of the Sectoral
Cocoa Innovation System in Cameroon”. Since 2002, there have been many
stimulus packages in this country to increase cocoa yields and production through
the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge. Nevertheless, their analysis
reveals dysfunctions in this SSI and the value chains that could result from it. The
authors propose to identify potential levers for a sustainable and more inclusive
innovation trajectory for the production studied.

The sixth chapter, written by Y. Boughzala and N. Ben Mahmoud, entitled

“Valorization of the Date Industry in Tunisia by Combining “Modern” and
“Traditional” Knowledge and Techniques: Difficulties, Successes and Prospects”,
analyzes the date industry in Tunisia by highlighting the structuring of this
agricultural value chain through strategic, economic and social issues. The objective
is to understand the different impacts of these challenges on the organizations
inherent to this economically promising sector for the country’s exports. From this
perspective, the authors show a dual agricultural value chain with a lack of
xxii Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

structuring between the links in the chain, despite international leadership in terms
of exports in value. Some challenges need to be addressed upstream to create a more
efficient global value chain around a more equitable and inclusive sector. The public
authorities and the various stakeholders must also play a more proactive role.

The seventh chapter, “Technology, Innovation and Sustainability of the Soybean

Chain: Study of the Cameroonian Cotton Front Facing Environmental Challenges”,
by E.J. Fofiri Nzossié, D.N. Nitcheu Wakponou and C. Bring shows the dynamics of
soybean production driven by growing demand from the national agribusiness sector
and the cross-border market with Nigeria. This dynamic offers opportunities for the
construction of a science and technology (S&T) policy in the agribusiness sector, on
the one hand, and for the improvement of farmers’ incomes, on the other hand, but it
also responds to environmental issues in the face of the accelerated degradation of
the country’s Natural Environment. The authors analyze the environmental issues
induced by soybean cultivation and show the accelerated regression of the vegetation
cover and the degradation of the soil. The first issue is related to the expansion of
cultivated areas through land clearing. The second is inherent to the intensification of
the use of phytosanitary products and mainly glyphosate. Biochemistry would be a
solution adapted to this type of problem.

In another sub-Saharan African country, the eighth chapter by B.W. Basse,

S. Mbaye and O. Diop, “Impact of Good Agricultural Practices on Cashew Nut Crop
Yields in Senegal”, analyzes the impact of good agricultural practices in cashew nut
sector support projects. They found that changing producer behavior is a good tool
for increasing cashew productivity in Senegal. Thus, for a sustainable cashew sector,
awareness-raising strategies can be developed by mobilizing a range of local actors
(community radios, village chiefs, development agents, supervisory and research
structures, etc.).

Good practices in the preservation of natural resources (especially plants and

forests) are illustrated by H.L.T. Ranarijaona, T. Andrianasetra, L.J. Raharinaivo,
V. Ramahatafandry, M. Befinoana, A.B. Ramiandrisoa, C. Maharombaka,
S. Tomboanona, C.C. Totondrabesa, F. Andriamanantena, S.G. Andrianasetra,
A. Andriamanantena and A.Z. Rabesa in the ninth chapter (Bioeconomy and
Sustainable Conservation of Plants and Forests in Madagascar). The case of
Madagascar is revealing in this regard: the creation of an innovative botanical
garden with the involvement of researchers, engineers and the local population has
formed an innovative ecosystem whose objective is to demonstrate the dependence
of humans on traditional medicinal plants, and the new uses of plants, today in the
fields of health and food, to strengthen conservation, the local economy and
sustainable development.
 Introduction xxiii

The sustainability of innovation in agriculture can also be analyzed with

reference to the concept of “bricolage”. In Chapter 10, “Bricolage in the Agriculture
Sector: Emergence Dynamic and Consequences in Vietnam”, S.T.K. Le,
T.T. Nguyen and P.A.T. Nguyen note that in most developing countries agricultural
resources and means are scarce or insufficient, and that farmers in these countries,
who produce mainly on a small scale, lack financial, skilled human and
technological resources, and very often resort to simple and traditional, sometimes
even unconventional, methods for cultivation or breeding. In this case, “bricolage”
appears as a concept describing how individuals improvise by recombining existing,
but individually less useful, resources to create value through creative and systemic
reconstruction. The authors study the case of Vietnam to show that “bricolage” is a
source of multiple innovations through the mobilization of relevant traditional
knowledge and experience.

This “bricolage” is found in Sub-Saharan Africa, but this time in the

centralization and marketing of agri-food products via “food hubs”, which are
concentrates of technological and organizational innovations. In Chapter 11, “The
Contribution of Food Hubs in the Digital Age to the Sustainable ‘Agri-food’
Transition: A Review of Research in Sub-Saharan Africa”, G. de la Paix Bayiha
explains how to manage the growing gap between rural supply and urban demand
for quality food products. This calls for a strong integration of agri-food chains to
form sustainable “agri-food” systems at the territorial level. For direct sales to
consumers, food hubs provide solutions for small farmers in Africa involved in
sustainable agri-food models. These farmers can thus have easier access to urban
markets and consequently improve the standard of living in the countryside.

Through a precise engineering approach, Chapter 12, by D. Andrianjafy, H. Rim

Farasoa and F. Rasoarahona, entitled “Total Processing of Soy Glycine max through
Valorization of the Tofu Whey in Cosmetic Products”, deals with the study of
the natural cosmetic sector in Madasgacar. According to the authors, the
overexploitation of plant species threatens their existence, presents a potential
danger for the ecology and, in the long term, will always have negative
consequences for these countries. The valorization of cultivable plants is therefore a
solution of choice. According to them, new cosmetic care products have been
developed and this valorization enriches the value chain up to the production and
marketing of soy cheese.

All in all, the contributions in this book offer a precise and in-depth reading of
the mechanisms of agro-innovations for economic development purposes in the
context of increasing food needs and accelerating climate change. New (or
improved) socioeconomic models are emerging within specific organizations or
sectors that value the importance of value chains created from localized learning
xxiv Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

processes, driven by do-it-yourself policies and constrained by developing country

contexts that remain heterogeneous.

I.5. References

Asayehegn, K., Iglesias, A., Triomphe, B., Pédelahore, P., Temple, L. (2017). The role of
systems of innovation in adapting to climate change: The case of the Kenyan coffee and
dairy sectors. Journal of Innovation Economics & Management, 24(3), 127–149.
Casadella, V. and Uzunidis, D. (2017). National innovation systems of the south, innovation
and economic development policies: A multidimensional approach. Journal of Innovation
Economics & Management, 23(2), 137–157.
Casadella, V., Liu, Z., Uzunidis, D. (2015). Innovation Capabilities and Economic
Development in Open Economies. ISTE Ltd, London, and John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Christopoulos, M. and Ouzounidou, G. (2021). Climate change effects on the perceived and
nutritional quality of fruit and vegetables. Journal of Innovation Economics &
Management, 34(1), 79–99.
Debref, R., Andreas Pyka, A., Perguiseppe Morone, P. (2022). For an institutionalist approach
to the bioeconomy: Innovation, green growth and the rise of new development models.
Journal of Innovation Economics & Management, 38(2), 1–9.
FAO (2022). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO, Rome.
Gaitis, F. and Ouzounidou, G. (2017). Food safety: Strengthening the present with an eye to
the future. Journal of Innovation Economics & Management, 24(3), 177–189.
Ortiz-Bobea, A., Ault, T.R., Carrillo, C.M., Chambers, R.G., Lobell, D.B. (2021).
Anthropogenic climate change has slowed global agricultural productivity growth. Nature
Climate Change, 11, 306–312.
Schlaile, M.P., Kask, J., Brewer, J., Bogner, K., Urmetzer, S., Annick De Witt, A. (2022).
Proposing a cultural evolutionary perspective for dedicated innovation systems:
Bioeconomy transitions and beyond. Journal of Innovation Economics & Management,
38(2), 93–118.
Touzard, J.-M. and Boutillier, S. (2017). Innovations and solutions for climate change.
Journal of Innovation Economics & Management, 24(3), 3–8.
Uzunidis, D. (2019). A focus on food international challenges global food challenges related
to climate change. Agro-Innovation, Food Quality and Safety, 10(1), 1–7.
 1

Big Changes in Global Food Security

and the Issue of Development:
Challenges and Hopes

1.1. Introduction

Food security and safety are not recent issues on a human scale (Litzenburger
2016; Birlouez 2019). They have been the subject of relentless efforts since humans
first became aware of the time scale in which life occurs. Control of these issues has
developed in parallel with scientific and technological knowledge. A tipping point
can be located around the middle of the 19th century, with the appearance of the first
combustion engines that led to the increase in agricultural productivity and the
transportation of products, and with the Pastorian discoveries that laid the scientific
foundations of food preservation.

Five pillars of food security – in the broadest sense – have been chronologically
accepted and formalized over the last 60 years: the availability of food in sufficient
quantity, the possibility of economic access to resources, the conformity of sanitary
quality and composition of ingredients and the plate, the stability of supply in the
short and medium term and more recently, the long-term sustainability of the system
to guarantee intergenerational solidarity (Akram-Lodhi 2009). These dimensions are
of major importance to contribute to the stability of our societies. This chapter
reviews some of the issues related to food security and safety, and avenues to ensure
their continuity. More specific aspects related to food security will be highlighted.

Chapter written by Jean-Luc HORNICK.

2 Agri-Innovations and Development Challenges

1.2. Food security issues

Paradoxically, the major world conflicts were catalysts for population growth
(see Figure 1.1). It was particularly after World War II that the human population
showed a strong relative expansion. The phenomenon was most pronounced in Asia
and later in Africa. This continent is currently the only one to present an exponential
increase in population, compensating for the decreases observed elsewhere. World
population growth has been linear for the last 50 years at a rate of nearly 70 million
people per year.

Figure 1.1. Three-century evolution of the world’s population, broken down

cumulatively by continent from 1950 to the present day, and projected to the end of
the century (Our World in Data 2021; United Nations 2019). For a color version of
this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/casadella/agri-innovations.zip

Improved agri-food practices and increased agricultural production have

undoubtedly contributed to these demographic shifts. For example, the share of the
world’s population fed by agricultural practices using synthetic fertilizers has risen
from virtually nothing to nearly 50% in 60 years (Erisman et al. 2008).
 Big Changes in Global Food Security and the Issue of Development 3

The preservation of food security is currently under threat, and humanity is

facing challenges, which Hajkowicz (2015) has termed “mega-trends”, or large-scale
conjunctural “shifts”. These shifts are all anthropogenic in origin and are likely to
force humanity to reconsider how it will need to feed itself in future decades. The
“demographic tide” movement mentioned above is one of these challenges.

The gradual increase in the earth’s temperature is another, as it threatens the very
foundations of agricultural productivity. The National Centers for Environmental
Information (NCEI) of NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
of the Department of Commerce in the United States) publishes a map of thermal
anomalies recorded on the planet every year. In the last three years (see Figure 1.2),
most regions of the globe have shown anomalous thermal averages compared to
recent decades. Global warming will have consequences on the capacity of human
organizations to ensure stable agricultural production. Thus, in most regions of the
world, we must expect the emergence of extreme climatic events, such as torrential
rains or scorching temperatures, which are not easily predictable in the short term.
The management of water, whether to store it or obtain it, will therefore become a
major issue of food security.

Figure 1.2. Percentiles of thermal anomalies (positive in red, negative in blue)

recorded over land in the last three years (National Center for Environmental
Information, 2019, 2020, 2021). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.
uk/casadella/agri-innovations.zip

Urbanization and migration to cities reflect another trend that has been sustained
for several decades. It profoundly modifies the relationship between humans and the
land, and causes an evolution from global, climatic food insecurity to a more
economic form. Indeed, urban populations, although maintaining close social
relations with peri-urban or rural areas, are more dependent on the availability of
and access to imported food. Notwithstanding their density, they cannot reasonably
rely on significant production of resources from the cities themselves. The vast
majority of urban land is not suitable for agriculture due to the presence of roads and
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A TALE.
“An’ ye winna believe i’ the bogle?” said a pretty young lassie to her
sweetheart, as they sat in the door of her father’s cottage one fine autumn
evening. “Do you hear that, mither? Andrew ’ll no believe i’ the bogle.”
“Gude be wi’ us, Effie!” exclaimed Andrew, a slender and delicate youth
of about two-and-twenty, “a bonny time I wad hae o’t, gin I were to heed
every auld wife’s clatter.”
The words “auld wife” had a manifest effect on Effie, and she bit her lips
in silence. Her mother immediately opened a battery upon the young man’s
prejudices, narrating how that on Anneslie Heath, at ten o’clock at night, a
certain apparition was wont to appear, in the form of a maiden above the
usual size, with a wide three-cornered hat. Sundry other particulars were
mentioned, but Andrew was still incredulous. “He’ll rue that, dearly will he
rue’t!” said Effie, as he departed.
Many days, however, passed away, and Effie was evidently much
disappointed to find that the scepticism of her lover gathered strength. Nay,
he had the audacity to insult, by gibes and jests, the true believers, and to
call upon them for the reasons of their faith. Effie was in a terrible passion.
At last, however, her prophecy was fulfilled. Andrew was passing over
the moor, while the clock struck ten; for it was his usual practice to walk at
that hour, in order to mock the fears of his future bride. He was just winding
round the thicket which opened to him a view of the cottage where Effie
dwelt, when he heard a light step behind him, and, in an instant, his feet
were tripped up, and he was laid prostrate on the turf. Upon looking up he
beheld a tall muscular man standing over him, who, in no courteous
manner, desired to see the contents of his pocket. “De’il be on ye!”
exclaimed the young forester, “I hae but ae coin i’ the warld.” “That coin
maun I hae,” said his assailant. “Faith! I’se show ye play for’t then,” said
Andrew, and sprang upon his feet.
Andrew was esteemed the best cudgel-player for twenty miles round, so
that in brief space he cooled the ardour of his antagonist, and dealt such
visitations upon his skull as might have made a much firmer head ache for a
fortnight. The man stepped back, and, pausing in his assault, raised his hand
to his forehead, and buried it among his dark locks. It returned covered with
blood. “Thou hast cracked my crown,” he said, “but yet ye sha’ na gang
scatheless;” and, flinging down his cudgel, he flew on his young foe, and,
grasping his body before he was aware of the attack, whirled him to the
earth with an appalling impetus. “The Lord hae mercy on me!” said
Andrew, “I’m a dead man.”
He was not far from it, for his rude foe was preparing to put the finishing
stroke to his victory. Suddenly something stirred in the bushes, and the
conqueror, turning away from his victim, cried out, “The bogle! the bogle!”
and fled precipitately. Andrew ventured to look up. He saw the figure which
had been described to him approaching; it came nearer and nearer; its face
was very pale, and its step was not heard on the grass. At last it stood by his
side, and looked down upon him. Andrew buried his face in his cloak:
presently the apparition spoke—indistinctly indeed, for its teeth seemed to
chatter with cold:
“This is a cauld an’ an eerie night to be sae late on Anneslie Muir!” and
immediately it glided away. Andrew lay a few minutes in a trance; and then,
arising from his cold bed, ran hastily towards the cottage of his mistress.
His hair stood on end, and the vapours of the night sunk chill upon his brow
as he lifted up the latch and flung himself upon an oaken seat.
“Preserve us!” cried the old woman. “Why, ye are mair than aneugh to
frighten a body out o’ her wits! To come in wi’ sic a flaunt and a fling, bare-
sconced, and the red bluid spatter’d a’ o’er your new leather jerkin! Shame
on you, Andrew! in what mishanter hast thou broken that fule’s head o’
thine?”
“Peace, mither!” said the young man, taking breath, “I hae seen the
bogle!”
The old lady had a long line of reproaches, drawn up in order of march,
between her lips; but the mention of the bogle was the signal for disbanding
them. A thousand questions poured in, in rapid succession. “How old was
she? How was she dressed? Who was she like? What did she say?”
“She was a tall thin woman, about seven feet high!”
“Oh Andrew!” cried Effie.
“As ugly as sin!”
“Other people tell a different story,” said Effie.
“True, on my Bible oath! And then her beard——”
“A beard, Andrew!” shrieked Effie: “a woman with a beard! For shame,
Andrew!”
“Nay, I’ll swear it upon my soul’s salvation! She had seen saxty winters
and mair, afore e’er she died to trouble us!”
“I’ll wager my best new goun,” said the maiden, “that saxteen would be
nearer the mark.”
“But wha was she like, Andrew?” said the old woman. “Was she like
auld Janet that was drowned in the burn forenaint? or that auld witch that
your maister hanged for stealing his pet lamb? or was she like——”
“Are you sure she was na like me, Andrew?” said Effie, looking archly
in his face.
“You—pshaw! Faith, guid mither, she was like to naebody that I ken,
unless it be auld Elspeth, the cobbler’s wife, that was blamed for a’ the
mischief or misfortunes o’ the kintra roun’, and was drowned at last for
having ‘sense aboon the lave.’”
“And how was she dressed, Andrew?”
“In that horrible three-cornered hat, which may I be blinded if ever I
seek to look upon again!—an’ in a lang blue apron——”
“Green, Andrew!” cried Effie, twirling her own green apron round her
thumb.
“How you like to tease ane!” said the lover. Poor Andrew did not at all
enter into his mistress’s pleasantry, for he laboured under a great depression
of spirits, and never lifted his eyes from the ground.
“But ye hae na tauld us what she said, lad!” said the old woman,
assuming an air of deeper mystery as each question was put and answered
in its turn.
 “Lord! what signifies it whether she said this or that! Haud your tongue,
and get me some comfort; for, to speak truth, I’m vera cauld.”
“Weel mayest thou be sae,” said Effie, “for indeed,” she continued, in a
feigned voice, “it was a cauld an’ an eerie night to be sae late on Anneslie
Muir.”
Andrew started, and a doubt seemed to pass over his mind. He looked up
at the damsel, and perceived, for the first time, that her large blue eyes were
laughing at him from under the shade of a huge three-cornered hat. The
next moment he hung over her in an ecstasy of gratitude, and smothered
with his kisses the ridicule which she forced upon him as the penalty of his
preservation.
“Seven feet high, Andrew?”
“My dear Effie!”
“As ugly as sin?”
“My darling lassie!”
“And a beard?”
“Na! na! now you carry the jest o’er far!”
“And saxty winters?”
“Saxteen springs, Effie! Dear, delightfu’, smiling springs!”
“And Elspeth, the cobbler’s wife! Oh, Andrew, Andrew! I never can
forgie you for the cobbler’s wife! And what say you now, Andrew—is there
nae bogle on the muir?”
“My dear Effie, for your sake I’ll believe in a’ the bogles in
Christendie!”
“That is,” said Effie, at the conclusion of a long and vehement fit of
risibility, “that is, in a’ that wear ‘three-cornered hats.’”
 ON THE PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT OF A
PUBLIC LIBRARY AT ETON.
We are very glad to be able to announce that, after the Easter holidays, a
public library for the use of the school will be established by subscription,
at Mr. Williams’s. We are very glad of it, not for our own sake, for before it
shall rise to any degree of importance we shall be inhabitants of this spot no
longer; our very names will be forgotten among its more recent inmates.
But we hail with joy this institution, for the sake of the school we love and
reverence, to which we hope it will prove, at some future period, a valuable
addition.
The plan admits of one hundred subscribers—viz., the one hundred
senior members of the school. If any of these decline to become members,
the option will descend to the next in gradation. The subscription for the
first year will be 10s. 6d. after the Easter, Election, and Christmas holidays;
in future 10s. 6d. will be paid after the two latter vacations only. The library
will consist of the classics, history, &c.; and subscribers will be allowed,
under certain regulations, to take books from the room. Of course a thing of
this kind has not been set on foot without the concurrence of the higher
powers; and the head-master has assisted the promoters of it by his
approbation, as well as by liberality of another description. We trust that
Eton will not long continue to experience the want of an advantage which
many other public schools enjoy.
We had intended to send the foregoing loose remarks to press, in order to
request as many of our schoolfellows in the upper division as are willing to
become subscribers to leave their names with Mr. Williams, at whose house
the library will be established. But as we were preparing to send off the
manuscript, an old gentleman, for whom we have a great respect, called in,
and looked over our shoulder. He then took a chair, and observed to us:
“This will never do!” He took off his spectacles, wiped them, put them on
again, and repeated: “This will never do!
“I, sir, was an Etonian in the year 17—, and, being a bit of a speculator
in those days, had a mind to do what you are now dreaming of doing. I
addressed myself forthwith to various friends, all of them distinguished for
rank, or talent, or influence, among their companions. I began with Sir
Roger Gandy, expatiated on the sad want of books which many
experienced, and asked whether he did not think a public library would be a
very fine thing? ‘A circulating one,’ he said; ‘oh yes, very!’—and he
yawned. There was taste!
“The next to whom I made application was Tom Luny, the fat son of a
fat merchant on Ludgate Hill. Poor Tom! He died last week, by-the-by, of a
surfeit. Well, sir, I harangued him for some time upon the advantages of my
scheme, to which he gave his cordial assent. Finally I observed that, of
course, it would not be very expensive. ‘Expensive!’ he said; ‘oh yes,
very!’—and he walked off. There was liberality!
“Next I besieged Will Wingham. I made my approaches as before, with
great caution, and at last summoned the garrison to surrender. ‘Books!’ he
exclaimed, ‘I haven’t one but a Greek Grammar, with all syntax out.’ ‘And
do you think,’ I resumed, ‘that an Etonian can do well without them?’ ‘Do
well!’ he said; ‘oh yes, very!’—and he laughed. There was a wish for
improvement!
“Now, my good Peregrine,” continued the old gentleman, putting his feet
up upon the hobs of my fire, and looking very argumentative, “what do you
say to all this?”
The old gentleman is
 Laudator temporis acti
Se puero.

He left the room piqued, when we hurt his prejudices by replying,

“Nothing, sir, but that the Etonians of 1821 are not, we will hope, the
Etonians of 17—.”
 THE MISTAKE; OR, SIXES AND SEVENS.

“Be particular to observe that the name on the door is——.”

Morning Chronicle, April 1821.

It is a point which has often been advanced and contested by the learned,
that the world grows worse as it grows older; arguments have been
advanced, and treatises written, in support of Horace’s opinion—
Ætas parentum pejor avis tulit
Nos nequiores, mox daturos
Progeniem vitiosiorem.

The supporters of this idea rest their sentence upon various grounds: they
mention the frequency of crim. con. cases, the increase of the poor-rate, the
licentiousness of the press, the celebrity of rouge et noir.
There is, however, one circumstance corroborative of their judgment, to
which we think the public opinion has not yet been sufficiently called. We
mean the indisputable fact that persons of all descriptions are growing
ashamed of their own names. We remember that when we were dragged in
our childhood to walk with our nurse, we were accustomed to beguile our
sense of weariness and disgust by studying the names, which, in their neat
brass plates, decorated the doors by which we passed. Now the case is
altered. We have observed elsewhere that the tradesmen have removed their
signs; it is equally true that the gentlemen have removed their names. The
simple numerical distinction, which is now alone emblazoned upon the
doors of our dwellings, but ill replaces that more gratifying custom, which,
in a literal sense, held up great names for our emulation, and made the
streets of the metropolis a muster-roll of examples for our conduct.
But a very serious inconvenience is also occasioned by this departure
from ancient observances. How is the visitor from the country to discover
the patron of his fortunes, the friend of his bosom, or the mistress of his
heart, if, in lieu of the above-mentioned edifying brass plates, his eye
glances upon the unsatisfactory information contained in 1, 2, or 3? In some
cases even this assistance is denied to him, and he wanders upon his dark
and comfortless voyage, like an ancient mariner deprived of the assistance
of the stars.
Our poor friend, Mr. Nichol Loaming, has treated us with a long and
eloquent dissertation upon this symptom of degeneracy; and certainly, if the
advice experto crede be of any weight, Mr. Nichol’s testimony ought to
induce all persons to hang out upon the exterior of their residences some
more convincing enunciation of their name and calling than it is at present
the fashion to produce.
Nichol came up to town with letters of introduction to several friends of
his family, whom it was his first duty and wish to discover. But his first
adventure so dispirited him, that, after having spent two mornings at an
hotel, he set out upon his homeward voyage, and left the metropolis an
unexplored region.
He purposed to make his first visit to Sir William Knowell, and, having
with some difficulty discovered the street to which he had been directed, he
proceeded to investigate the doors, in order to find out the object of his
search. The doors presented nothing but a blank! He made inquiries, was
directed to a house, heard that Sir William was at home, was shown into an
empty room, and waited for some time with patience.
The furniture of the house rather surprised him. It was handsomer than
he had expected to find it; and on the table were the Morning Chronicle and
the Edinburgh Review, although Sir William was a violent Tory. At length
the door opened, and a gentleman made his appearance. Nichol asked, in a
studied speech, whether he had the honour to address Sir William Knowell?
The gentleman replied that he believed there had been a little mistake, but
that he was an intimate friend of Sir W. Knowell’s, and expected him in the
course of a few minutes. Nichol resumed his seat, although he did not quite
perceive what mistake had taken place. He was unfortunately urged by his
evil genius to attempt conversation.
He observed that Sir W. Knowell had a delightful house, and inquired
whether the neighbourhood was pleasant. “His next neighbour,” said the
stranger, with a most incomprehensible smile, “is Sir William Morley.”
Nichol shook his head; was surprised to hear Sir William kept such
company—had heard strange stories of Sir W. Morley—hoped there was no
foundation—indeed had received no good report of the family! “The
mother rather weak in the head—to say the truth under confinement; the
sister a professed coquette—went off to Gretna last week with a Scotch
officer; Sir William himself a gambler by habit, a drunkard by inclination—
at present in the King’s Bench, without the possibility of an adjustment
——”
Here he was stopped by the entrance of an elderly lady leaning on the
arm of an interesting girl of sixteen or seventeen. Upon looking up, Nichol
perceived the gentleman he had been addressing rather embarrassed; and
“hoped that he had not said anything which could give offence.” “Not in the
least,” replied the stranger; “I am more amused by an account of the foibles
of Sir W. Morley than any one else can be; and of this I will immediately
convince you. Sir William Knowell resides at No. Six—you have stepped
by mistake into No. Seven. Before you leave it, allow me to introduce you
to Lady Morley—who is rather weak in the head, and, to say the truth,
under confinement; to Miss Ellen Morley, a professed coquette, who went
off to Gretna last week with a half-pay officer; finally”—(with a very low
bow)—“to Sir William Morley himself, a gambler by habit, and a drunkard
by inclination—who is at present in the King’s Bench, without the
possibility of an adjustment!”
 SENSE AND SENSIBILITY.

“Hâc in re scilicet unâ

Multum dissimiles.” Hor.

In a visit which we paid some time ago to our worthy contributor, Morris
Gowan, we became acquainted with two characters; upon whom, as they
afford a perfect counterpart to Messrs. “Rhyme and Reason,” recorded in a
former paper, we have bestowed the names of Sense and Sensibility.
The Misses Lowrie, of whom we are about to give our readers an
account, are both young, both handsome, both amiable: Nature made the
outline of their characters the same, but Education has varied the colouring.
Their mother died almost before they were able to profit by her example or
instruction. Emily, the eldest of the sisters, was brought up under the
immediate care of her father. He was a man of strong and temperate
judgment, obliging to his neighbours, and affectionate to his children; but
certainly rather calculated to educate a son than a daughter. Emily profited
abundantly by his assistance, as far as moral duties or literary
accomplishments were concerned; but for all the lesser agrémens of society,
she had nothing to depend upon but the suggestions of a kind heart and a
quiet temper. Matilda, on the contrary, spent her childhood in England, at
the house of a relation, who, having imbibed her notions of propriety at a
fashionable boarding-school, and made a love-match very early in life, was
but ill-prepared to regulate a warm disposition and check a natural tendency
to romance. The consequence has been such as might have been expected.
Matilda pities the distressed, and Emily relieves them; Matilda has more of
the love of the neighbourhood, although Emily is more entitled to its
gratitude; Matilda is very agreeable, while Emily is very useful; and two or
three old ladies, who talk scandal over their tea, and murder grammar and
reputations together, consider Matilda a practised heroine, and laugh at
Emily as an inveterate Blue.
The incident which first introduced us to them afforded us a tolerable
specimen of their different qualities. While on a long pedestrian excursion
with Morris, we met the two ladies returning from their walk; and, as our
companion had already the privileges of an intimate acquaintance, we
became their companions. An accurate observer of human manners knows
well how decisively character is marked by trifles, and how wide is the
distinction which is frequently made by circumstances apparently the most
insignificant.
In spite, therefore, of the similarity of age and person which existed
between the two sisters, the first glance at their dress and manner, the first
tones of their voice, were sufficient to distinguish the one from the other. It
was whimsical enough to observe how every object which attracted our
attention exhibited their respective peculiarities in a new and entertaining
light. Sense entered into a learned discussion on the nature of a plant, while
Sensibility talked enchantingly of the fading of its flower. From Matilda we
had a rapturous eulogium upon the surrounding scenery; from Emily we
derived much information relative to the state of its cultivation. When we
listened to the one, we seemed to be reading a novel, but a clever and an
interesting novel; when we turned to the other, we found only real life, but
real life in its most pleasant and engaging form.
Suddenly one of those rapid storms, which so frequently disturb for a
time the tranquillity of the finest weather, appeared to be gathering over our
heads. Dark clouds were driven impetuously over the clear sky, and the
refreshing coolness of the atmosphere was changed to a close and
overpowering heat. Matilda looked up in admiration—Emily in alarm;
Sensibility was thinking of a landscape—Sense of a wet pelisse. “This
would make a fine sketch,” said the first. “We had better make haste,” said
the second. The tempest continued to grow gloomier above us: we passed a
ruined hut, which had been long deserted by its inhabitants. “Suppose we
take refuge here for the evening,” said Morris. “It would be very romantic,”
said Sensibility. “It would be very disagreeable,” said Sense. “How it would
astonish my father!” said the heroine. “How it would alarm him!” said her
sister.
As yet we had only observed distant prognostics of the tumult of the
elements which was about to take place. Now, however, the collected fury
of the storm burst at once upon us. A long and bright flash of lightning,
together with a continued roll of thunder, accompanied one of the heaviest
rains that we have ever experienced. “We shall have an adventure!” cried
Matilda. “We shall be very late,” observed Emily. “I wish we were a
hundred miles off,” said the one hyperbolically. “I wish we were at home,”
replied the other soberly. “Alas! we shall never get home to-night,” sighed
Sensibility pathetically. “Possibly,” returned Sense dryly. The fact was that
the eldest of the sisters was quite calm, although she was aware of all the
inconveniences of their situation; and the youngest was terribly frightened,
although she began quoting poetry. There was another and a brighter flash,
another and a louder peal: Sense quickened her steps—Sensibility fainted.
With some difficulty, and not without the aid of a conveyance from a
neighbouring farmer, we brought our companions in safety to their father’s
door. We were of course received with an invitation to remain under shelter
till the weather should clear up; and of course we felt no reluctance to
accept the offer. The house was very neatly furnished, principally by the
care of the two young ladies; but here again the diversity of their manners
showed itself very plainly. The useful was produced by the labour of Emily;
the ornamental was the fruit of the leisure hours of Matilda. The skill of the
former was visible in the sofa-covers and the curtains, but the latter had
decorated the card-racks and painted the roses on the hand-screens. The
neat little bookcases, too, which contained their respective libraries,
suggested a similar remark. In that of the eldest we observed our native
English worthies—Milton, Shakespeare, Dryden, and Pope; on the shelves
of her sister reclined the more effeminate Italians—Tasso, Ariosto,
Metastasio, and Petrarch. It was a delightful thing to see two amiable beings
with tastes so widely different, yet with hearts so closely united.
It is not to be wondered at that we paid a longer visit than we had
originally intended. The conversation turned, at one time, upon the late
revolutions. Matilda was a terrible Radical, and spoke most enthusiastically
of tyranny and patriotism, the righteous cause, and the Holy Alliance:
Emily, however, declined to join in commiseration or invective, and pleaded
ignorance in excuse for her indifference. We fancy she was apprehensive of
blundering against a stranger’s political prejudices. However that may be,
Matilda sighed and talked, and Emily smiled and held her tongue. We
believe the silence was the most judicious; but we are sure the loquacity
was the most interesting.
We took up the newspaper. There was an account of a young man who
had gone out alone to the rescue of a vessel in distress. The design had been
utterly hopeless, and he had lost his life in the attempt. His fate struck our
fair friends in very different lights. “He ought to have had a better fortune,”
murmured Matilda. “Or more prudence,” added Emily. “He must have been
a hero,” said the first. “Or a madman,” rejoined the second.
The storm now died away in the distance, and a tranquil evening
approached. We set out on our return. The old gentleman, with his
daughters, accompanied us a small part of the way. The scene around us
was beautiful; the birds and the cattle seemed to be rejoicing in the return of
the sunshine, and every herb and leaf had derived a brighter tint from the
rain-drops with which it was spangled. As we lingered for a few moments
by the side of a beautiful piece of water, the mellowed sound of a flute was
conveyed to us over its clear surface. The instrument was delightfully
played: at such an hour, on such a spot, and with such companions, we
could have listened to it for ever. “That is George Mervyn,” said Morris to
us. “How very clever he is!” exclaimed Matilda. “How very imprudent,”
replied Emily. “He will catch all the hearts in the place!” said Sensibility,
with a sigh. “He will catch nothing but a cold!” said Sense, with a shiver.
We were reminded that our companions were running the same risk, and we
parted from them reluctantly.
After this introduction we had many opportunities of seeing them; we
became every day more pleased with the acquaintance, and looked forward
with regret to the day on which we were finally to leave so enchanting a
neighbourhood. The preceding night it was discovered that the cottage of
Mr. Lowrie was on fire. The destructive element was soon checked, and the
alarm quieted; but it produced a circumstance which illustrated, in a very
affecting manner, the observations we have been making. As the family
were greatly beloved by all who knew them, every one used the most
affectionate exertions in their behalf. When the father had been brought
safely from the house, several hastened to the relief of the daughters. They
were dressed, and were descending the stairs. The eldest, who had behaved
with great presence of mind, was supporting her sister, who trembled with
agitation. “Take care of this box,” said Emily: it contained her father’s title-
deeds. “For Heaven’s sake preserve this locket!” sobbed Matilda; it was a
miniature of her mother!
We have left, but not forgotten you, beautiful creatures! Often, when we
are sitting in solitude, with a pen behind our ear and a proof before our
eyes, you come, hand in hand, to our imagination! Some, indeed, enjoin us
to prefer esteem to fascination—to write sonnets to Sensibility, and to look
for a wife in Sense. These are the suggestions of age; perhaps of prudence.
We are young, and may be allowed to shake our heads as we listen!
 MR. LOZELL’S
ESSAY ON WEATHERCOCKS.

“Round he spun.”—Byron.

We have a great respect for a Weathercock! There is something about it so

springy, so sprightly, and, at the same time, so complying and so
accommodating, that we are not ashamed to confess that we have long
taken it for our model. It changes sides perpetually, yet always preserves
one unvaried elevation; it is always in motion, yet always remains the same.
We could look at a Weathercock for hours!
To us, however, it has another charm, independent of its intrinsic good
qualities. Its name, not less than its character, recalls to our recollection a
family which is entitled, in the highest degree, to our esteem; of which we
should never cease to think, even if our memory were not daily sharpened
by the little remembrancer, which is at once their namesake, their crest, and
their model.
The family of the Weathercocks is one of considerable antiquity. The
first of the name, whom we find distinguishing himself in any extraordinary
degree, is Sir Anthony Weathercock of Fetherly, Staffordshire; who
changed his party seven times during the unfortunate dissensions between
the houses of York and Lancaster. And this he contrived to do with so much
tact, that he was a considerable gainer by his six first defections. By his
seventh he certainly sustained a trifling loss—he lost his head!
It is a well-known observation, that the descendants of surpassingly great
men are often either blockheads or idiots. The present instance certainly
affords us an exemplification of the truth of the remark. The successor of
this genuine Weathercock was a poor weak fellow, who had no more idea of
turning to the rightabout, without compulsion, than he had of breakfasting
without beef. Upon his refusing to deliver up the castle of Nounhame to the
celebrated Warwick, he was besieged, compelled to surrender, and
immediately hung up upon the gates of the fort, to learn to behave like his
forefathers.
 The religious prosecutions which followed the union of the White and
Red Roses afforded fresh opportunity for the manifestation of the merits of
the Weathercocks. Theirs was almost the only family of any note in
England which did not lose one or other of its members from the
indiscriminate fury of superstition. The head of the house appears to have
embraced as many religions, and more wives, than Henry himself; and a
younger branch is said to have been, within a week, a serving-man in the
train of Gardiner and a clerk in the household of Cranmer. But we are
forgetting that we and our friends live in 1821, and that we shall weary the
patience of our reader by tracing those dry historical facts ab ovo.
The Weathercock family, or rather that branch of it with which we are at
present concerned, resides on a large and productive estate in
Leicestershire. We have spent much time with them, and have had several
opportunities of studying their peculiar merits. Their mansion affords a
perfect college for mutability; everything is kept in readiness to be
destroyed or refitted, removed or replaced, at a minute’s warning. It is quite
delightful to see how new fashions of furniture come in and go out; how the
faces of the servants are continually altered; how the hour of meals, the
regulation of the parterres—in short, the whole system of domestic
economy is always subjected to some new ephemeral arrangement, which
must soon give way to another equally new and equally ephemeral. To us,
we say, this is delightful. But one seldom finds two tastes alike. Many
pronounce the Weathercocks to be quite crazed; and many decide that “they
are mighty good kind of people, but have very odd whimsies!”
The disposition for change, which is inherent in the family, has produced
very strange effects upon their place of residence. The house was originally
a good stout old-fashioned house, remarkable for nothing but the antiquity
of its pictures and the size of its dining-hall. But its name and character
have shifted considerably since it came into the possession of my worthy
friends. It has been alternately a Hall, an Abbey, a Castle, and a Lodge; nay,
during the life of the late Sir Adonis Weathercock, it became, for a few
months, a Cottage. The proprietor, however, in this instance, gave up his
design before it had affected anything beyond the windows. The mansion
bears more permanent marks of its other metamorphoses. On one side it has
the square turrets and battlements of the feudal system; on another, the
flowery-pointed arch of a Gothic cathedral. One of the owners of the place
thought proper to sink a moat round his habitation; but he afterwards filled
it up, and converted it into a circular gravel walk. Another had a fancy for
erecting some solid Doric pillars; he, doubtless, much improved their
appearance, by placing upon them a beautiful Chinese veranda. Similar
observations are suggested by an inspection of the interior of the building.
You may almost read a history of two or three centuries in the reliques of
their manners which are scattered in every apartment. War has been carried
on with tolerably equal success between Lely’s portraits, Gainsborough’s
landscapes, and Bunbury’s caricatures. A cast of a Hercules looks
somewhat angrily upon a mandarin, who is his next neighbour; and a
timorous Venus maintains her post with great obstinacy, although her divine
presence is invaded by the scaly folds of an enormous dragon. There are
bronzes and Cupids, oaken tables and mahogany tables, drab papering and
crimson papering, high mantelpieces and low mantelpieces, Dresden china
and French china; everything is superb, everything incongruous, everything
unfinished.
The old park has been reduced to the same state. A scrupulous homage
has been paid to every new mode of cultivation; a thousand emendations,
and additions, and improvements have been successively introduced. But it
is easier to plant new customs than to eradicate the old. Lycaon was turned
into a beast, but he retained his old habits of atrocity. Arachne was
transformed into a spider, but she did not forget her spinning. The park of
the Weathercocks has, in like manner, assumed various novel shapes,
without losing the traces of its old ones. At one time it was dressed out in
all the stiff regularity of alleys and arcades; at another, it was dubbed a
“wilderness,” and was immediately laid waste by a terrible inroad of shrubs
and weeds without number. In one part your eye rests upon the muddy
vestiges of an artificial cascade; in another, your foot stumbles over a heap
of rubbish, which has been produced by the demolition of an artificial ruin.
Some people object to these things; for my part, I own I am delighted with
them. They show a proper distrust of one’s own opinion, a decorous
compliance with the unstable will of the world, an eager spirit of enterprise;
in short, they prove that the Weathercocks have not an ounce of obstinacy in
their composition.
Sir Wilfrid Weathercock, the present head of the family, is a cheerful and
hale man, between forty and fifty years of age. He is about the middle
stature, although, upon some occasions, by the affectation of a fashionable
stoop, he appears somewhat dwarfish; while, upon others, by the
assumption of a military gait and a pair of high heels, he bids fair to be
accounted a giant. With a self-denial worthy of a Cincinnatus, he has
avoided all offers of place or pension, all invitations to embark in public
life; he has confined his manifold talents and his extraordinary versatility to
the limits of his own estate. Perhaps, indeed, his determination, in this
respect, may have been a prudent one; for, although any ministry would
have been benefited by the unusual facility with which Sir Wilfrid would
have flown from patriotic speeches to taxation and gagging bills, from
prayers for peace to declarations of war, from professions of economy to
measures of profusion; yet it must be confessed that his reluctance to
remain a minute stationary would have driven him from one side of the
House to the other oftener than is seemly in a public man. Let it be
understood that we speak with all due deference and respect for the
numerous precedents which are to be found in our English history. Leaving
great statesmen to settle this point, we can only express our opinion that our
friend has certainly acted best for his own comfort, by choosing a quiet
privacy, where he may “change every hour,” undisturbed by the
malevolence of envy or the violence of faction.
His education was, in his youth, sadly neglected. Indeed, his father
fluctuated so long, first between Eton and Westminster, and afterwards
between Cambridge and Oxford, that it is marvellous to me how little
Wilfrid picked up any education at all. He has, however, obtained just so
much learning as enables him to cry up the Greeks and the Latins
alternately, and to flirt with all the nine Muses in succession. He escaped
the fatigue of deliberation in the choice of a profession, by the death of his
father; who left him, in very early life, the heir to all his fortune, all his
friendships, and all his follies. He spent his first two years upon the estate,
occupied in reflections of no very serious import: such as, whether his coat
should be red or green, whether his hunter should be bay or brown, whether
his equipage should be a barouche or a curricle. So far all was sunshine; but
some tempestuous days were approaching. It was suggested to him that the
ancient family of the Weathercocks ought to have an heir to its honours and
possessions. No evasion would serve; Sir Wilfrid must take a wife. He was
now in a novel and a disagreeable dilemma. In any trifling part of his
domestic economy, in the livery of his servants, in the arrangement of his
dinner-table, in the fashion of his plate, he would have bowed without a
murmur to the decision of his friends; but to inflict upon himself a wife was
a thing so utterly unlooked for and unprepared for, that Sir Wilfrid paused.
He hesitated and decided, and hesitated again, through three years; at the
termination of which he broke his leg in a fox-chase, grew quiet in
consequence, sold his hounds, and looked out for a wife. Then another
perplexity occurred. Who was to be the happy woman? He could never
resolve to make so invidious a distinction.
“It is very true,” said poor Sir Wilfrid, “that Miss Dormer has a very fine
face, but then I never much admired her nose. I certainly have always
preferred her cousin, although that unfortunate cast of the eye—well, well, I
am a young man, and, as my aunt says, ‘there is no hurry!’ Miss Rayner is
very beautiful, and has such charming dark hair—I always liked dark hair;
yet I don’t know if light is not as pretty—prettier sometimes, as for instance
Miss Chevier’s—only she is so insipid; I think Lady Mary is more
fascinating, but then she is so terribly satirical. Perhaps her sister would
make a better wife—if she was not such a fool!”
He consulted in this manner with himself for a long time: half the belles
of the county were ready to pull caps for him, but he “prattled with fifty fair
maids, and changed them as oft.” At last, in a fit of courage, he flung
himself at the feet of his chosen one, talked some rhapsodies, sighed some
sighs, and awaited his sentence. The lady was sorry, very sorry—and she
was flattered, highly flattered—and she was sure, quite sure—it would only
be attributed to her own want of discernment, that she declined the favour,
the honour, the distinction, the—— He heard no more; he hesitated! Should
he leave the room? Yes!—no!—yes! And he escaped as well as he could.
He has continued to this day a bachelor. In spite of all intrigue, all
solicitation, all persecution, he has remained, in this one instance, obstinate.
In all others he is a real Weathercock. He builds cottages, apparently with
no object but pulling them down; and pulls them down, apparently with no
object but that of building them up: he is a Tory one hour and a Whig the
next, and takes in the Chronicle and Courier alternately; he seldom reads
more than half a number of a periodical work, and never wears the same
coat above a month. In his conversation he pursues the same plan—or
rather want of plan—