Management Issues Regarding Invasive Gray

Squirrel Populations in the United Kingdom

Caylee Lovinfosse

Stockton University

April 25th 2022

 Scurrius Carolinis is a common sight for many people in the United States. These rodents

are known for burying acorns, getting hit by cars, and destroying backyard birdfeeders

everywhere. However, outside of the United States, gray squirrels pose a much bigger threat

than just being an annoyance. In the United Kingdom the gray squirrel is a highly invasive

mammal that causes many issues to both native life and property, and has earned them the

title of “Second Most Impactive Invasive Species,” second only to the Norway Rat (Rattus

norvegicus) (Lawniczak 2002.)

Issues as an Invasive Species:

Gray squirrels were introduced to the UK in 1871 as novelty animals to inhabit wealthy people’s

property (Dunn et. al 2018.) Much like any other invasive species, they spread far beyond their

intended confines. The squirrels were also introduced to Italy around the same time for similar

reasons. Gray squirrels were also introduced to Australia but were effectively controlled and

eradicated before they became a problem (Dunn et. al 2018.)

The gray squirrel creates problems for many of the natural resources and life around it.

For example, gray squirrels have been observed peeling back the bark of trees in order to

consume phloem. Its currently unknown why squirrels exhibit this behavior, but it is thought to

be linked to calcium intake (Nichols et. al 2016.) Squirrels have been observed gnawing on

things that are high in calcium, like bones and calcium carbonate rocks. Other members of the

Sciuridae family have also been noted to get metabolic bone disease (Nichols et. al 2016.) The

causes of this behavior are still under investigation, but the effects are known very well.

Squirrels peeling back tree bark devalues wood used for timber as well as leaves trees more
susceptible to fungal infections. Trees with stripped bark also become weaker and can snap in

unfavorable weather conditions (Dunn et. al 2018.) In Italy, an observation study was

conducted on tree plantations to assess damages done by squirrels. Squirrels were observed

targeting younger trees and peeled back bark towards the tops. Targeted trees occurred closer

to the edges of the plantations, and after 5 years of growth the affected trees had smaller

diameters than unaffected trees (Signorile & Evans 2007.) Though it is important to remember

that any trees from the plantations that were considered damaged were no longer profitable,

regardless of their size or how they were damaged. This behavior has also not been observed in

large scale forests. It’s speculated that in established forests there are not enough young trees

both in quantity and density to influence bark stripping (Signorile & Evans 2007.)

Another crop issue with squirrels arises with maize, or corn. Squirrels digging up

germinated corn seeds causes an estimated 30,000 Euros in damage a year in Italy’s Turin plain

(Signorile & Evans 2007.) Squirrels are not considered to be the top offenders in this issue

however, since damage from hooded crows (Corvus cornix) and Wild Boars(Sus scrofa) play a

bigger role in the issues with corn farming. (Signorile & Evans 2007.)

Gray squirrels are harmful to Britain’s native red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) population.

Gray squirrels are considered a “reservoir host” for the Squirrelpox (SQPV) virus. SQPV is

detrimental to red squirrel populations in Britain and is considered one of the biggest factors in

the species’ decline. Current research shows that the virus spreads through both scent marking

glands on the squirrel’s forearms, and through fecal-oral transmission (Chantrey et. al 2019)
SQPV is only fatal to the red squirrel population (Dunn et. al 2018.) They have a very high

fatality rate after catching the disease and usually pass away within 2 weeks of infection

(Rushton et al 2006.)

Squirrels also reduce the number of birds that come to feeders. A study was conducted

using live recordings at feeders that observed which bird species occurred when gray squirrels

were present at bird feeders. There was an overall decrease in species diversity at feeders

when squirrels were present, but some species such as the Dunnock (Prunella modularis) and

Eurasian nuthatch (Sitta europaea) did not seem to be deterred by the presence of squirrels

very much. Squirrel-proof Feeders were also a deterring factor in the diversity of bird species,

suggesting that many birds don’t enjoy the squirrel guards on the feeders. Squirrels also

preferred to go to feeders that had nuts in them. (Hanmer, Thomas, & Fellowes 2018)

Issue Stakeholders:

The public eye is an important stakeholder in the management of Britain’s gray

squirrels. In a survey, it was determined that 57% of the survey respondents wanted to see

squirrels in their local parks. 47% of participants said they wouldn’t mind having squirrels in

their own backyards (Dunn et. al 2018.)

The public does not enjoy the idea of killing squirrels or using any method of lethal

trapping. People do not seem to understand the damage that gray squirrels are doing to the

world around them. They assume that the squirrels are cute cuddly critters that are lacking in

any detrimental qualities.

 Wildlife managers and scientists have documented the issues that squirrels cause and

have tried many different things to control the growing population. Scientists estimate that by

2050, the adjunct invasive gray squirrel population in Italy will have spread it’s range all the way

up to France (Dunn et. al 2018.) Current methods of direct problem control include on site

shooting, trapping, and the breaking of squirrel nests. Long term control methods have either

been unsuccessful or still require more research before implementation. Managers recognize

the threat that comes with this invasive species, but many problems arise when trying to find a

solution to control it.

Control Methods:

Hunting is one of the long-term control methods that is ineffective but is only

completely ineffective in the UK. In Australia, much like in Britain and Italy, invasive squirrels

began to grow in numbers. Gray squirrels were released around Adelaide, Australia in 1917.

When the population began to rise in 1920, a squirrel bounty was put into place. Within two

years, the squirrels had been totally killed off. The opposite was true for Britain, who did not

jump on the opportunity early to control the species (Dunn et. al 2018.) They attempted to

initiate a similar bounty hunting strategy in the 1950’s, but due to how fast the population grew

and the number of squirrels that were already out there, hunting provided no decline.

Organized hunting has been completely ruled out as an effective management strategy for this

species (Dunn et. al 2018.) Modern culling methods include hiring marksmen to deal with

specific pest problems, use of kill-traps, and trap-and-dispatch techniques. However, these

options have become quite costly. The total cost of a red squirrel restoration plan that included
the culling, as well as trapping and relocation, of gray squirrels cost over £1 million (Croft et. al

2021.) In addition to being expensive, as mentioned the public does not condone the killing of

squirrels and lethal methods are generally unpopular.

Animal contraceptives are a nonlethal option to the squirrel problem. The most ideal

injection method is through adding the contraceptive to bait and then baiting the squirrels. The

oral contraceptive that is planned to be used is still being developed. Effectiveness of this

strategy was tested through spatially-explicit population modeling. The contraceptives and

lethal trapping methods were compared within a 50 year time frame for effectiveness and

guaranteed eradication of the species. Unfortunately, it appears as though contraceptives alone

isn’t the end all to the squirrel problem because even when the contraceptive effectiveness was

100%, eradication wasn’t guaranteed within a 50-year time period. However, mixing the two

methods by starting with a year of culling the squirrels and then swapping to contraceptive

methods made contraceptive effectiveness 75% more effective than the simulation in which

only contraceptives were used. The public is also accepting of the use of contraceptive methods

over lethal methods. A survey of 3758 respondents gave back a 63% approval rate for use of

contraceptives (Croft et. al 2021.)

Research has also shown that gray squirrels do not occur in areas inhabited by the Pine

Marten (Martes martes.) A study was done using hair collection, DNA analysis, and population

modeling to determine the impact of pine marten connectivity with both grey and red squirrels.

Gray squirrel occupancy was negatively impacted, while red squirrel occupancy was,

surprisingly, positively impacted (Sheehy et. al 2018) Pine martens are also thought to have the

capability to reduce SQPV transmission between the two squirrel species if their populations
recover to their former size in Britain. However, a challenge arises with this option because

much of the gray squirrel habitat in Britain is urban. Pine martens have large home ranges and

prefer forested areas, making urban areas very unsuitable habitat for them (MacPherson &

Wright 2021.) Even though the reintroduction of pine martens to their former range will reduce

the number of rural squirrel populations, urban centers are left out of this and the problem at

hand won’t be completely solved.

Recommendations and Conclusion

Population modeling has shown that using both contraceptives and culling is an

effective strategy in attempting eradication of the gray squirrel. However, before this method is

put into play, it’s important to finish development the contraceptive itself, and prevent adverse

effects. Red squirrels could easily take the bait laid out for gray squirrels and their population

could be negatively impacted even more. Instead of leaving bait out for squirrels, a more

effective, but costly strategy would be to trap individuals and apply the contraceptive before

rerelease. This would allow any captured red squirrels to return to their habitat with no issue,

while gray squirrels would receive the contraceptive. Capturing gray squirrels would also allow

researchers to acquire more data on things like calcium deficiency, potential MBD in squirrels,

and SQPV if they decide to use the captured targets in studies. Considering the squirrels are

being captured regardless, other researchers could take data on the captured targets before

contraceptives are applied. This will save time, trapping costs, and would require collaboration

between several teams.

 Another issue that arises with the joint cull and contraceptive plan is the public’s

opinion. The British public doesn’t appear very tolerant of killing gray squirrels, despite all the

issues they’re causing. Even if culling the animals only occurs for one year, the public isn’t going

to have a fantastic reaction. There’s a chance this could be fixed with notice before the cull

occurs as well as education on the squirrel’s destructive behaviors. An educated public eye

would hopefully make the initial cull more acceptable and understandable. Education on the

gray squirrel in general seems to be lacking based off the survey data, so any sort of squirrel

education would probably solve a lot of problems with the assumption that the squirrels are

harmless. An issue with education though is whether or not the public decides to listen to what

they’re being told. An in-your-face, forceful approach to educating the public might not make

people willing to listen. Leaflets and handouts are easily ignored. Things like park signs in

designated parklands might be of benefit, assuming people stop to read them.

In the case of the pine marten, pine marten reintroduction could be a very effective

management strategy in areas the species had already occurred in. Following the restoration

plan by allowing the species to return to it’s former range should decrease the number of gray

squirrels in the areas of reintroduction. However, this still leaves urban areas without a

solution, as the pine marten can’t be introduced to them due to it’s home range size. Urban

areas would have to resort to the joint cull and contraceptive plan.

Unfortunately, it appears as though squirrel proof bird feeders are causing adverse

effects and deterring birds, so a different method should be approached for keeping squirrels

away from bird feeders. Instead of implementing guards on the feeders themselves, moving

feeders away from tree branches or placing a guard mechanism under the feeder rather than
on it will help to deter squirrels but keep birds coming. Avoiding blends that contain nuts may

also help slightly, since squirrels tend to go to feeders containing nuts (Hanmer, Thomas, &

Fellowes 2018.)

As it currently stands, Scurrius carolinis is a major threat to Britain’s ecosystem and will

remain that way unless something is done about it. Gray squirrels are not the furry friends that

the public eye sees them to be, and cause decreased bird diversity at feeders, major damage to

the native red squirrel population, as well as damage to trees. Squirrel control methods are

variable and suspectable to backlash from the public. Hunting is long overdue, culling isn’t

favorable to most people, and contraceptives are still being developed. The best bet for

controlling these species is attempting to implement a combination of culling and

contraceptives, as well as educating the public about the damage these rodents are causing to

the world around them. Pine marten reintroduction can play a role in the population control of

gray squirrels, but only in areas where their habitats overlap. As research continues and new

methods develop, hopefully a definite solution to Britain’s gray squirrel problem becomes

available and the population can be put under control.

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