Bovine Ephemeral Importance

Bovine ephemeral fever is an economically important arboviral disease that

Fever affects cattle and water buffalo, and is widespread in tropical and semitropical areas
of the Eastern Hemisphere. In most cases, the main impact is on productivity. While
Bovine Epizootic Fever, the illness is usually brief, it can result in decreased milk yield, loss of condition and
reproductive losses, and recovery can be prolonged in some animals. Mortality is
Ephemeral Fever,
typically low (1-2%); however, significantly higher case fatality rates were reported
Three-Day Sickness, in some recent outbreaks.
Three Day Fever,
Three-Day Stiffsickness, Etiology
Dragon Boat Disease, Bovine ephemeral fever is caused by bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV), a
Lazy Man’s Disease, member of the genus Ephemerovirus in the family Rhabdoviridae. At least 4 antigenic
Dengue of Cattle subtypes have been identified, but there is only one serotype. Some closely related viruses,
such as kotonkan virus, may cause similar illnesses. Additional ephemeroviruses and
unclassified rhabdoviruses (e.g., Adelaide River virus, Kimberley [Malakal] virus,
Berrimah virus, Puchong virus, Yata virus, Koolpinyah virus, Obodhiang virus) are not
Last Updated: July 2016 known to cause disease in domesticated animals, but can cross-react with BEFV in some
serological tests.
Species Affected
Only cattle and yaks (both members of the genus Bos) and water buffalo
(Bubalus bubalis) are known to be affected by BEFV. Camels (Camelus
dromedarius) can be seropositive, and a disease resembling ephemeral fever has been
reported in this species, but its cause is still unknown. Antibodies to BEFV have also
been found in asymptomatic sheep, goats and pigs, and in many wild animals
including African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), hartebeest (Alcelaphalus buselaphus),
waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), kudu
(Tragelaphus strepsiceros), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), elephant (Loxodonta
africana), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), warthog (Phacochoerus
aethiopicus) and various species of deer and antelope. Seroprevalence can be high in
some African wildlife, and some species might act as reservoir hosts. However, cross-
reactivity with similar viruses complicates the interpretation of serological tests.
Experimental infections have been established in sheep, but there is currently no
evidence that this species plays any role in the epidemiology of bovine ephemeral
fever in nature.
Zoonotic potential
There is no evidence that humans can be infected by BEFV.
Geographic Distribution
Bovine ephemeral fever occurs in some tropical, subtropical and warm temperate
regions of Africa, Australia, the Middle East and Asia. Some countries experience
localized outbreaks in most years; others report cases only during epizootics. BEFV
does not occur in Europe (although seropositive animals have been detected in central
Russia), North or South America, the islands of the Pacific or New Zealand. Kotonkon
virus has been detected in Africa (Nigeria).
Transmission
BEFV appears to be transmitted by arthropods, but the identity of the vector or
vectors is not entirely clear. This virus has been isolated from various genera of
mosquitoes, and from a number of Culicoides species (biting midges). Laboratory
observations, together with epidemiological evidence from some locations, currently
suggest that mosquitoes are the primary biological vectors. However, there are some
indications that Culicoides might be significant vectors in parts of Africa (e.g.,
Kenya). Windborne transmission of infected vectors has been suspected in some
outbreaks.
There is no evidence that bovine ephemeral fever can be transmitted directly
between animals in nature; BEFV is not spread by close contact, body secretions, or
aerosol droplets. However, animals can be infected in the laboratory by intravenous
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Email: cfsph@iastate.edu © 2003-2016 page 1 of 4

inoculation of small amounts of blood. This virus does not
seem to be transmitted in semen and it is rapidly inactivated
in meat. There is no evidence that animals become carriers.
Disinfection
BEFV is not thought to be transmitted directly between
animals, and does not persist for long periods in the
environment. If disinfection is needed, this virus is reported
to be very susceptible to disinfectants, including sodium
hypochlorite, and lipid solvents.
Incubation Period
Based on natural and experimental infections, the
incubation period is thought to be 2-4 days in most cases,
with a maximum of 10-11 days.
Clinical Signs
Clinical signs vary in individual animals, but the classic
course begins with a fever, which is often biphasic to
polyphasic. The temperature peaks typically occur 12 to 18
hours apart. In lactating cows, milk production often drops
dramatically during the first fever spike. There are often few
other clinical signs at this time, although some animals may
be depressed, stiff or reluctant to move. However, the illness
soon becomes more obvious; most animals become
inappetent and depressed, with an increased heart rate,
tachypnea, and serous or mucoid discharges from the nose.
Profuse salivation, muscle twitching, waves of shivering or
lacrimation may also be seen.
Some animals develop submandibular or periorbital
edema, or patchy edema on the head. Shifting lameness,
stiffness and joint pain are common; the joints may or may
not be swollen. The lameness can be severe enough to
mimic a fracture or dislocation. Dyspnea, pulmonary
emphysema and rales may be found in severe cases. Many
animals, particularly cows in good condition and bulls,
become recumbent for periods that range from 8 hours to
several days or more. Most animals lie in sternal
recumbency, but in severe cases, animals may become
laterally recumbent. Some animals temporarily lose their
reflexes and are unable to rise. Recumbent animals may be
bloated, have ruminal stasis, or lose their swallowing reflex.
These clinical signs can be exacerbated by severe
environmental stress or forced exercise.
Most animals begin to improve a day or two after the
initial signs, and recover completely within another 1-2
days. Lactating cows, bulls and animals in good condition
are usually affected more severely, and may take up to a
week to recover. Generally, animals lose condition rapidly
during the illness, and regain their weight only slowly.
Complications are uncommon in most outbreaks, but can
include temporary or (rarely) permanent paralysis, as well
as gait impairment, aspiration pneumonia, emphysema,
mastitis, and the subcutaneous accumulation of air along
the back. Many of these complications may be the result of
trauma or complications of recumbency. Temporary
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Bovine Ephemeral Fever
infertility (up to 6 months) can develop in bulls, and
abortions sometimes occur in cows. Permanent infertility is
rare. In recovered animals, milk production is generally
decreased for the rest of the lactation, but usually returns to
normal after subsequent pregnancies. Cows that become ill
late in lactation may not return to production. Death is
uncommon in most outbreaks, but may occur during either
the febrile or the convalescent stage. During recent
outbreaks in China, some severely ill cattle died with signs
of dyspnea, 6-12 hours after they first became ill.
Secondary complications such as pneumonia or trauma are
thought to contribute significantly to the death rate.
Subclinical infections are also seen.
Water buffalo have similar signs. The disease is usually
thought to be milder in this species; however, some severe
outbreaks have been reported in the field. Experimentally
infected sheep remained asymptomatic.
Post Mortem Lesions
The most obvious lesion is a small amount of fibrin-rich
fluid in the pleural, peritoneal and pericardial cavities,
resulting from polyserositis of the pleural, pericardial and
peritoneal surfaces. Edema, lobular congestion and
atelectasis may be apparent in the lungs, and emphysematous
lesions are sometime detected in the lungs, mediastinum and
subcutaneous connective tissue. Serofibrinous polysynovitis
(with variable amounts of yellow to brown, typically
gelatinous fluid), polyarthritis, polytendinitis, and cellulitis
are common. Other lesions can include lymphadenitis, edema
and petechial hemorrhages in the lymph nodes, and areas of
focal necrosis in the major muscle groups.
Diagnostic Tests
Most cases of bovine ephemeral fever are confirmed by
serology. A rising titer should be demonstrated, but single
serum samples may be suggestive in areas where this
disease does not normally occur. Anamnestic (rather than
primary) responses to BEFV can occur during the first
exposure, if the animal was previously exposed to another
ephemerovirus. Virus neutralization or enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are the most commonly
used serological tests. Some of these tests, including certain
ELISAs, can distinguish BEFV from other members of the
Ephemerovirus genus. Complement fixation was mainly
used in the past, and identifies the antibodies only as
Ephemerovirus-specific.
Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-
PCR) assays are used regularly for diagnosis in some
countries. These assays may be able to detect viral RNA in
blood during the (typically short) febrile period, and from
tissue samples such as the lung at necropsy. A real-time
loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay
has been published. Virus isolation may occasionally be
successful, especially during the first 24-48 hours. The
virus is often recovered initially in Aedes albopictus
(mosquito) cell lines, and propagated in BHK-21 or Vero
page 2 of 4

cells. The identity of the virus can be confirmed by RT-
PCR, virus neutralization and some ELISAs.
Immunofluorescence has also been used, but may be able to
identify the virus only as an Ephemerovirus.
While animal inoculation is generally discouraged if
there are alternatives, BEFV can be recovered by
intracerebral inoculation into unweaned mice.
Treatment
Treatment may be unnecessary in milder cases, but
more severely affected animals are often treated
symptomatically, particularly when they have become
recumbent. Animals are often given anti-inflammatory
drugs, with the addition of calcium borogluconate injections
if they have signs of hypocalcemia (e.g., ruminal stasis,
paresis, loss of reflexes). Some animals with a more
prolonged course of disease were resistant to these
measures during recent outbreaks in Chinese Taipei
(Taiwan). Antibiotics may be administered to control
secondary infections, and rehydration with isotonic fluids is
sometimes employed.
Good nursing can also aid recovery. Recumbent animals
should be provided with water, food and shelter if necessary,
but animals should not be forced to stand or move. Force-
feeding is not advisable due to the risk of aspiration
pneumonia. Laterally recumbent animals may be rolled
periodically to prevent loss of circulation and muscle damage.
Control
Disease reporting
A quick response is vital for containing outbreaks in
disease-free regions. Veterinarians who encounter or
suspect bovine ephemeral fever should follow their national
and/or local guidelines for disease reporting. In the U.S.,
state or federal veterinary authorities should be informed
immediately.
Prevention
Because illness and viremia are both transient, and
carriers are not known, a short quarantine in vector-free
facilities should prevent the introduction of BEFV in
transported animals. If an outbreak occurs among imported
animals in a limited area, placing them in an insect-proof area
and treating the area with insecticides has a chance of success.
BEFV is not spread by casual contact or in secretions, and it is
rapidly inactivated in carcasses after death.
In endemic areas, vaccination is generally used to
prevent disease, particularly in lactating cattle and bulls.
Vaccines are not necessarily employed in regions where
outbreaks occur regularly and most animals are immune
before they become adults. Vaccination can also be used in
the face of an outbreak. Although insect control might
theoretically be helpful in some situations, its efficacy is
unknown. Moving valuable animals into insect-proof
facilities may be considered during outbreaks or in high-
risk seasons.
© 2003-2016 www.cfsph.iastate.edu  Email: cfsph@iastate.edu
Bovine Ephemeral Fever
Morbidity and Mortality
Bovine ephemeral fever can occur as localized outbreaks
or in seasonal epizootics that sweep across broad geographic
areas. Seasonal patterns can vary with the region, depending
on the environmental factors that favor the multiplication of
biting insects. In some areas, outbreaks tend to be associated
with high rainfall. When it is dry, bovine ephemeral fever has
been reported in cattle gathered around sources of water.
Outbreaks usually end with the first heavy frosts in temperate
climates. In other areas, cases may decrease or end during the
dry season.
The morbidity rate is highly variable, depending on
previous exposures, the age of the animals, and other
factors. It can approach 100% in some outbreaks, and be as
low as 1-10% in others. Clinical signs are usually more
severe in adults than calves; symptomatic infections are rare
in cattle less than 6 months of age, even when they have no
maternal antibodies. Bulls, animals in good condition and
high-producing cows are more severely affected; mortality
rates up to 10-30% have been reported in these animals.
Overall, the mortality rate is usually 1-2%; however, case
fatality rates of 2-20%, and occasionally higher, were
described during some recent outbreaks in the Middle East
and Asia. Why deaths were more common in these
outbreaks is currently uncertain.
Overall, buffalo are thought to be less severely affected
than cattle. However, severe outbreaks can be seen, and
mortality was reported to be 5% during one outbreak in the
Philippines.
Internet Resources
United States Animal Health Association.
Foreign Animal Diseases
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/downloads
/nahems/fad.pdf
World Organization for Animal Health (OIE)
http://www.oie.int
Acknowledgements
This factsheet was written by Anna Rovid Spickler, DVM,
PhD, Veterinary Specialist from the Center for Food
Security and Public Health. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(USDA APHIS) provided funding for this factsheet through
a series of cooperative agreements related to the
development of resources for initial accreditation training.
The following format can be used to cite this factsheet.
Spickler, Anna Rovid. 2016. Bovine Ephemeral Fever.
Retrieved from http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/
factsheets.php.
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* Link is defunct
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