Agonistic Memory and the Legacy of

20th Century Wars in Europe 1st ed.

2021 Edition
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/agonistic-memory-and-the-legacy-of-20th-century-wa
rs-in-europe-1st-ed-2021-edition/
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN MEMORY STUDIES

Agonistic Memory and

the Legacy of 20th Century
Wars in Europe
Edited by
Stefan Berger · Wulf Kansteiner
Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies

Series Editors
Andrew Hoskins
University of Glasgow
Glasgow, UK

John Sutton
Department of Cognitive Science
Macquarie University
Macquarie, Australia
The nascent field of Memory Studies emerges from contemporary trends
that include a shift from concern with historical knowledge of events to
that of memory, from ‘what we know’ to ‘how we remember it’; changes
in generational memory; the rapid advance of technologies of memory;
panics over declining powers of memory, which mirror our fascination
with the possibilities of memory enhancement; and the development of
trauma narratives in reshaping the past. These factors have contributed to
an intensification of public discourses on our past over the last thirty years.
Technological, political, interpersonal, social and cultural shifts affect
what, how and why people and societies remember and forget. This
groundbreaking series tackles questions such as: What is ‘memory’ under
these conditions? What are its prospects, and also the prospects for its
interdisciplinary and systematic study? What are the conceptual,
theoretical and methodological tools for its investigation and
illumination?

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14682
 Stefan Berger • Wulf Kansteiner
Editors

Agonistic Memory
and the Legacy of
20th Century Wars in
Europe
Editors
Stefan Berger Wulf Kansteiner
Ruhr University Bochum Aarhus University
Bochum, Germany Aarhus, Denmark

ISSN 2634-6257     ISSN 2634-6265 (electronic)

Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies
ISBN 978-3-030-86054-7    ISBN 978-3-030-86055-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86055-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Michael Mueller/Alamy Stock Photo

Cover design: eStudioCalamar

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Contents

1 Agonistic Perspectives on the Memory of War: An

Introduction  1
Stefan Berger and Wulf Kansteiner

2 Agonistic Memory Revisited 13

Anna Cento Bull, Hans Lauge Hansen, and Francisco
Colom-González

3 The Production of Memory Modes During Mass Grave

Exhumations in Contemporary Europe 39
Francisco Ferrándiz and Marije Hristova

4 Memory Cultures of War in European War Museums 69

Stefan Berger, Anna Cento Bull, Cristian Cercel, David Clarke,
Nina Parish, Eleanor Rowley, and Zofia Wóycicka

5 “Krieg. Macht. Sinn.” An Agonistic Exhibition

at the Ruhr Museum Essen115
Daniela De Angeli, Wulf Kansteiner, Cristian Cercel, and
Eamonn O’Neill

v
vi Contents

6 ‘To Understand Doesn’t Mean that You Will Approve’:

Transnational Audience Research on a Theatre
Representation of Evil149
Diana González Martín and Hans Lauge Hansen

7 Taking Agonism Online: Creating a Mass Open Online

Course to Disseminate the Findings of the UNREST
Project179
David Clarke, Nina Parish, and Ayshka Sené

8 Agonism and Memory203

Wulf Kansteiner and Stefan Berger

Index247
 Notes on Contributors

Stefan Berger is Professor of Social History and Director of the Institute

for Social Movements at Ruhr-Universität Bochum in Germany. He is also
executive chair of the Foundation History of the Ruhr and honorary pro-
fessor at Cardiff University in the UK. He has published widely on the
history of memory, the history of deindustrialization, industrial heritage,
the history of social movements and labour movements, the history of
historiography, historical theory and the history of nationalism and
national identity. Among his most recent publications are A Cultural
History of Memory, co-edited with Jeffrey C. Olick, 6 vols, 2020;
Constructing Industrial Pasts, 2020; (De)Industrial History, co-edited
with Steven High, special issue of Labor: Journal of Working-Class History
16:1 (2019).
Anna Cento Bull is Emeritus Professor of Italian History and Politics at
the University of Bath, UK. Her research interests include the legacy of
political terrorism, political identities and agonistic memory in theory and
practice. She has published widely on this last topic, including ‘On Agonistic
Memory’ (with H. L. Hansen, Memory Studies, 2016, 9(4): 390–404);
‘Agonistic Interventions into Public Commemorative Art: An Innovative
Form of Counter-Memorial Practice?’ (with D. Clarke, Constellations, 2020,
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1467-8675.12484);
‘Emotions and Critical Thinking at a Dark Heritage Site: Investigating
Visitors’ Reactions to a First World War Museum in Slovenia’ (with D. De
Angeli, Journal of Heritage Tourism, 2020, https://www.tandfonline.com/
doi/full/10.1080/1743873X.2020.1804918).

vii
viii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Cristian Cercel is researcher at the Institute for Social Movements at

Ruhr-University Bochum. His areas of interest are memory studies, minor-
ity studies, nationalism studies, transnationalism and European history.
He has recently published Romania and the Quest for European Identity:
Philo-Germanism Without Germans (2019).
David Clarke is Professor of Modern German Studies at Cardiff
University. He has published on various aspects of the politics and culture
of memory, on representations of war in museums and on cultural diplo-
macy. His recent book, Constructions of Victimhood: Remembering the
Victims of State Socialism in Germany, was published by Palgrave in 2019.
Francisco Colom-González is Professor of Research of the Centre for
Humanities and Social Sciences at the Spanish National Research Council
(CSIC) in Madrid. Previously he was Associate Professor of Political
Sociology at the Public University of Navarre (Pamplona, Spain). He
holds a PhD in Philosophy from the Universidad Complutense and a
Diploma in Political Science and Constitutional Law from the Centre for
Political and Constitutional Studies, Madrid. His work has mainly dealt
with the normative relations between culture, political identity and social
change. More recently, his research interests have turned towards the
study of political spaces and urban theory. He has recently directed a proj-
ect on The Political Philosophy of the City and is preparing a new one on The
Just City. Among his recent publications is (ed.) Narrar las ciudades. El
espacio urbano a través de los textos (2021).
Daniela De Angeli has more than nine years of experience designing and
evaluating interactive experiences and digital content for museums. She is
co-director of the Community Interest Company Echo Games (echo-
games.co.uk) and a visiting researcher in Human-Computer Interaction
(HCI) at the University of Bath in the UK. Her research is interdisciplin-
ary, ranging from HCI and games to cultural heritage and memory studies.
Francisco Ferrándiz is senior researcher at the Spanish National Research
Council (CSIC). He holds a PhD in Social and Cultural Anthropology
from UC Berkeley (1996). His research focuses on the anthropology of
the body, violence and social memory. Since 2002, he has conducted
research on the politics of memory in contemporary Spain, analysing the
exhumations of mass graves from the Civil War (1936–1939). He is
Principal Investigator (PI) of the research project The Politics of Memory
Exhumations in Contemporary Spain, funded by the Spanish Ministry of
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS ix

Science and Innovation. His main books on this topic are El pasado bajo
tierra: Exhumaciones contemporáneas de la Guerra Civil (Anthropos 2014)
and, as edited volumes, Necropolitics: Mass Graves and Exhumations in the
Age of Human Rights (2015, with A. C.G.M Robben) and ‘Memory
Worlds: Reframing Time and the Past’ (special issue Memory Studies,
2020, with M. Hristova and J. Vollmeyer). He is a senior advisor in the
State Secretariat for Democratic Memory, integrated in the Ministry of the
Presidency in Spain’s central government.
Diana González Martín is Associate Professor of Contemporary Latin
American and Spanish Culture, Media and Society at the Department of
German and Romance Languages, School of Communication and Culture,
Aarhus University (AU), Denmark. She is specialized in performing arts,
aesthetics and cultural memory studies. Her interests focus on social
movements and the relationship between activism and institutions in Latin
American and European societies, on the one hand, and, on the other
hand, methodologies for the societal transformation through the arts.
Among her most relevant publications are the monograph Emancipación,
plenitud y memoria. Modos de percepción y acción a través del arte
(Iberoamericana Editorial Vervuert, 2015) and the articles ‘Going to the
Theatre and Feeling Agonistic: Exploring Modes of Remembrance in
Spanish Audiences’ (Hispanic Research Journal, 21:2, 2020) and
‘Informantes, Escogidos, Ejércitos, Ene Enes, Testimonios: Múltiples
actores de la memoria en la literatura colombiana reciente’ (Iberoamericana,
Nordic Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 48:1, 2019).
Marije Hristova is Assistant Professor of Hispanic Culture and Literature
at the Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands. Previously she
was a Marie Skłodowska-Curie Cofund fellow at the University of Warwick
and a postdoctoral researcher at the Spanish National Research Council.
She is a researcher in the project ‘Below Ground’, funded by the Spanish
Ministry of Science and Innovation. She is a member of the association
‘Memorias en Red’ and of the advisory board of the Memory Studies
Association. Her research focuses on the remembrance of mass grave
exhumations in art and literature. She has published widely on transna-
tional memory discourses and the production of cultural memories after
the forensic turn in Spain and in Europe. Her most recent publications
include the special issue ‘Memory Worlds: Reframing Time and the Past’,
Memory Studies 13(5) 2020, co-edited with Francisco Ferrándiz and
Johanna Vollmeyer.
x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Wulf Kansteiner is Professor of Memory Studies and Historical Theory

at Aarhus University in Denmark. His research interests include the meth-
ods and theories of memory studies; the role of visual media—TV, film,
digital culture—in the formation of cultural memory; post-­narrativist his-
torical theory; and Holocaust memory, and historiography. Recent publi-
cations include ‘Prime Time Nationalism: Patterns of Prejudice in TV
Crime Fiction’ in J. Barkhoff und J. Leersen (eds) National Stereotyping,
Identity, Politics, European Crises (2021); ‘Media and Technology’, in
Stefan Berger and Bill Niven (eds), The Twentieth Century, vol. 6 of Stefan
Berger; and Jeff K. Olick (eds), A Cultural History of Memory, 6
vols (2020).
Hans Lauge Hansen is Professor of Spanish and Latin American
Literature and Culture at the Department of German and Romance
Languages, School of Communication and Culture, Aarhus University,
Denmark. His principal research areas are contemporary Spanish and
Latin American narrative, cultural memory studies, narratives of migration
and Cultural Conflict Studies. He has published widely on the Spanish
memory novel of the twenty-first century. Selected recent publications
include ‘A Case for Agonistic Peacebuilding in Colombia’, Third World
Quarterly (forthcoming, co-authored with Diana González Martín y
Agustín Parra); ‘On Agonistic Narratives of Migration’, International
Journal of Cultural Studies, 2:4, 2020; and ‘On Agonistic Memory’ (co-
authored with Anna Cento Bull), Memory Studies, 9:4, 2015.
Eamonn O’Neill is Professor of Human-Computer Interaction at the
University of Bath. His main research interests are in developing, evaluat-
ing and understanding innovative forms of human-technology interaction
and technology-mediated human-human interaction, with the goal of
contributing to an applied science of interactive systems. Topics include
mixed, augmented and virtual reality, and interaction with intelligent
machines and software. Primary application areas in his research include
cultural heritage visitor experiences, multisensory interaction and aug-
mented and virtual reality.
Nina Parish is Professor of French and Francophone Studies at the
University of Stirling, and visiting researcher at the University of Bath. She
works on representations of difficult history, the migrant experience and
multilingualism in the museum space. She is also an expert on the interac-
tion between text and image in the field of modern and contemporary
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xi

French Studies and has published widely on this subject, in particular, on

the poet and visual artist, Henri Michaux.
Eleanor Rowley is a doctoral candidate at the Department of Politics,
Languages and International Studies at the University of Bath, where she
is exploring the visitor experience at First World War museums. She is
interested in heritage education practices and the ways in which young
people interpret cultural memory messages during school field trips to
museums and heritage sites. She is also contributing to empirical work on
museums and memory to the Horizon 2020–funded project ‘Unsettling
Remembering and Social Cohesion in Transnational Europe (UNREST)’.
Ayshka Sené is a research associate at the University of York working on
the ‘Archiving the Inner-City Project: Race and the Politics of Urban
Memory’. Her research focuses on the history and memory of British
women’s internment in Occupied France. She recently produced a pod-
cast on disease, contagion and confinement in France’s overseas penal
colonies.
Zofia Wóycicka is a researcher at the German Historical Institute Warsaw.
She studied history and sociology at the University of Warsaw and Jena
University and holds a doctoral degree from the Polish Academy of
Sciences. She worked as an educator at the Museum of the History of
Polish Jews, as an exhibition curator at the House of European History/
Brussels, and as a researcher at the Centre for Historical Research Berlin.
Her main research interest lies in Memory and Museum Studies with a
special focus on World War II. She authored, among others, Arrested
Mourning: Memory of the Nazi Camps in Poland, 1944–1950, 2013.
Among her recent publications is ‘A Global Label and its Local
Appropriations. Representations of the Righteous Among the Nations in
Contemporary European Museums’, Memory Studies, Online First (2021).
 List of Figures

Fig. 7.1 Online stakeholder survey—Question 8 186

Fig. 7.2 Online stakeholder survey—Question 9 186

xiii
 List of Photos

Photo 1 Exhibition poster. Copyright: Ruhr Museum; Design: Uwe

Loesch  124
Photo 2 Display window in the chapter “Flight and Expulsion”.
Copyright: Ruhr Museum; Photo: Andrea Kiesendah 128
Photo 3 Chapter “Aerial War”. Copyright: Ruhr Museum; Photo:
Andrea Kiesendahl 132
Photo 4 Still of the game Umschlagplatz ‘43134

xv
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 The defining characteristics of modes of remembering. 17

Table 5.1 Guideline for the interviews 137
Table 7.1 Learner demographics per course run—data gathered
by FutureLearn 189
Table 7.2 Joiner professions per course run—answers in response to
Step 1.3 ‘Tell us about yourself’ 190

xvii
 CHAPTER 1

Agonistic Perspectives on the Memory

of War: An Introduction

Stefan Berger and Wulf Kansteiner

‘Unsettling Remembering and Social Cohesion in Transnational Europe’

(UNREST) was a Horizon 2020–funded project that ran between 2016
and 2019 and involved researchers from different disciplines, principally,
history, literary studies, anthropology and memory studies, coming from
British, Spanish, Danish, Polish and German institutions (www.unrest.eu).
The researchers involved in the project set out to find agonism in different
memory settings across Europe. They analysed cultural memories of war
on display in history museums and took a close look at communicative
memories of war crafted in response to mass exhumations of victims of war
and ethnic cleansing. In addition, UNREST researchers sought to create
new sites of agonistic memory. They collaborated with playwrights, actors
and museum professionals to develop a theatre play and a history exhibit

S. Berger (*)
Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
e-mail: stefan.berger@rub.de; Stefan.Berger@ruhr-uni-bochum.de
W. Kansteiner
Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
e-mail: wk@cas.au.dk

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2021
S. Berger, W. Kansteiner (eds.), Agonistic Memory and the Legacy of
20th Century Wars in Europe, Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86055-4_1
2 S. BERGER AND W. KANSTEINER

promulgating agonistic interpretations of warfare. As a result of these

efforts, we are now in a position to define in more concrete terms what
scholarly, ethical and political potential agonistic memory possesses and
what important questions remain to be solved in future research about
agonistic memory.
In contrast to its predecessors and competitors, that is antagonism and
cosmopolitanism, agonism is seeking to advance a more complex and pre-
cise understanding of social memory processes. In the course of the
UNREST project, it has proven to be a formidable analytical tool to
expose shortcomings and contradictions in Europe’s primarily antagonis-
tically and cosmopolitanly structured memory-scapes. Adopting an ago-
nistic perspective helped the UNREST team identify the political challenges
and dilemmas of contemporary memory politics with greater precision.
The three paradigms of memory—antagonism, cosmopolitanism and
agonism—advocate for different perceptions of the world (Bull and
Hansen 2016). In an antagonistically structured universe, memory politics
serve the ingroup’s competitive mission and sense of superiority in relation
to clearly defined outside others (Anderson 1991; Hirst et al. 2018).
Modern antagonistic memories are, for instance, stories of national hero-
ism based on the kind of nationalistic values captured beautifully by
Donald Trump’s campaign slogan ‘America first’. Another example, not
related to nationalism, comes from the world of communism, where,
throughout the twentieth century, the construction of a working-class ‘us’
stood in an antagonistic relation to a bourgeois ‘them’. Cosmopolitan
memory considers that type of nativism, be it nation or class-based,
responsible for the wars and genocides of the twentieth century and seeks
to establish a different, global set of values and corresponding rules of
international relations. In a cosmopolitanly structured universe, human-
kind safeguards its survival by instituting human rights regimes which
derive legitimacy from vivid recollections of negative events including past
acts of collective violence like the Holocaust. The cosmopolitan vision of
the world relies on supranational legal frameworks and deterrent negative
memories (Levy and Sznaider 2006; Beck 2006).
Consequently, antagonism and cosmopolitanism outline competing
trajectories of collective progress pitching ambition of national superiority
against utopias of transnational reconciliation and cooperation. In contra-
distinction to such stories of progress, agonism is sceptical of progressivist
teleologies. It shares with antagonism the realization that human societies
are ontologically embroiled in all sorts of antagonisms, including national
 1 AGONISTIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE MEMORY OF WAR: AN INTRODUCTION 3

and class antagonisms, that need to be articulated in conflictual political

relations. Yet agonism also agrees with cosmopolitanism in that inevitable
political struggle ought to be contained within a more or less stable nor-
mative framework for the purpose of safeguarding democracy (Mouffe
2005). Within such a democratic frame, agonistic memory strives to cap-
ture the complexity of past conflicts and the diversity of conflicting opin-
ions and feelings about said conflicts in an effort to promote a sense of
human solidarity within and beyond the nation state and end the hege-
mony of neoliberalism (Bull and Hansen 2016). Put succinctly, in the
historical conflict between antagonistic national(istic) memory and cos-
mopolitan transnational memory, agonistic memory claims the messy
middle ground in the name of realism and decency and seeks to overcome
the paralysing impasse between nationalism and cosmopolitanism.
Occupying that middle ground UNREST researchers remained com-
mitted to a left-wing, anti-neoliberal course of action in their desire to
provide useful advice to cultural practitioners. They had to decide in each
case they analysed and each intervention they created which controversial
voice, object or story should be sponsored as a potential site of cultural
memory because the voice, object or story in question is likely to help
subvert existing neoliberal hegemonies and advance a range of liberal
causes. They needed to figure out how agonistic insights can be brought
to bear on specific political and cultural institutions in such a way that said
institutions successfully promote collective solidarity and democratic tra-
ditions and facilitate open-ended dialogue between conflictual and contra-
dictory perceptions of past and present. That required a good grasp of
what is meant by democracy, often referred to as radical democracy in
agonistic parlance, and who is to be included in agonistic visions of collec-
tive solidarity. The task was complicated by the fact that the political the-
ory of agonism and the theory of agonistic memory are hoping to resurrect
left-wing grassroots movements after neoliberalism, but the UNREST
project did not collaborate with stakeholders from social movements—
something that was missing from the initial design of the project. Despite
this shortcoming of the project, its research results and its creation of
cultural products making agonistic interventions in historical debates have
produced a range of results which we believe deserve summarizing in a
volume presenting the key outcomes of the UNREST project.
The theory of agonism, as first formulated by Bull and Hansen, was the
theoretical backbone of the UNREST project and the presence of both as
key UNREST researchers ensured a constant reflection of the empirical
4 S. BERGER AND W. KANSTEINER

research results of UNREST in the light of the theory as well as the refine-
ment of the theory in the light of the empirical research results. In their
assessment of the changes the theory underwent, they are joined here by
Paco Colom, a political philosopher, who was also one of the key research-
ers of the UNREST team with a special interest in the theory of agonism.
Together they outline in Chap. 2 the theory of agonistic memory and
emphasize its heuristic value, underlining that the three categories distin-
guished in this theory, that is antagonistic, cosmopolitan and agonistic
memory, should be understood as ideal types rather than actually existing
social realities. They also significantly revise their original theory of agonis-
tic memory pointing out that their 2016 critique of cosmopolitanism did
not sufficiently take into account the diversity of relevant theories of cos-
mopolitanism. Some of the theories, they argue, have over recent years
made problems of structural power inequalities a key concern of the cos-
mopolitan political agenda. Discussing attempts to merge ideas of cosmo-
politanism with Mouffe’s conceptualization of agonism, they specify that
their main line of attack is not against all forms of cosmopolitanism but
rather at what they now describe as ‘universalistic-cosmopolitanism’.
Furthermore, they highlight how agonistic interventions vitally depend
on local memory frames and political contexts, thereby highlighting that
agonism is not the same everywhere but can change its form and content
significantly depending on local circumstances.
Addressing the impact of the empirical case studies of the UNREST
project, Bull, Hansen and Colom first turn to the analysis of mass grave
exhumations in Spain, Poland and Bosnia-Herzegovina. Especially in the
light of the Spanish case study, the authors conclude that cosmopolitanism
does not necessarily lead to the depoliticization of memory discourses. Yet
they also emphasize, with reference to Bosnia-Herzegovina, how a top-­
down cosmopolitan discourse imposed from outside will only have the
effect of entrenching existing antagonistic memory positions in society.
And they point out that in cases such as Bosnia-Herzegovina, where we
encounter extreme forms of memory antagonism, it might be advisable to
combine cosmopolitan and agonistic interventions in memory debates in
order to allow for a meaningful engagement of antagonistic memory
groups with one another. The authors also suggest some revision in rela-
tion to the link between memory regimes and politics. In light of the
empirical research carried out by UNREST, they now question a direct
link between cosmopolitanism and transnational forms of governance, on
the one hand, and antagonism and national forms of governance, on the
 1 AGONISTIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE MEMORY OF WAR: AN INTRODUCTION 5

other hand. Instead, they point to the possibility of different scenarios

depending on local circumstances. In relation to the empirical case study
on war museums, the authors point out that their original assumptions
had been wrong. The widespread adoption of cosmopolitan memory
frames within the museums did not make them into ‘cold’ memory places
but instead provided a highly emotional approach to the experience of
war, even if the war had taken place outside of living memory for most visi-
tors, as would be the case with the First World War. Distinguishing
between agonistic and cosmopolitan multi-perspectivity, they found more
potential for the former in temporary than in permanent exhibitions.
Overall, they confirm that the empirical research of UNREST as well as
the cultural products created by UNREST underlined agonistic memory’s
potential of revitalizing the memory of past struggles in order to repoliti-
cize the public sphere and in particular counter the antagonistic nationalist
memories that have been on the rise in Europe over recent years. In com-
parison to the original conceptualization of agonistic memory, Bull,
Hansen and Colom now stress that it is valuable to see agonism as fluid,
relational and strongly embedded in specific local contexts.
Chapter 3 subsequently summarizes the results of the analysis of war-­
related mass grave exhumations in Spain, Poland and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Paco Férrandiz and Marije Hristova understand exhumation sites as
‘potential agonistic fora’ that, however, reveal features of all three memory
regimes, antagonistic, cosmopolitan and agonistic, alongside each other.
The benefits of the chosen comparative approach are very visible in the
results, as it allows the authors to draw out the many differences in the
construction of diverse memory landscapes in the three cases under exami-
nation. In Spain the three case studies reveal how an initially dominant
antagonistic memory mode gave way to more cosmopolitan ways of
remembrance from the beginning of the twenty-first century onwards.
The latter even incorporated some prominent cases of agonistic interven-
tions. In Poland we see the reverse trend with a move from an initial cos-
mopolitan frame of remembrance to more nationalist-minded antagonistic
forms of memory over recent years. The latter was accompanied by strong
top-down policies that included the replacement of museum directors and
the official prescription of antagonistic discourses about the past, espe-
cially the history of the Second World War. The antagonistic memory
regimes promoted by the current Polish government is heavily anti-­
Communist and seeks to promote a historical revisionism that is in line
with key nationalist mythologies in Polish historical consciousness. Yet,
6 S. BERGER AND W. KANSTEINER

intriguingly, Férrandiz and Hristova also show how, in the Polish case, an
overtly cosmopolitan victim-centred memory regime can serve antagonis-
tic purposes. The three case studies for Bosnia again revealed the simulta-
neous presence of all three memory modes. Whilst antagonistic memory
modes are clearly dominant among all the ethnic groups in Bosnia, the
many humanitarian agencies and NGOs operating in the country have
introduced cosmopolitan memory modes that sit uneasily alongside the
dominant antagonistic ones. In this climate agonistic interventions are
rare and mostly associated with grassroots bottom-up initiatives of groups
often operating normally on a default cosmopolitan memory mode.
Overall, the nine case studies distributed over the three countries reveal
the need to study the dynamics of the three modes of remembering,
antagonistic, cosmopolitan and agonistic, in order to understand how they
can all be present at the same time and how it is precisely their interaction
and fusion that explains much about the specific memory regime that is in
place at different war-related mass grave sites.
Chapter 4 summarizes the results of the empirical research that was
done by UNREST on war museums in Europe. The largest number of
researchers were involved in this work package which is also why the arti-
cle here is co-written by Stefan Berger, Anna Cento Bull, Cristian Cercel,
David Clarke, Nina Parish, Eleanor Rowley and Zofia Wóycicka. They
found that the cosmopolitan mode of remembrance is the dominant one
in contemporary European war museums, although they certainly also
found, especially in East-Central Europe, strong doses of antagonism.
Had the team extended their research to places such as the UK or Eastern
Europe, they would have found even more evidence for antagonistic
modes of remembrance in war museums. Given that earlier in the twenti-
eth century war museums were often related to the promotion of national-
ist antagonistic memory, the need to revamp these museums and make
them conform to cosmopolitan modes of remembrance was arguably
strong, where such cosmopolitan memory had become increasingly the
norm, as was the case, for example, in Germany from the 1990s onwards.
As a result of this move towards cosmopolitan memory, most of the muse-
ums that have adopted such a memory frame do not focus on the memory
of the perpetrators, as this would not fit the victim-centredness of their
respective storylines. Only rarely did the empirical research reveal the pres-
ence of agonistic memory discourses in European museums, but where
they could be found, they tended to be powerful counter-hegemonic nar-
ratives. Consequently, UNREST researchers advocate for providing more
 1 AGONISTIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE MEMORY OF WAR: AN INTRODUCTION 7

space for such agonistic interventions within the overall cosmopolitan

frame in which war is today remembered in Europe. As art projects as well
as projects with social movements were the ones that most often showed
agonistic potential, the increased collaboration of war museums with art-
ists and with social movement activists seems a promising avenue of
increasing the number and quality of agonistic interventions in war muse-
ums. The analysis of the reaction of visitors to the museum exhibitions
showed clearly the efficacy of the museums in conveying the intended
message, as visitors to cosmopolitan museums expressed broadly cosmo-
politan sentiments and visitors to antagonistic museums expressed broadly
antagonistic sentiments. Agonistic sentiments were virtually non-existent.
It is, of course, a question to what extent cosmopolitan and antagonistic
memory frames are hegemonic in wider society and therefore to which
extent the museum narratives are representative of these trends, so that it
is not necessarily the efficacy of the museum narratives that leads to the
visitor reactions but simply the fact that they already come to the respec-
tive museums with the ‘right’ memory frame in mind.
If agonistic perspectives were not the dominant memory mode in any
of the museums investigated by UNREST, and if, at best, one could talk
about specific agonistic interventions, it is clear that most museum makers
continue to be beholden to national audiences and national political cul-
tures endowing their officially sanctioned cosmopolitan stories with more
or less obvious nationalistic twists by channelling themes of national vic-
timhood or national cosmopolitan pride. Yet, in some cases, especially that
of the National Army Museum in London, the national orientation of
museums could coincide with particularly marked forms of agonistic inter-
vention. Hence, there is no clear-cut relationship between the national
frame and agonism. In some respects, it could even be argued that the
national frame and museums dedicated to national audiences have greater
scope for agonistic interventions, as most memory debates in Europe are
still rooted in national memorial debates (Berger 2020). Audience research
that has been carried out in the context of UNREST has shown how the
reactions of audiences were highly dependent on the national background
of the visitors, underlining the importance of the nation to contemporary
memory debates. Especially in Eastern Europe, antagonistic interpreta-
tions of past wars flourish and consistently ‘cosmopolitan modes of
remembrance represent a clear improvement and a step in the right direc-
tion’. Museum officials’ preference for officially sanctioned master narra-
tives and their concomitant reluctance to put on display meaningful
8 S. BERGER AND W. KANSTEINER

controversies about the interpretation of past wars causes a pervasive

depoliticization of European museum cultures and provides a lot of
opportunities for agonistic improvements and provocations. UNREST
researchers found that the representation of oral history narratives in
museums had a particularly strong potential to produce agonistic
interventions.
UNREST did not only provide scholarly analyses of existing war muse-
ums in Europe today, it also curated its own model exhibition that was to
demonstrate how an agonistic memory frame in relation to war might
look like. The temporary exhibition staged at Ruhr Museum in Essen,
Germany, between November 2018 and June 2019 was ambivalently enti-
tled ‘Krieg.Macht.Sinn’. One reading of the title translates into ‘War.
Power. Meaning’ while a second reading—now without the dots between
the words—translates into the more provocative line ‘War Makes Sense’
(Berger et al. 2019). Daniela De Angeli, Wulf Kansteiner, Cristian Cercel
and Eamonn O’Neill here provide an analysis of the exhibition and its
intentions as well as an analysis of visitors’ reactions to the exhibition. In
the German context with its strong cosmopolitan memory frame, the sug-
gestion that war was not necessarily a meaningless undertaking only result-
ing in senseless killing and suffering was meant as an agonistic intervention
producing a counter-hegemonic discourse. Thus, the concept of the exhi-
bition made it clear that many discursive battles had been and continue to
be fought about whether it makes sense or not to go to war over specific
issues. Furthermore, the exhibit highlighted the interests of the military-­
industrial complex of all countries in having wars but also mentioned other
social groups who had benefited from or otherwise seen sense in war,
confronting their statements in favour of war with more pacifist and cos-
mopolitanly inclined voices. Controversiality and multi-perspectivity was
thus built into the exhibition at every stage in order to arrive at the desired
result of undermining the cosmopolitan consensus in German society that
war did not make sense. (For a virtual exhibition tour of the exhibit, go to
http://www.unrest.eu/exhibition/ [accessed 25 June 2021].) UNREST
researchers also specially developed two video games for the exhibition
which were designed with the explicit purpose of providing visitors with
an agonistic memory experience challenging their social, cultural and
political assumptions about war. The games contained multiple perspec-
tives on a given scenario forcing players to make decisions and face conse-
quences that were unsettling for them. Introduced into the context of an
exhibit resonating with multi-perspectivity, the games were meant to have
 1 AGONISTIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE MEMORY OF WAR: AN INTRODUCTION 9

a meaningful agonistic effect on memories of war embraced by the players

(De Angeli et al. 2021). However, despite the best intentions of the exhi-
bition to unsettle the visitors, visitor research revealed that most visitors
reacted with strong cosmopolitan sentiments to the exhibition pointing to
the limits of exhibitions in changing dominant memory frames in society.
Agonistic provocations were apparently best understood where the visitors
encountered them through language rather than through visual stimuli
revealing perhaps a certain logocentrism in the concept of agonistic mem-
ory. Reflecting on the successes and failures of the exhibition, the article
concludes by underlining the need for strong counter-hegemonic narra-
tives underpinning agonistic interventions that cannot be satisfied with
simply presenting multiple perspectives on one and the same phenome-
non. Agonism, the authors conclude, needs to be narratively scripted into
an exhibition building on powerful emotions and unsettling images (see
also Jaeger 2020, 309–311).
A museum exhibit was not the only cultural product made by UNREST
researchers in cooperation with stakeholders, like the Ruhr Museum. They
also teamed up with a prize-winning theatre company from Madrid,
Micomicón, whose members, in dialogue with UNREST, scripted a the-
atre play that was intended to put agonistic memory on stage. ‘Where the
Forest Thickens’ was performed in the Teatro del Bosque in Madrid in
June 2017 (see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DtJg2jZmdHg)
and subsequent audience research was carried out among those who had
seen the play. At the centre of the play stands a perpetrator from the
Yugoslav civil wars who is living in Spain and, in the course of the play, is
revealed to be a perpetrator. The visitors who denied the value of this cos-
mopolitan frame and insisted on the need to identify only with the victims
in an antagonistic memory frame vis-à-vis the perpetrators were mainly
those who had close relatives or friends among the victims or who were
engaged in memory activism on behalf of victim groups. Those visitors
who were most prone to adopt the cosmopolitan frame were overwhelm-
ingly from Poland, a country that does not play an active part in the play’s
plot. Hence, respondents from Poland felt more distanced than those
from Spain or Bosnia and found it easier to relate to the cosmopolitan
memory frame of the play. A number of those who had seen the play drew
an important distinction between understanding the actions of the perpe-
trator and justifying them. This, as Diana Gonzales Martin and Hans
Lauge Hansen point out, is a central axiom within the agonistic memory
mode. Overall, the reaction to the play indicated to both authors that
10 S. BERGER AND W. KANSTEINER

agonistic interventions can indeed powerfully foster what they call ‘con-
tentious co-existence’ between different perspectives on past conflicts.
Last but not least, in terms of impact activities, UNREST researchers
disseminated the project’s findings to a wider public through a Massive
Open Online Course (MOOC). As David Clarke, Nina Parish and Ayshka
Sené argue in their article, MOOCs have by now established themselves as
a useful tool for disseminating scholarly knowledge to a wider public and
engaging the public with the findings of highly specialized researchers.
They explain the design of the MOOC entitled ‘How We Remember War
and Violence: Theory and Practice’ and then proceed to analyse the three
courses that were run between September 2018 and May 2019—towards
the end of the UNREST project. The MOOC was developed with the
intention to make learners aware of the theory of agonistic memory and
encourage them to engage with agonistic memorial practices so that they
might, in their everyday surroundings, become themselves agonistic mem-
ory activists. Crafted on the basis of a stakeholder survey, the four-week
course allowed for a maximum engagement of the learners with both the
theory of agonistic memory and the empirical research findings of the
UNREST project. Most of the learners who engaged in this way with
UNREST came from Europe and were over 65 years old; around two-­
thirds of them finished the course, which, by the international standards of
a MOOC, is a high rate of completion. Evaluating learner responses to the
course showed that over 90% of them appreciated the new knowledge they
had obtained through the course and about two-thirds stated that they
had sought to apply what they had learnt in their professional surround-
ings since taking the course. Hence, the course was successful in achieving
its main goals. It is available for adoption and adaptation to anyone inter-
ested in continuing the MOOC in an educational setting and the UNREST
researchers certainly hope that it will become a popular form of learning
about agonistic memory.
The final article in this collection is not so much an attempt to sum-
marize the results of the UNREST project than a personal reflection of the
two editors on the usefulness and future application of the theory of ago-
nistic memory. It has to be emphasized that it does not reflect the view of
all UNREST researchers and some, in particular Hans Lauge Hansen and
Anna Cento Bull, have made it very clear to the editors that they are not
in agreement with the arguments put forward in Chap. 8. However, as
editors and UNREST researchers who engaged with the theory of agonis-
tic memory deeply, we felt that a reflection on where we see the theory of
 1 AGONISTIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE MEMORY OF WAR: AN INTRODUCTION 11

agonistic memory within the field of memory studies and how we evaluate
its usefulness in years to come would be a suitably agonistic conclusion to
the volume.
It seems clear to us that six years after Bull and Hansen first published
their landmark article in Memory Studies, the theory of agonistic memory
has attracted a lot of interest among memory scholars. It has been applied
to many different areas of scholarship, including, among others,
national(ist) memory, the memory of war and violent conflict, the mem-
ory of deindustrialization and the memory of revolution. Several scholars,
as outlined in Chaps. 2 and 8, have attempted to develop further the ideas
first put forward by Bull and Hansen, and there is a significant body of
work that is closely related to notions of agonistic memory. With this vol-
ume we provide an executive summary of the main research results of the
UNREST project, as it unfolded between 2016 and 2019, and hope to
encourage further debate about the role and potential of agonistic memory.

References
Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities. London: Verso.
Beck, Ulrich. 2006. The Cosmopolitan Vision. Cambridge: Polity.
Berger, Stefan. 2020. National Museums of War in Britain Between Antagonism
and Agonism. A Comparison of the Imperial War Museum with the National
Army Museum. Annali dell’Istituto Storico Italo-Germanico in Trento 46
(1): 133–160.
Berger, Stefan, Theodor Grütter, and Wulf Kansteiner, eds. 2019. Krieg.Macht.
Sinn. Krieg und Gewalt in der europäischen Erinnerung. Katalog zur Ausstellung
des Ruhr Museums auf Zollverein 11November 2018 bis 10. Juni 2019.
Essen: Klartext.
Bull, Anna, and Hans Hansen. 2016. On Agonistic Memory. Memory Studies 9
(4): 390–404.
De Angeli, Daniela, Daniel Finnegan, Lee Scott, and O’Neill Eamonn. 2021.
Unsettling Play. Perceptions of Agonistic Games. Journal on Computing and
Cultural Heritage 14 (2): 1–25.
Hirst, William, Jeremy Yamashiro, and Aly Coman. 2018. Collective Memory
from a Psychological Perspective. Trends in Cognitive Science 22 (5): 438–451.
Jaeger, Stephan. 2020. The Second World War in the Twenty-First-Century Museum.
Berlin: De Gruyter.
Levy, Daniel, and Nathan Sznaider. 2006. The Holocaust and Memory in the Global
Age. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Mouffe, Chantal. 2005. On the Political. London: Routledge.
 CHAPTER 2

Agonistic Memory Revisited

Anna Cento Bull, Hans Lauge Hansen,

and Francisco Colom-González

The project Unsettling Remembering and Social Cohesion in Transnational

Europe (UNREST) focuses on the recovery of troubling pasts within the
European context. It rests on the conviction that the way in which the past
is remembered and retrieved through social practices and cultural repre-
sentations plays a decisive role in our political understanding of the pres-
ent. We believe that the crisis of the European project and its erosion by a
variety of nationalistic and populist movements is related, on the one
hand, to the gradual neutralization of the national frame of political action,
but it is also linked to the use that different political actors have made of

A. C. Bull
University of Bath, Bath, UK
e-mail: mlsab@bath.ac.uk
H. L. Hansen
Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
e-mail: romhlh@cc.au.dk
F. Colom-González (*)
CSIC, Madrid, Spain
e-mail: f.colom@cisc.es

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 13

Switzerland AG 2021
S. Berger, W. Kansteiner (eds.), Agonistic Memory and the Legacy of
20th Century Wars in Europe, Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86055-4_2
14 A. C. BULL ET AL.

historical memory in order to shape political imaginaries. As a form of

social representation, memory plays a critical role in the political dynamics
of every society. This is particularly true in societies with a recognizable
traumatic past, like those issued from a colonial background, or which
have experienced civil, international war or genocide. The way our societ-
ies relate to the conflicts of the past is therefore an important parameter of
evaluation of how democracy works. However, since the post-war period,
the main debates on democracy did not pay particular attention to the
political meaning of memory. This was the case of the economic theory of
democracy in the 1960s, of the debates between liberals and communitar-
ians in the 1980s, and of the new strands of deliberative, multicultural and
republican democracy during the 1990s, with their advocacy of diversity,
participatory politics and the idea of a ‘strong’ democracy (Downs 1957;
Barber 1984; Mulhall and Swift 1992; Rawls 1993; Kymlicka 1995; Pettit
1997). The main theoretical inroads into the ‘politics of the past’ were
made indirectly, through the categories that dealt with ‘transitional’ and
‘restorative’ justice (Williams 2012). Either by taking a too formal stance
or by assuming an approach that normatively dissolves the conflictual
character of social relations, none of these debates seemed to be able to
fully confront the contentious nature of politics and to perceive the deci-
sive role that social memory plays in them. In a sharp contrast with the
academic paucity of the politics of memory, nationalistic and xenophobic
movements in Europe have made exhaustive use of traumatic historical
experiences in order to build antagonistic narratives of the past and make
political advances.
This project engages the memory of European social conflict from an
agonistic perspective. The general hypothesis is that an agonistic concep-
tion of democracy—that is, a conception that recognizes and values its
competitive, adversarial or conflictual component—might revive the polit-
ical core of the European democratic project, particularly if this type of
approach is extended to the field of memory. The agonistic remembrance
of some of the most troubling episodes of modern European history—like
mass crimes, civil wars and the two World Wars—might thus become an
opportunity for political and ethical growth by challenging the neutraliz-
ing effects of therapeutic memory discourses that expect the consensual
dissolution of political conflict, but also transforming the antagonistic
thrust typical of populist and nationalistic movements into a multi-­
perspective, reflexive and critical elucidation of the divergent passions,
identities and values that are inherent to democratic politics.
 2 AGONISTIC MEMORY REVISITED 15

Unlike liberal and deliberative conceptions of democracy, agonism, in

its various formulations, emphasizes the inherently conflictual nature of
society. Intellectually, this concept is—as Astrid Erll has noticed—a ‘travel-
ling’ one. Its origins lie in ancient Greece, where the term Agon (αγών)
originally referred to the competitiveness and the craving for victory that
ruled the great Panhellenic games, and which in Greek culture were asso-
ciated to the formation of character. It also found its way in the rhetorical
field, as a dialectical expression of the opposing principles of the main
characters in classical tragedy. In modern times this concept has been sub-
jected to many different interpretations: from Hannah Arendt and Bonnie
Honig to William Connolly, and Chantal Mouffe, just to mention a few
(Arendt 1958; Honig 1993; Connolly 2002; Mouffe 2013a; Mouffe
2005). The main difference between the first three and Mouffe is that
whereas the former consider agonism as a kind of individual self-­realization,
the latter insists upon a collective and political interpretation of the con-
cept. According to Mouffe, the human species build collective identities
on ‘us’ versus ‘them’ relations, and the world is therefore ontologically
antagonistic and conflictual. Agonism is in Mouffe’s understanding a way
to mitigate and control antagonism, while the same concept in the under-
standing of the three aforementioned philosophers is, in Mouffe’s word-
ing, agonism without antagonism (2013: 10). In UNREST we have
adopted and adapted Chantal Mouffe’s conception of agonism to the
realm of memory, in particular her ideas that society is composed of asym-
metric power relations and collective identities are constructed through
the political relations between an ‘us’ and a constitutive outside in the
form of an ‘other’.
Mouffe’s concept of ‘the political’ as an inherently conflictual realm is
in itself a recognizable re-elaboration of Carl Schmitt’s original concep-
tion (Schmitt 1996 [1927]). According to this, since collective identities
are inscribed in potentially antagonistic relations, their conflictive nature
cannot be closed or dissolved by seeking a dialogued consensus. In her
view, the political process at the national and international level is always
dominated by conflicting hegemonies between political projects. The pur-
pose of agonistic politics is therefore not to try to dissolve conflict by
means of deliberation, but to transform the extant relations of power and
to establish a new hegemony. The concept of ‘agonistic dialogue’ can be
particularly useful in this context, a perspective to which Bakhtin’s open-­
ended concept of dialogue is close (Bakhtin 1981). Agonistic dialogue
should allow for the expression of a full range of passions that derive from
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ¶. 2. Some Rules and Circumstances to be observed in
Casting.

1. If the Letter be a small Body, it requires a Harder Shake than a

great Body does: Or if it be a thin Letter though of a greater Body,
especially small i, being a thin Letter its Tittle will hardly Come; So
that sometimes the Caster is forced to put a little Block-Tin into his
Mettal, which makes the Mettal Thinner, and consequently have a
freer flux to the Face of the Matrice.
2. He often examines the Registers of the Mold, by often Rubbing a
Cast Letter: For notwithstanding the Registers were carefully
Justified before, and hard screwed up; yet the constant thrusting of
both Registers against the sides of the Matrice, may and often do
force them more or less to drive backwards. Or a fall of one half or
both Halfs of the Mold, may drive them backwards or forwards:
Therefore he examins, as I said, how they Rub, whether too Thick or
too Thin. And if he see Cause, mends the Registers, as I shew’d §.
5. ¶. 2.
Or if the Matrice be Botcht, as I shew’d you §. 5. ¶. 3. then those
Botches (being only so many fine points rising out of the Body of the
Copper of the Matrice) may with so many reiterated pressures of the
Registers against them, flatten more and more, and press towards
the Body of the Matrice, and consequently make the Letter Thinner:
Which if it do, this must be mended in the Matrice by re-raising it to
its due Thickness.
3. He pretty often examins, as I shew’d in §. 5. ¶. 2. how the Letters
stand in Line: For when great Numbers are Cast with one Matrice,
partly by pressing the point of the Wyer against the Bottom-Sholder
of the Notch in the back-side of the Matrice, and partly by the
softness of the matter of his Matrice and hardness of the Iron-stool,
the Foot of the Matrice (if it wear not) may batter so much as to put
the Letter out of Line. This must be mended with a Botch, viz. by
knocking up the Foot of the Matrice, as I shew’d §. 5. ¶. 3.
A Workman will Cast about four thousand of these Letters ordinarily
in one day.

¶. 3. Of Breaking off Letters.

Breaking off is commonly Boys-work: It is only to Break the Break

from the Shanck of the Letter. All the care in it is, that he take up the
Letter by its Thickness, not its Body (unless its Thickness be equal to
its Body) with the fore-inger and Thumb of his right Hand as close to
the Break as he can, lest if when the Break be between the fore-
Finger and Thumb of his left hand, the force of Breaking off the
Break should bow the Shanck of the Letter.

¶. 4. Of Rubbing of Letters.

Rubbing of Letters is also most commonly Boys-work: But when they

do it, they provide Finger-stalls for the two fore-Fingers of the right-
Hand: For else the Skin of their Fingers would quickly rub off with the
sharp greet of the Stone. These Finger-stalls are made of old Ball-
Leather or Pelts that Printers have done with: Then having an heap
of one sort of Letters lying upon the Stone before them, with the left
hand they pick up the Letter to be Rub’d, and lay it down in the
Rubbing place with one of its sides upwards they clap the Balls of
the fore-Finger and middle-Finger upon the fore and hinder-ends of
the Letter, and Rubbing the Letter pretty lightly backwards about
eight or nine Inches, they bring it forwards again with an hard
pressing Rub upon the Stone; where the fore-Finger and Thumb of
the left-Hand is ready to receive it, and quickly turn the opposite side
of the Letter, to take such a Rub as the other side had.
But in Rubbing they are very careful that they press the Balls of their
Fingers equally hard on the Head and Foot of the Letter. For if the
Head and Foot be not equally prest on the Stone, either the Head or
Foot will drive-out when the Letters come to be Composed in the
Stick; So that without Rubbing over again they cannot be Drest.

¶. 5. Of Kerning of Letters.

Amongst the Italick-Letters many are to be Kern’d, some only on one

side, and some both sides. The Kern’d-Letters are such as have part
of their Face hanging over one side or both sides of their Shanck:
These cannot be Rub’d, because part of the Face would Rub away
when the whole side of the Shanck is toucht by the Stone: Therefore
they must be Kern’d, as Founders call it: Which to do, they provide a
small Stick bigger or less, according as the Body of the Letter that is
to be Kern’d. This Kerning-stick is somewhat more than an Handful
long, and it matters not whether it be square or round: But if it be
square the Edges of it must be pretty well rounded away, lest with
long usage and hard Cutting they Gall the Hand. The upper-side of
this Kerning-Stick is flatted away somewhat more than the length of
the Letter, and on that flat part is cut away a flat bottom with two
square sides like the Sides or Ledges of the Lining-stick to serve for
two Sholders. That side to be Kern’d and scrap’d, is laid upwards,
and its opposite side on the bottom of the Kerning-stick with the Foot
of the Letter against the bottom Sholder, and the side of the Letter
against the side Sholder of the Kerning-stick.
He also provides a Kerning-Knife: This is a pretty strong piece of a
broken Knife, about three Inches long, which he fits into a Wooden-
Handle: But first he breaks off the Back of the Knife towards the
Point, so as the whole edge lying in a straight line the piece broken
off from the back to the edge may leave an angle at the point of
about 45 Degrees, which irregular breaking (for so we must suppose
it) he either Grinds or Rubs off on a Grind-stone. Then he takes a
piece of a Broom-stick for his Handle, and splits one end of it about
two Inches long towards the other end, and the split part he either
Cuts or Rasps away about a Brevier deep round about that end of
the Handle. Then he puts about an Inch and an half of his broken
blade into the split or slit in the Handle, and ties a four or five
doubled Paper a little below the Rasped part of the Handle round
about it, to either a Pica or Long-Primmer thick of the slit end of the
Handle. This Paper is so ordered that all its sides round about shall
stand equally distant from all the Rasped part of the Handle: For
then setting the other end of the Handle in Clay, or otherwise
fastening it upright, when Mettal is poured in between the Rasped
part of the Handle and the Paper about it, that Mettal will make a
strong Ferril to the Handle of the Knife. The irregularities that may
happen in Casting this Ferril may be Rasped away to make it more
handy and Handsome.
Now to return again where I left off. Holding the Handle of the
Kerning-stick in his left hand, He lays the side of the Letter to be
Kern’d upwards with the Face of the Letter towards the end of the
Kerning-stick: the side of the Letter against the side Sholder of the
Kerning-stick, and the Foot of the Letter against the bottom Sholder
of the Kerning-stick, and laying the end of the Ball of his left-Hand
Thumb hard upon the Shanck of the Letter to keep its Side and Foot
steddy against the Sholders of the Kerning-stick, he with the
Kerning-Knife in his right-Hand cuts off about one quarter of the
Mettal between the Beard of the Shanck and the Face of the Letter.
Then turning his Knife so as the back of it may lean towards him, he
scrapes towards him with the edge of the Knife about half the length
of that upper-side, viz. about so much as his Thumb does not cover:
Then he turns the Face of the Letter against the lower Sholder of the
Kerning-stick, and scraping fromwards him with a stroak or two of his
Knife smoothens that end of the Letter also.
If the other side of the Letter be not to be Kern’d it was before Rub’d
on the Stone, as was shewed in the last ¶: But if it be to be Kern’d,
then he makes a little hole in his Kerning-stick, close to the lower
Sholder of it and full deep enough to receive all that part of the Face
of the Letter that hangs over the Shanck, that the Shanck of the
Letter may lie flat and solid on the bottom of the Kerning-stick, and
that so the Shanck of the Letter bow not when the weight of the hand
presses the edge of the Kerning-Knife hard upon it. Into this hole he
puts (as before said) so much of the Face of the Letter as hangs
over the side of the Shanck, and so scrapes the lower end of the
Letter and Kerns the upper end, as he did the former side of the
Letter.

¶. 6. Of Setting up, or Composing Letters.

I described in §. 5. ¶. 2. the Lining-stick, But now we are come to

Setting up, or Composing of Letters. The Founder must provide
many Composing-Sticks; five or six dozen at the least. These
Composing-sticks are indeed but long Lining-sticks, about seven or
eight and twenty Inches long Handle and all: Whereof the Handle is
about three Inches and an half long: But as the Lining-stick I
described was made of Brass: So these Composing-sticks are made
of Beech-Wood.
When the Boy Sets up Letters (for it is commonly Boys-Work) The
Caster Casts about an hundred Quadrats of the same Body about
half an Inch broad at least, let the Body be what it will, and of the
length of the whole Carriage, only by placing a flat Brass or Iron
Plate upon the Stool of the Mold close against the Carriage and
Body, to stop the Mettal from running farther.
The Boy (I say) takes the Composing-stick by the Handle in his left
hand, clasping it about with his four Fingers, and puts the Quadrat
first into the Composing-stick, and lays the Ball of his Thumb upon it,
and with the fore-Finger and Thumb of his right-Hand, assisted by
his middle-Finger to turn the Letter to a proper position, with its Nick
upwards towards the bottom side of the Composing-stick; while it is
coming to the Stick, he at the same time lifts up the Thumb of his
left-Hand, and with it receives and holds the Letter against the fore-
side of the Quadrat, and after it, all the Letters of the same sort, if the
Stick will hold them, If not he Sets them in so many Sticks as will
hold them: Observing to Set all the Nicks of them upwards, as
aforesaid. And as he Set a Quadrat at the beginning of the
Composing-stick, so he fills not his Stick so full, but that he may Set
another such Quadrat at the end of it.
 ¶. 7. Some Rules and Circumstances to be observed in Setting
up Letters.

1. If they Drive a little out at Head or Foot, so little as not to require

new Rubbing again, then he holds his Thumb harder against the
Head or Foot, so as to draw the Driving end inward: For else when
they come to Scraping, and Dressing the Hook of the Dressing-Hook
drawing Square, will endanger the middle or some other part of
Letters in the Stick to Spring out: And when they come into the
Dressing-block, the Knots of the Blocks drawing also square subject
them to the same inconvenience. And if they Drive out at the Head,
the Feet will more or less stand off one another: So that when the
Tooth of the Plow comes to Dress the Feet, it will more or less job
against every Letter, and be apt to make a bowing at the Feet, or at
least make a Bur on their sides at the Feet.
2. When Short-Letters are begun to be Set up in a Stick, the whole
Stick must be fill’d with Short-Letters: Because when they are
Dressing, the Short Letters must be Bearded on both sides the Body:
And should Short-Letters or Ascending or Descending or Long stand
together, the Short cannot be Bearded because the Stems of the
Ascending or Descending or Long-Letters reach upon the Body to
the Beard: So that the Short-Letters cannot be Bearded, unless the
Stems of the other Letters should be scraped off.
3. When Long-Letters are begun to be Set up in the Stick, none but
such must fill it, for the reason aforesaid.
4. If any Letters Kern’d on one side be to be Set up, and the Stems
of the same Letters reach not to the opposite Beard as s or f, in
Setting up these or such like Letters, every next Letter is turned with
its Nick downwards, that the Kern of each Letter may lie over the
Beard of its next. But then they must be all Set up again with a
Short-Letter between each, that they may be Bearded.
 Plate 21.
As every Stick-full is set up, he sets them by upon the Racks, ready
for the Dresser to Dress, as shall be shewed in the next §.
The Racks are described in Plate 21. at A. They are made of Square
Deal Battens about seven Inches and an half long, as at a b a b a b,
and are at the ends b b b let into two upright Stiles, standing about
sixteen Inches and an half assunder, and the fore-ends of the Racks
mounting a little, that when Sticks of Letters is Set by on any two
parallel Racks, there may be no danger that the Letters in them shall
slide off forward; but their Feet rest against the Bottom-Ledges of the
Composing-sticks. They set by as many of these Sticks with Letter in
them, as will stand upon one another between every two Rails, and
then set another pile of Sticks with Letter in them before the first, till
the length of the Rail be also filled with Sticks of Letter before one
another. They set all the Sticks of Letters with their ends even to one
another with the Faces of the Letter forwards.
This Frame of Racks is always placed near the Dressing-Bench, that
it may stand convenient to the Letter-Dressers Hand.

§. 20. ¶. 1. Of Dressing of Letters.

THere be several Tools and Machines used to the Dressing of
Letters: And unless I should describe them to you first, you might
perhaps in my following discourse not well understand me:
Wherefore I shall begin with them: They are as follows.

1. The Dressing-Sticks.
2. The Bench, Blocks and its Appurtenances.
3. The Dressing-Hook.
4. The Dressing-Knife.
5. The Plow.
6. The Mallet.

Of each of these in order.

 ¶. 2. Of the Dressing-Sticks.

I need give no other Description of the Dressing-sticks, than I did in

the last §. and ¶. of the Composing-Sticks: Only they are made of
hard Wood, and of greater Substance, as well because hard Wood
will work smoother than soft Wood, as because greater Substance is
less Subject to warp or shake than smaller Substance is. And also
because hard Wood is less Subject to be penetrated by the
sharpness of the Bur of the Mettal on the Letters than the soft.

¶. 3. Of the Block-Grove, and its Appurtenances.

The Block-Grove is described in Plate 21. a b. The Groove in which

the Blocks are laid, two Inches deep, and seven Inches and an half
wide at one end, and seven Inches wide at the other end: One of the
Cheeks as c is three Inches and an half broad at one end, and three
Inches broad at the other end, and the other Cheek three Inches
broad the whole Length: The Length of these Cheeks are two and
twenty Inches.
Plate 22.
The Wedge e f is seven and twenty Inches and an half long, two
Inches broad at one end, and three Inches and an half broad at the
other end; And two Inches deep.
g g g g The Bench on which the Dressing-Blocks are placed, are
about sixteen Inches broad, and two Foot ten Inches high from the
Floor. The Bench hath its farther Side, and both ends, railed about
with slit-Deal about two Inches high, that the Hook, the Knife, and
Plow, &c. fall not off when the Workman is at Work.
The Blocks are described in Plate 21 at a b: They are made of hard
Wood. These Blocks are six and twenty Inches long, and each two
Inches square. They are Male and Female, a the Male, b the
Female: Through the whole Length of the Male-Block runs a Tongue
as at a b, and a Groove as at c d, for the Tongue of the Plow to run
in; This Tongue is about half an Inch thick, and stands out square
from the upper and under-sides of the Block. About three Inches
within the ends of the Block is placed a Knot as at c c: These Knots
are small square pieces of Box-wood, the one above, and the other
below the Tongue.
The Female Block is such another Block as the Male Block, only,
instead of a Tongue running through the length of it a Groove is
made to receive the Tongue of the Male-Block, and the Knots in this
Block are made at the contrary ends, that when the Face of a Stick
of Letter is placed on the Tongue the Knot in the Male-Block stops
the Stick of Letter from sliding forwards, while the other Knot in the
Female-Block at the other end, by the knocking of a Mallet on the
end of the Block forces the Letter between the Blocks forwards, and
so the whole Stick of Letters between these two Knots are screwzed
together, and by the Wedge e f in Plate 21 (also with the force of a
Mallet) Wedges the two Blocks and the Stick of Letter in them also
tight, and close between the sides of the two Blocks; that afterwards
the Plow may more certainly do its Office upon the Foot of the Letter;
as shall be shewed hereafter.1

¶. 3. Of the Dressing-Hook.
The Dressing-Hook is described in Plate 21 at c. This is a long
square Rod of Iron, about two Foot long and a Great-Primmer
square: Its end a is about a two-Lin’d-English thick, and hath a small
Return piece of Iron made square to the under-side of the Rod, that
when the whole Dressing-Hook is laid along a Stick of Letter, this
Return piece or Hook may, when the Rod is drawn with the Ball of
the Thumb, by the Knot on the upper-side of it at c, draw all the
Letter in the Stick tight and close up together, that the Stick of Letter
may be Scraped, as shall be shewed.

¶. 4. Of the Dressing-Knife.

The Dressing-Knife is delineated at d in Plate 21. It is only a short

piece of a Knife broken off about two Inches from the Sholder: But its
Edge is Basil’d away from the back to the point pretty suddenly to
make it the stronger: The Sprig or Pin of the Handle is commonly let
into an Hole drilled into a piece of the Tip of an Harts-horn, as in the
Figure and is fastned in with Rosen, as other Knives are into their
Handles.

¶. 5. Of the Plow.

The Plow is delineated in Plate 21 at e: It is almost a common Plain

(which I have already described in Vol. 1. Numb. 4. Plate 4. and §. 2
to 9.) only with this distinction, that through the length of the Sole
runs such a Tongue, as does through the Male-Block to slide tight
and yet easily through the Groove made on the top of the Male-
block: Its Blade makes an Angle of 60 Degrees with the Sole of it.

§. 21. ¶. 1. Of Dressing of Letters.

The Letter-Dresser hath (as I told you before) his Letter Set up in
Composing-sticks, with their Nicks upwards, and those Sticks set
upon the Racks: Therefore he takes one Stick off the Racks, and
placing the Handle of the Composing-stick in his left hand, he takes
the contrary end of the Dressing-stick in his right-hand, and laying
the Back of the Dressing-stick even upon or rather a little hanging
over the Back of the Composing-stick, that the Feet of the Letter may
fall within the Bottom-Ledge of the Dressing-stick; He at the same
time fits the Side-Ledge of the Dressing-stick against the farther end
of the Line of Letters in the Composing-stick: And holding then both
Sticks together, his left hand at the Handle-end of the Composing-
stick, and his right-Hand within about two Handfuls of the Handle-
end of the Dressing-stick, He turns his Hands, Sticks and all,
outward from his left hand, till the Composing-stick lies flat upon the
Dressing-stick, and consequently the Letters in the Composing-stick
is turned and laid upon the Dressing-stick.
Then he goes as near the Light as he can with the Letters in his
Dressing-stick, and examins what Letters Come not well either in the
Face or Shanck: So that then holding the Dressing-stick in his left
hand, and tilting the Bottom-Ledge a little downward, that the Feet of
the Letter may rest against the Bottom-Ledge, and laying the Ball of
his Thumb upon any certain Number of Letters between his Body
and the Letter to be Cast out, He with the Foot of a Space or some
thin Letter, lifts up the Letter to be Cast out, and lets it fall upon the
Dressing-Bench: and thus he does to all the Letters in that Stick that
are to be Thrown out.
Then taking again the Dressing-Stick in his left hand at or near the
handle of it, he takes the Dressing-Hook at the Knot, between the
fore-Finger and Thumb of his right-Hand, and laying the Hook over
the edge of the Quadrat at the farther end of the Dressing-stick, near
the bottom-Ledge of it, he slips his right-Hand to the Handle of the
Dressing-stick, and his left hand towards the middle of the Dressing-
stick, so as the end of the Ball of his Thumb may draw by the farther
end of the Knot on the Dressing-Hook the whole Dressing-Hook, and
the Hook at the end of it the whole Stick of Letter close together
towards him; While at the same time he with his Fingers clutched
about the Stick and Letter, and the Thumb-ball of his hand presses
the under flat of the Hooking-stick close against the Letter and
Dressing-stick, that the Letter in the Stick may lie fast and
manageable.
Then he takes the Handle of the Dressing-Knife in his right-Hand,
and inclining the back of it towards his Body, that its Basil-edge may
Cut or Scrap the smoother, He Scrapes twice or thrice upon so much
of the whole Line of Letters as lies between the outer-side of the
Dressing-Hook and the Face of the Letter.
But if twice or thrice Scraping, have not taken all the Bur or
irregularities off so much of the Letter as he Scraped upon, he
Scrapes yet longer and oftner till the whole number of Letters in the
Dressing-stick from end to end seems but one intire piece of Mettal.
Thus is that side of the fore-part (viz. that part towards the Face) of
the Shanck of the Body finisht.
To Scrape the other end of that side of the Letter, viz. that towards
the Feet; He turns the Handle of the Stick from him, and removing
the Dressing-Hook towards the Face of the Letter which is already
Scraped, he places his Thumb against the Knot of the Dressing-
Hook, and presses it hard from him, that the Hook of the Dressing-
Hook being now towards him, may force the whole Stick of Letter
forwards against the Side-Ledge of the Dressing-stick; that so the
whole Line in the Stick may lie again the faster and more
manageable: Then he Scrapes with the Dressing-Knife as before, till
the end of the Shanck of the Letter towards the Feet be also Drest.
Then he lays by his Dressing-Hook, and keeping his Dressing-stick
of Letter still in his left hand, he takes a second Dressing-stick, with
its Handle in his right-Hand, and lays the Side-Ledge of it against the
hither-side of the Quadrat at the hither end of the Dressing-stick, and
the bottom-Ledge of the second Stick hanging a little over the Feet
of the Letter, that they may be comprehended within the bottom-
Ledge of the second Dressing-stick; and so removing his left hand
towards the middle of both Dressing-sticks, and clasping them close
together, he turns both Hands outwards towards the left, till the
Letter in the first Dressing-stick lie upon the second Dressing-stick,
and then the Face of the Letter will lie outwards toward the right-
Hand, and the Nicks upwards. Then he uses the Dressing-Hook and
Dressing-Knife to Scrape this side the Line of Letter, as he did
before to the other side of the Line of Letter: So shall both sides be
Scraped and Drest.
Having thus Scraped both the sides, He takes the Handle of the
Dressing-stick into his left hand, as before, and takes the Male-block
into his right-Hand, and placing the Tongue of the Block against the
Face of the Letter in the Dressing-stick, he also places the Knot of
the Block against the farther side of the Quadrat at the farther end of
the Stick, and so placing his right-Hand underneath the middle of the
Dressing-stick and Block, he turns his Hand outwards towards the
left, as before, and transfers the Letter in the Dressing-stick to the
Male-Block: Yet he so holds and manages the Block that the Shanck
of the Letter may rest at once upon the side of the Block the Knot is
placed in, and the Face of the Letter upon the Tongue.
When his Stick of Letters is thus transfer’d to the Male-Block, He
claps the middle of the Male-Block into his left hand, tilting the Feet
of the Letter a little upwards, that the Face may rest upon the
Tongue, and then takes about the middle of the Female-Block in his
right-Hand, and lays it so upon the Male-Block, that the Tongue of
the Male-Block may fall into the Tongue of the Female-Block, and
that the Knot at the hither end of the Female Block may stand
against the hither-side of the Quadrat at the hither end of the Line of
Letters: So that when the Knot of the Male-Block is lightly drawn
towards the Knot of the Female-Block, or the Knot of the Female-
Block lightly thrust towards the Knot of the Male-Block, both Knots
shall squeeze the Letter close between them.
Then he grasps both Blocks with the Letter between them in both his
Hands, and lays them in the Block-Groove, with the Feet of the
Letter upwards, and the hither-side of the hither Block against the
hither Cheek of the Block-Groove. And putting the Wedge into the
vacant space between the Blocks and the further Cheek of the
Block-Groove, he lightly with his right-Hand thrusts up the Wedge to
force the Blocks close together, and pinch the Letter close between
the Blocks.
Then with the Balls of the Fingers of both his Hands, he Patts gently
upon the Feet of the Letter, to press all their Faces down upon the
Tongue; which having done, he takes the Mallet in his right-Hand,
and with it knocks gently upon the head of the Wedge to pinch the
Letter yet closer to the insides of the Blocks. Then he Knocks lightly
and successively upon the Knot-ends of both the Blocks, to force the
Letters yet closer together. And then again knocks now pretty hard
upon the head of the Wedge, and also pretty hard upon the Knot-
ends of the Blocks, to Lock the Letter tight and close up.
Then he places the Tongue of the Plow in the upper Groove of the
Block; And having the Tooth of the Iron fitted in the Plow, so as to fall
just upon the middle of the Feet of the Letter, he grasps the Plow in
his right-Hand, placing his Wrist-Ball against the Britch of it, and
guiding the fore-end with his left hand, slides the Plow gently along
the whole length of the Blocks; so as the Tooth of the Iron bears
upon the Feet of the Letter: And if it be a small Letter he Plows upon,
the Tooth of the Iron will have cut a Groove deep enough through the
length of the whole Block of Letters:
But if the Body of the Letter be great, he reiterates his Traverses two
three or four times according to the Bigness of the Body of the
Letter, till he have made a Groove about a Space deep in the Feet of
the Shancks of the whole Blocks of Letter, and have cut off all the
irregularities of the Break.
Then with a small piece of Buff or some other soft Leather, he rubs a
little upon the Feet of the Letter to smoothen them.
Then he unlocks the Blocks of Letter, by knocking with the Mallet
upon the small end of the Wedge, and first takes the Wedge from
between the Blocks and Cheeks, and lays it upon the farther Cheek,
and afterwards takes the Blocks with Letter in it near both ends of
the Blocks between the Fingers and Thumbs of both his Hands, and
turns the hithermost Block upon the hithermost Cheek, and with his
Fingers and Thumbs again lifts off the upper Block, leaving the Letter
on the undermost Block with its Face against the Tongue.
Then taking the Block with Letter in it in his left hand, he places the
Knot-end from him, and takes the Handle of the Dressing-stick in his
right-Hand, and lays the Side-Ledge of it against the hither-side of
the Quadrat at the hither end, and the Bottom-ledge against the Feet
of the Letter, he grasps the Handle of the Dressing-stick Block and
all in his left hand, and lays his right-Hand Thumb along the under-
side of the Dressing-stick about the middle, and with the Fingers of
the same Hand grasps the Block, and turning his Hands, Block, and
Dressing-stick to the right, transfers the Letter in the Block upon the
Dressing-stick.
Then grasping the Dressing-stick by the Handle with his left hand, he
with his right-Hand takes the Dressing-Hook by the Knot, and lays
the inside of the Hook of it against the farther side of the Quadrat at
the farther end of the Stick, and drawing the Hook and Letter in the
Dressing-stick with his left Thumb by the Knot close up toward him,
he resting the Stick upon the Dressing-bench that he may Scrape
the harder upon the Beard with the Edge of the Dressing-Knife,
Scrapes off the Beard as near the Face as he dares for fear of
spoiling it, and about a Thick Space deep at least into the Shanck.
If the Bottom and Top are both to be Bearded, He transfers the Letter
into another Dressing-stick, as hath been shewed, and Beards it also
as before.

¶. 2. Some Rules and Circumstances to be observed in

Dressing of Letters.

1. The Letter-Dresser ought to be furnisht with three or four sorts of

Dressing-sticks, which differ nothing from one another save in the
Height of their Ledges. The Ledges of one pair no higher than a
Scaboard. This pair of Sticks may serve to Dress, Pearl, Nomparel,
and Brevier. Another pair whose Ledges may be a Nomparel high.
And this pair of Dressing-sticks will serve to Dress Brevier, Long-
Primmer, and Pica: Another pair whose Ledges may be a Long-
Primmer high: And these Dressing-sticks may serve to Dress Pica,
English, Great-Primmer, and Double-Pica. And if you will another
pair of DresDressing-sticks, whose Ledges may be an English High:
And these Dressing-sticks may serve to Dress all big Bodyed
Letters, even to the Greatest.
2. As he ought to be furnisht with several sorts of Dressing-sticks as
aforesaid: So ought he also to be furnisht with several Blocks, whose
Knots are to correspond with the Sizes of the Ledges of the
Dressing-sticks, for the Dressing of several Bodies as aforesaid.
3. He ought to be furnisht with three or four Dressing-Hooks, whose
Hooks ought to be of the several Depths aforesaid, to fit and suit with
the several Bodyed-Letters.
4. He must have two Dressing-Knives, one to lie before the Blocks to
Scrape and Beard the Letter in the Sticks, and the other behind the
Dressing-blocks to use when occasion serves to Scrape off a small
Bur, the Tooth of the Plow may have left upon the Feet of the Letter.
And though one Dressing-Knife may serve to both these uses: Yet
when Work-men are in a Train of Work they begrutch the very
turning the Body about, or stepping one step forward or backward;
accounting that it puts them out of their Train, and hinders their
riddance of Work.
5. For every Body of Letter he is to have a particular Plow, and the
Tooth of the Iron of each Plow is to be made exactly to a set bigness,
the measure of which bigness is to be taken from the size of the
Break that is to be Plowed away. For Example, If it be a Pearl Body
to be Plowed, the breadth of the Tooth ought not to be above a thin
Scaboard: Because the Break of that Body cannot be bigger, for
Reasons I have given before; But the Tooth must be full broad
enough, and rather broader than the Break, lest any of the
irregularity of the Break should be left upon the Foot of the Letter.
And so for every Body he fits the Tooth of the Iron, full broad enough
and a little broader than the size of the Break. This is one reason
why for every particular Body he ought to have a particular Plow.
Another reason is.
The Tooth of this Plow must be exactly set to a punctual distance
from the Tongue of the Plow: For if they should often shift Irons to
the several Stocks of the Plow, they would create themselves by
shifting more trouble than the price of a Stock would compensate.
A Fount of Letter being new Cast and Drest, the Boy Papers up each
sort in a Cartridge by it self, and puts about an hundred Pounds
weight, viz. a Porters Burthen into a Basket to be sent to the Master-
Printers.
The Steel-Punches being now Cut, the Molds made, the Matrices
Sunk, the Letters Cast, and Drest, the application of these Letters
falls now to the task of the Compositer; whose Trade shall be (God
willing) the Subject of the next Exercises.

FINIS.
Transcriber’s Notes.
1. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
2. Silently corrected typographical errors.
3. Page 70. “§. 19.” changed to “¶. 19.”.
4. The paragraph symbol “¶” has been standardised as “¶.”.
5. The section symbol “§” has been standardised as “§.”.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOXON'S
MECHANICK EXERCISES, VOLUME 1 (OF 2) ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of
this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept
and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and
may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the
terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of
the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE