UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET

LECTURE NOTES
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING

By OKUSIMBA O.G.

gokusimba@uoeld.ac.ke

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

SEPTEMBER 2023
INTRODUCTION
Definition:
The branch of applied sciences which deals with the measurement and description of the
features of the seas and coastal areas for the primary purpose of navigation and all other
marine purposes and activities, including; offshore activities, research, protection of the
environment, and prediction services.

Hydrographic measurements may include:

1. Measurements for depth
2. Measurements for the geology (Nature of the bed material)
3. Geophysics (Gravity on the riverbed)
4. Tides
5. Currents (movements of water due to winds, difference in temperature, etc)
6. Waves
7. Water solubility, salinity e.t.c
8. Pollution

The primary application of the data collected is to compile a map, usually called a chart.
These charts are used by mariners, marine engineers, oceanographers, marine biologists,
environmental scientists e.t.c. Hydrographic surveying is important in a variety of marine
activities such as mineral resource management including oil and gas, fishery
management, submarine cable routes, marine archeology, search and recovery efforts,
and safe navigation.

Main problem in hydrography:

The main problem in hydrography is to determine the figure of the Earth under the water
and because of this, hydrography is sometimes known as marine geodesy.
We are also interested in demarcating the territorial boundary of Countries in the
environs of the water bodies

Classification of hydrography:
 Coastal hydrography
 Offshore hydrography
 Deep water hydrography

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IMPORTANCE OF HYDROGRAPHY
Firstly it is necessary to consider the IHO (International Hydrographic Organization)
definition of Hydrography, which states that:

That branch of applied sciences which deals with the measurement and description of the features
of the seas and coastal areas for the primary purpose of navigation and all other marine purposes
and activities, including –inter alia- offshore activities, research, protection of the environment,
and prediction services. (IHO Pub. S-32).

Therefore, the development of a National Maritime Policy requires a well developed

capability to conduct all these activities which will allow the obtaining of basic
knowledge of the geographical, geological and geophysical features of the seabed and
coast, as well the currents, tides and certain physical properties of the sea water; all of
this data must then be properly processed so that the nature of the sea bottom, its
geographical relationship with the land and the characteristics and dynamics of the ocean
can be accurately depicted in all zones of national shipping. In brief, Hydrography, as
defined, is the key to progress on all maritime activities, normally of great national
economic importance.

To adequately address areas of safe and efficient operation of maritime traffic control;
coastal zone management; exploration and exploitation of marine resources;
environmental protection and maritime defence, it is necessary to create a Hydrographic
Service. The Hydrographic Service, through systematic data collection carried out on the
coast and at sea, produces and disseminates information in support of maritime
navigation safety and marine environment preservation, defence and exploitation.

To adequately address areas such as:

 Safe and efficient operation of maritime traffic control;

 Coastal Zone Management;
 Exploration and Exploitation of Marine Resources;
 Environmental Protection;
 Maritime Defence.

FIELDS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDROGRAPHY

1. Maritime Transport
More than 80% of international trade in the world is carried by sea. Maritime commerce
is a basic element for a nation's economy. Many areas and ports in the world do not have
accurate nor adequate nautical chart coverage. Modern nautical charts are required for

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safe navigation through a country's waters and along coasts and to enter its ports. A lack
of adequate nautical charts prevents the development of maritime trade in the waters and
ports of the concerned nations.

The shipping industry needs efficiency and safety. Poorly charted areas and the lack of
information can cause voyages to be longer than necessary, and may prevent the
optimum loading of ships, thus increasing costs. The saving of time and money resulting
from the use of shorter and deeper routes and the possibility to use larger ships or load
ships more deeply may produce important economies for national industry and
commerce. It is also very important to note that the SOLAS Convention Chapter V
considers a ship unseaworthy if it does not carry up-to-date charts necessary for the
intended voyage.

A solution to these problems would not be possible without the quality maps and charts
produced and continually updated and distributed by a Hydrographic Service. These
charts, produced by means of modern hydrographic surveys, are required to enable the
larger ships of today to navigate through national waters and enter ports the access to
which was formerly insecure and therefore are essential tools for the creation of coastal
nations' incomes.

Modern charts also provide information required to create the routeing systems
established by international conventions and to meet the economic interests of the coastal
state.

2. Coastal Zone Management

Adequate coastal zone management includes items such as construction of new ports and
the maintenance and development of existing ones; dredging operations for the
maintenance of charted depths and for the establishment, monitoring and improvement
of channels; control of coastal erosion; land reclamation from the sea; establishment and
monitoring of dumping grounds for industrial waste; extraction of mineral deposits;
aqua-cultural activities; transportation and public works projects including construction
of near shore infrastructure.

Precise large-scale surveys provide the primary data essential for projects involving all
items mentioned above. Due to the rapid changes to which shorelines are subject, these
surveys must be updated with the frequency dictated by the monitoring and analysis
process. The information collected by Hydrographic Offices about the coastal zone
provides essential input to coastal zone GIS (Geographic Information Systems) which are

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increasingly being used for better overall management and decision-making with regard
to conflicting uses within the coastal region. The users of hydrographic information go
beyond the traditional user group, mariners, to include government agencies, coastal
managers, engineers, and scientists.

3. Exploration and exploitation of marine resources

Although intended primarily to support safety of navigation, the extensive data-bases
amassed over the years by Hydrographic Offices, together with their various products
and services, are of considerable economic value in assisting the management and
exploitation of natural marine resources. In recent years, it has become more evident that
inadequate hydrographic services not only restrict the growth of maritime trade but also
lead to costly delays in resource exploration.

Coastal and offshore sedimentary areas may contain mineral deposits, in particular
hydrocarbons, which require adequate surveys in order to be identified. If the existence
of these hydrocarbons is confirmed, this will lead to the coastal nation's undertaking
development of hydrocarbon production which implies interpretation of the sea floor
morphology; navigation safety for the transportation of these hazardous cargoes; safety
of offshore platforms and related sea floor transmission systems and the placement of
production wells and the laying of pipelines. Bathymetric, tidal and meteorological data
provided by a Hydrographic Service is a fundamental element in the development of a
hydrocarbon industry.

The fishing industry is also a source of national wealth. Fishermen need marine
information not only for the safe navigation of their vessels but also for safe deployment
of their fishing gear, which will prevent costly losses. In addition, oceanographic charts,
compiled and produced by Hydrographic Offices, are now being extensively used by the
fishing industry.

Fishery activities need detailed charts in order to:

 avoid loss of fishing gear and fishing vessels on undetected or poorly charted
obstructions;
 identify fishing areas;
 Locate areas where fishing is limited or prohibited.

This kind of information is subject to frequent changes and therefore needs constant
updating.

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Hydrographic surveying is essential to obtain timely and up-to-date information and
should be periodically repeated.

The trend of modern fishery science is orientated towards habitat management;

bathymetry and other ocean data will provide important input for proper species
management and development.

4. Environment Protection and Management

An essential factor for the protection of the environment is safe and accurate navigation.
Pollution caused by wrecks and oil spills are a major damage factor, the economic
consequences of which are more devastating than is commonly imagined, but which, in
some cases, have been estimated at US $ 3 billion for a single incident.

The value of navigation services for the protection of the marine environment has been
internationally recognized. In this respect, it should be noted that Chapter 17 of Agenda
21 of the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED),
held in 1992, recognized that "Hydrographic charting is vitally important to
navigational safety"

5. Marine Science
Marine science depends largely on bathymetric information. Global tide and circulation
models, local and regional models for a wide variety of scientific studies, marine
geology/geophysics, the deployment/placement of scientific instrumentation and many
other aspects of marine science depend on bathymetry provided by Hydrographic
Services.

6. National Spatial Data Infrastructure

In the information age it is realized by governments that good quality and well managed
spatial data are an essential ingredient to economic and commercial development, and to
environmental protection. For this reason many nations are establishing national spatial
data infrastructures, bringing together the services and data sets of major national spatial
data providers, for example topography, geodesy, geophysics, meteorology, and
bathymetry. The Hydrographic Service is an important part of the national spatial data
infrastructure.

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7. Maritime Boundary Delimitation
Good hydrographic data is essential to proper delimitation of the maritime boundaries
as detailed in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

8. Maritime Defense
Navies are major users of nautical chart products in that they must be prepared for
deployment to many areas in the world and typically must maintain a large set of charts.
The unique risks associated with the carriage of munitions and nuclear material makes it
important for such vessels to have up-to-date information. The marine data and
information provided by national Hydrographic Offices support a variety of products
used in naval operations. Surface, submarine, anti-submarine, mine-hunting and air-sea
naval operations need nautical information products very different one from another.
Hydrographic and oceanographic data necessary for the preparation of such products
must be available if national investment in defence is to be optimized.

9. Tourism
Good charts are particularly important to the development of the economically important
industry of tourism, especially involving cruise ships. The potential of the cruise ship
industry is especially important to developing nations. Yet this important source of
revenue cannot be properly developed if safe navigation to remote touristic landscapes
is prevented or limited by a lack of adequate charts. Tourism is one of the major growth
industries of the 21st Century.

10. Recreational boating

The recreational boating community represents a large percentage of mariners. It is
generally not mandatory for leisure craft to carry charts and recreational mariners often
do not update their charts; however, the advent of digital chart information is making it
possible for the recreational user to have updated chart information readily available
along with many types of value added information such as marina locations, etc. This
development is likely to result in the recreational leisure sector becoming a significantly
larger user of the hydrographic data as greater numbers of people become able to afford
boat ownership. Again income from this sector is increasingly significant to many
countries.

As it can be seen, it is extremely difficult to quantify the economic and commercial

benefits which flow from a national hydrographic programme, but several studies by
IHO Member States have suggested that the cost to benefit ratio is about 1:10 for major
maritime nations. It is also true that volumes of maritime trade are growing continuously

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and, in the future, the exploitation and sustainable development of the national maritime
zones will become a major pre-occupation of government and industry.

It should also be noted that, in economic parlance, the national hydrographic programme
is regarded as a "Public Good". That is to say the necessary services required in the public
interest will not be supplied at optimal levels by market forces alone. In every IHO
Member State the provision of hydrographic services is a responsibility of central
government, as an essential component of national economic development. This overall
and important economic dimension of the work has sometimes been obscured by the
emphasis on sector interests served by hydrographic services, and more recently by
legislative or regulatory requirements. It is clear that the economic dimension of
Hydrography deserves greater attention than it has received in the past.

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PRINCIPLES OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Hydrographic surveying deals with the configuration of the bottom and adjacent land
areas of oceans, lakes, rivers, harbours, and other water forms on Earth. In strict sense, it
is defined merely as the surveying of a water area; however, in modern usage it may
include a wide variety of other objectives such as measurements of tides, current, gravity,
earth magnetism, and determinations of the physical and chemical properties of water.

The principal objective of most hydrographic surveys is to obtain basic data for the
compilation of nautical charts with emphasis on the features that may affect safe
navigation. Other objectives include acquiring the information necessary for related
marine navigational products and for coastal zone management, engineering, and
science.

1.1 The purpose of hydrographic surveying is:

1. To collect, with systematic surveys at sea, along the coast and inland, geo-referenced
data related to:
a) Shoreline configuration, including man-made infrastructure for maritime
navigation i.e. all those features on shore that are of interest to mariners.
b) Determination of underwater elevation and depths in the area of interest
(including all potential hazards to navigation and other marine activities).
c) Sea bottom composition.
d) Tides and Currents.
e) Physical properties of the water column.
2. To process the information collected in order to create organized databases capable of
feeding the production of thematic maps, nautical charts and other types of
documentation for the following most common uses :
a) Maritime navigation and traffic management.
b) Naval operations.
c) Coastal zone management.
d) Marine environment preservation.
e) Exploitation of marine resources and laying of submarine cables/pipelines.
f) Maritime boundaries definition (Law of the Sea implementation).
g) Scientific studies.

1.2 Nautical chart

Nautical chart is an end product of a hydrographic survey. Its accuracy and adequacy
depend on the quality of the data collected during the surveys. A nautical chart is a

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graphic representation of the marine environment; showing the nature and form of the
coast, depths of the water and general character and configuration of the sea bottom,
locations of dangers to navigation, rise and fall of the tides, cautions of manmade aids to
navigation (such as harbours, buildings and bridges) and the characteristics of the Earth’s
magnetism. The actual form of a chart may vary from a traditional paper chart to an
electronic chart.

An electronic chart is not simply a digital version of a paper chart; it introduces a new
navigation methodology with capabilities and limitations very different from paper
charts. The electronic chart has become the legal equivalent of the paper chart as
approved by the International Maritime Organization.

Divergences in purpose have led to the publication of various “new-generation” charts.

Bathymetric charts developed from digital data or created from multi-beam sounding
data allow the underwater relief to be visualized by means of varying blue tints and
isobaths. Similarly, side-scan sonar mosaics have been published in the form of charts or
atlases to characterize the large geomorphological structures.

Such charts no longer have, as their object, the safety of navigation, but rather, the
knowledge of the environment required for submarine navigation, oceanographic
research or industrial applications, such as cable laying, seabed mining and oil
exploitation.

Hydrographic surveying is undergoing fundamental changes in measurement

technology. Multibeam acoustic and airborne laser systems now provide almost total
seafloor coverage and measurement as compared to the earlier sampling by bathymetric
profiles. The capability to position the data precisely in the horizontal plane has been
increased enormously by the availability of satellite positioning systems, particularly
when augmented by differential techniques. This advance in technology has been
particularly significant since navigators are now able to position themselves with greater
accuracy than that of the data on which older charts are based.

1.3. Uses of Ocean Mapping

The primary product of hydrographic survey is maps of the ocean, sea, lake or riverbed
sometimes known as bathymetry. Bathymetric surveys provide the data on which
nautical charts are based. A bathymetric chart is the submerged equivalent of an above-
water topographic map.

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a) These maps can improve marine safety since they can depict hazardous depth
anomalies, currents, tides and also weather parameters.
b) Improvement of the offshore environmental conditions requires the knowledge of
tides, currents, weather and bathymetry. Currents are caused by metrological
conditions such as temperature variations, pressure salinity variations, etc. A tide
on the other hand is caused by the attractions of the moon with the earth. Tides
are gravitational in nature.
c) Maps lead to improved sovereign rights. Jurisdiction boundary definitions are
based on the bathymetry, continental slope, geology and geophysics.

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2. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
2.1 Survey Specifications
Requirements for hydrographic surveys arise as the result of policy decisions, product
user reports or requests, national defence needs, and other demands. The inception of a
specific hydrographic survey project follows an evaluation of all known requirements
and the establishment of priorities.
Factors that influence the establishment of priorities are:
a) National and agency goal,
b) Quantitative and qualitative measures of shipping and boating,
c) The adequacy of existing surveys,
d) The rate of change of the submarine topography in the area.

2.2 Survey Planning

Survey planning covers a wide range of activities:
a) from the development of an idea for a survey within the Hydrographic Office and
its subsequent issue as Project Instructions / Hydrographic Instructions (HIs), to
the detailed planning and organization of a surveying ship to fulfill a practical
task.
b) It covers inter departmental liaison at Government level, diplomatic cooperation
and the allocation of numerous expensive resources.
c) It also covers prioritization of resources and day to day running of a survey ship
employed on surveying task.
Survey planning involves blending of these activities into a coherent pattern aimed at the
achievement of a specific task.

A survey begins long before actual data collection starts. Some of the important elements,
which must be decided, are:
a) Exact area of the survey.
b) Type of survey (standard) and scale to meet standards of chart to be produced.
c) Scope of the survey (short or long term).
d) Platforms available (ships, launches, aircraft, leased vessels, cooperative
agreements).
e) Support work required (aerial or satellite photography, geodetics, tides).
f) Limiting factors (budget, political or operational constraints, positioning systems
limitations, and logistics).

Once these issues are decided, all information available in the survey area is reviewed.
This includes aerial photography, satellite data, topographic maps, existing nautical

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charts, geodetic information, tidal information, and anything else affecting the survey.
HO will normally undertake this strategic planning of surveys in cooperation with other
organizations and, from this, Projects Instructions / Hydrographic Instructions (HIs) will
be compiled by the Hydrographer and issued for compliance.

Depending on the type of survey required, details provided in Project Instructions / HIs
will include some or all of the following:
a) Survey limits.
b) Data requirement and resolution.
c) Method of positional control, together with the accuracy expected.
d) Use to be made of sonar.
e) How the survey report is to be rendered and target date if appropriate.
f) A general, and at times detailed, description of the reason for the survey
priorities, methods to be employed, particular observations to be made and other
relevant guidance or instruction.
g) Horizontal datum, projection and grid to be used.
h) Wrecks in the area.
i) Tidal datum and observations required.
j) Particular instructions regarding the collection of data in respect of
oceanography, geophysics, sailing directions, air photography etc.

On receipt of Project Instructions/HIs, the survey planners then compile:

 Sound velocity information, climatology, water clarity data, any past survey
data, and information from lights lists, sailing directions, and notices to
mariners.
 Tidal information is thoroughly reviewed and tide gauge locations chosen.
 Local vertical control data is reviewed to see if it meets the expected accuracy
standards, so the tide gauges can be linked to the vertical datum used for the
survey.
 Horizontal control is reviewed to check for accuracy and discrepancies and to
determine sites for local positioning systems to be used in the survey.

Development of a general survey plan and subsequent site specific survey plans will
create a more efficient survey. The general survey plan addresses the way that surveys
are planned, performed, and processed. This plan includes training, software, equipment
maintenance and upgrades, logistics, all data requirements, schedule, safety, and
weather. The site specific survey plan will address local notifications, survey lines,

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datum, data density, and specific equipment and personnel that will meet the general
survey plan requirements.

2.3 Data Acquisition

Hydrography is an expensive enterprise and thus proper field procedures must be used
to acquire adequate and sufficient reliable information. Data acquisition is dependent
upon various factors. The survey requirements, the platform and equipment available
and the time specified for a particular task will determine the amount of data to be
collected.
In particular, the purpose of the survey will usually dictate the data requirement (data
density, data coverage, and data precision). However, if there is no impact to cost and
schedule, then as many data may be collected as possible during field survey.

It should be noted that data redundancy and data density are not the same thing. Data
density is the number of soundings per unit of area, while data redundancy refers to data
overlap or data collected at a different time at the same location. The type of survey
defines data redundancy or data overlap requirements. Full coverage surveys deal more
with data density insuring that all bottom features/obstructions have been located. These
need to be clearly understood by those requesting the survey and those doing the survey
to insure compliance with the standards specified by IHO.

2.4 Data Processing

Data processing must be done under strict quality control criteria. Hydrographic data is
either collected by automated systems or converted into an automated format. Final data
processing and plotting are accomplished using onboard or office-based computer
systems. A standard approach for a hydrographic survey is the collect-process-collect
methodology. The data collected is processed and subsequently gaps and areas with
questionable data re-surveyed. Most of the hydrographic systems are capable of
performing “field-finish” operations, wherein survey data is collected, processed,
plotted and analyzed in the field.
Care is to be exercised in processing the raw data to ensure that all errors have been
eliminated and necessary corrections applied e.g. system calibration factors and sensor
offsets, or variable values such as sound velocity profiles and tide values for the reduction
of soundings.
Some of the few sequential processing steps are:
a) Position: Merging of positioning data from different sensors (if necessary),
qualifying positioning data, and eliminating position jumps.

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 b) Depth corrections: Corrections should be applied for water level changes,
measurements of attitude sensors, and changes of the draught of the survey vessel
(e. g. squat changing with speed; change over time caused by fuel consumption).
c) Attitude corrections: Attitude data (heading, pitch, roll) should be qualified and
data jumps be eliminated.
d) Sound velocity: Corrections due to refraction be calculated and applied.
e) Merging positions and depths: The time offset (latency) and the geometric offsets
between sensors have to be taken into consideration.

2.5 Data Analysis

The accuracy of the results of survey measurement should always be quoted to show how
good or reliable they are. Since no equipment is entirely free of errors, therefore, errors
are introduced in all observations. In addition, errors are introduced in computations by
approximations in formulae or by rounding. Observational techniques are designed to
eliminate all but small random errors, which can then be analyzed by rigorous techniques
to quantify the accuracy of the observations. Various errors, their sizes and procedures to
eliminate are as under:

ERROR SIZE ELIMINATION

Blunder large Training, care procedures
Constant Usually small, but fixed Calibration or procedures
Periodic Usually small, but variable Procedure (repetition), even for large errors

Random Usually small Only reduced, by repetition

Constant, Systematic and Periodic errors are frequently considered together as

‘Systematic Errors’. Constant and Systematic errors are accumulative, and thus cannot be
reduced by repetition. Random errors are present in all observations; the result can never
be ‘exact’. These errors are as likely to be positive as negative and more likely to be of
small size.

2.6 Data Quality

Quality is about “fitness for the use”. It has to do with the extent to which a data set, or
map output satisfied the needs of the person judging it. Error is the difference between
actual and true data. Error is a major issue in quality. It is often used as an umbrella term
to describe all the types of the effects that cause data to depart from what they should be.

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To allow a comprehensive assessment of the quality of survey data, it is necessary to
record or document certain information together with the survey data. The process of
documenting the data quality is called data attribution; the information on the data
quality is called metadata.
Data quality can be achieved by effective quality control either by:
a) Automatic (Non-interactive) Quality Control - coordinates (i.e. positions and
depths) controlled automatically by a programme using suitable statistical
algorithms.
b) Manual (Interactive) Quality Control - the use of 3-D visualization tools is strongly
recommended.

2.7 Data Quality - Presentation

2.7.1 Chart Reliability Diagrams
For a user, the quality of the data which is presented is assessed through the chart
reliability diagram. This diagram is displayed as an inset on a chart and indicates the
areas surveyed together with some detail, e.g. scale, line spacing and year of survey.
2.7.2 Zones of Confidence (ZOC)
The ZOC concept was developed by the IHO to provide a mean of classifying bathymetric
data. ZOC provide a simple and logical mean of displaying to the mariner the confidence
that the national charting authority places on any particular selection of bathymetric data.
It classifies areas for navigation by identifying the various levels of confidence that can
be placed in the underlying data using a combination of the following criteria:

 Depth and position accuracy,

 Thoroughness of seafloor search, and
 Conformance to an approved quality plan.

2.8 Data Production

The final data production can both be in digital and analog form. Schematic diagram is
given below.

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 Data production

Paper Digital

Smooth Sheets Field Records Spatial data & Metadata

attributes

Data Format

Digital data should be in defined format to be directly imported into main database. As
each survey typically includes numerous supporting documents and digital data files,
deliverables must clearly be labeled in a way that is both descriptive and understandable
to hydrographic office personnel. Manual data should be clear, concise and in legible
form which is properly labeled and marked. After the data is collected, processed and
plotted in the form of smooth sheets (manuscript in digital form), the inventory of the
final deliverables is forwarded to Hydrographic office, the inventory of which should
generally include:
i. Smooth Sheets.
ii. Digital files of smooth sheet with attributes.
iii. Raw and processed bathymetric data.
iv. Tide, sound velocity and vessel configuration files.
v. Side scan data files.
vi. Descriptive report and supplemental reports.
vii. Field logs and documentation of processing.
viii. Calibration documentation.
2.9 Data Maintenance
Unlike topographical maps, it is extremely important to keep navigation charts up-to-
date. Changes that have occurred since the chart was finalized must often be added.
Notices to mariners are a weekly correction to those who use the water ways. Changes
include navigation aids, etc. Each chart or map sold is stamped and the date of the last
notice of corrections indicated. It is the responsibility of the mariner to keep his chart or

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map up to date. The user also has the duty of having a current chart. The coastal state can
issue about 1000 notices a year.

2.10 Nautical Information System (NIS)

Nautical Information system is the combination of skilled persons, spatial and descriptive
data, analytic methods and computer software and hardware - all organized to automate,
manage and deliver information through presentation i.e. paper and digital charts.

The rapidly increased need for electronic navigational charts (ENC) has led to a situation
for many hydrographic offices where there are two separate production lines for the two
products, ENC cells and paper charts. It is essential for the safety of navigation that the
products are not in conflict with one another. A typical NIS has four main functional
subsystems:

a) Data Input. The data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and
transform spatial and thematic data into digital form.
b) Data Base - Storage and Retrieval. Data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes
the data, spatial and attribute, in a form which permits it to be quickly retrieved
by the user for analysis, and permits rapid and accurate updates to be made to the
database.
c) Data Base - Manipulation and Analysis. The data manipulation and analysis
subsystem allows the user to define and execute spatial and attribute procedures
to generate derived information. This subsystem is commonly thought of as the
heart of a GIS, and usually distinguishes it from other database information
systems and computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems.
d) Data Output. The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic
displays, normally maps, and tabular reports representing derived information
products.
There are four components of NIS; data, hardware, software, and users as shown in the
Fig below.

Hardware Software

Data

Data Users

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The components must be integrated; they must be linked together and work in concert to
support the management and analysis of spatial or mapped data.
 Data. All data in a database are either spatial data or attribute data. Spatial data tells
us where something occurs. Attribute data tells what occurs; it tells us the nature or
characteristics of the spatial data.
 Hardware. Computer hardware must be able to support data input, output, storage,
retrieval, display, and analysis.
 Software. Software used should be dynamic and have wide variety of functional
capabilities.
 Users. The term "user" may refer to any individual who will use NIS to support project
or program goals, or to an entire organization that will employ.

2.10.1 Compilation Process

Data compilations involve assembling all the spatial and attribute data in NIS. Map data
with common projections, scales, and coordinate systems must be pooled together in
order to establish the centralized NIS database. Data must also be examined for
compatibility in terms of content and time of data collection. Ultimately, the data will be
stored in NIS according to the specific format requirements set by both the user and the
chosen NIS software/hardware environment.

The compilation process can be done in two ways:

i. Manual: Traditional cartographic work which is based on colour separation
and manual processes.
ii. Computer Assisted Cartography: To improve services and to meet the
growing demands for chart, computer assisted mapping systems are also used.

2.10.2 Presentation
The real world is far too complex for a complete description to be practical; therefore a
simplified, highly specific, view of real world must be used. This is achieved by modeling
the reality. The presentation of hydrographic information may vary to suit a particular
use (e.g. it may be presented either graphically, using symbols or in a textual form). Data
presentation can be done in the following formats:
i. Paper Charts.
A Nautical Chart is a graphic portrayal that shows the nature and form of the coast, the
depths of the water and general character and configuration of the sea bottom, locations
of dangers to navigation, the rise and fall of the tides, locations of man-made aids to
navigation, and the characteristics of the Earth's magnetism. In addition to its basic
elements, a chart is a working document used by the mariner both as a "road map" and

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worksheet and is essential for safe navigation. In conjunction with supplemental
navigational aids, it is used to lay out courses and navigate ships by the shortest and most
economical safe route.

Printed charts present all important information such as chart features with appropriate
symbology and descriptive cartographic information texts and symbols. The volume of
information is limited due to the size of the chart as well as the readability aspects of it.
ii. Digital Charts.
A digital chart means a standardized database, as to content, structure and format.
Digital charts are a new navigation aid that can provide significant benefits to maritime
navigation, safety, and commerce. More than simply a computer graphics display, digital
chart systems combine both geographic and textual data into a readily useful operational
tool. As an automated decision aid capable of continuously determining a vessel's
position in relation to land, charted objects, aids to navigation, and unseen hazards, ENC
are a real-time navigation system that integrates a variety of information that is displayed
and interpreted by the Mariner..
iii. Vector Charts
An Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) is vector data conforming to IHO S-57 ENC
product specification in terms of contents, structure and format.

iv. Raster Charts

Raster data formats are bitmaps with a geo-reference applied to them. A bitmap is a
generic term for a computer image made up of a rectangular grid of very small (254 per
inch is one standard) coloured squares or pixels. These bitmaps are usually generated by
taking the original chart and scanning them to create a digital picture of the chart. Once
this image has been acquired, a geo-reference is applied. This is the process of relating
the grid positions of the bitmap pixels to their corresponding latitude and longitudes. In
this way, a computer can relate pixel position to latitude and longitude. However, the
system has no knowledge of the details of the features and details (such as the coast line)
in the raster images it displays.
v. Hybrid Charts
Ideally the master versions of all discrete digital cartographic product data would be held
in vector form. The rise in capacity of computer systems over recent years has opened up
the alternative of transferring quickly to digital methods by raster scanning the existing
printing separates, and then using hybrid raster/vector techniques during a changeover
period. Raster masters are replaced by vector masters in a sequence determined by costs
and business priorities.

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2.11. Data Application
i. In oceanography for the study of the ocean current, tides, e.t.c.
ii. Fisheries
iii. Ocean engineers (marine engineers) for construction of ocean turbines, e.t.c
iv. Marine biologists (marine scientists) for the study of water species.
v. Geologists and geophysicists for the study of rock composition of the seabed
and the physical elements like gravity, minerals, hydrocarbon, e.t.c.
respectively.
vi. Environmental management i.e. pollution from disposed untreated wastes.
vii. Containerization has become an efficient and preferred method of cargo
handling.
viii. Transportation for the safety of big vessels which is the main usage of ocean
information by mariners.
 Channel dredging: This is the process of monitoring the
seabed/lakebed topography for the purpose of maintaining the
required depth for safe navigation. This is very vital at coastal zones
where erosion from the dry land and the effect of the sea/lake waves
can pile material or sediments which become a hazard to navigation.
 Coastal zone management: Large-scale hydrographic surveys provide
data for coastal zone management, soil erosion management, land
reclamation, monitoring of dumping ground for industrial wastes,
exploration of minerals, research projects, aqua culture activities like
farming, e.t.c.

Institutional Structure of Hydrography

Purpose of professional Institutions:
a) Training i.e. institutions should be active in organizing workshops or conferences
or workshops; seminars, e.t.c.
b) Maintenance of professionalism: institutions include among others:
i. International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) which produces the
international Hydrographic Review Journal from the conferences held.
ii. The Commission 4 which basically handles hydrographic matters in the
Federation International des Geomtres (FIG) and it deals with surveyors.
iii. International Mean Sea level Service which takes some activities of
hydrographic and takes observations at sea level in the monitoring of the
mean sea level.

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iv. The International Light House Organization/Association. This doesn’t do
practical hydrography but only provides light to enable navigators identify
a few if they are nearing the dry land. Their purpose is to support
navigation and rescue workers.
Some regional institutions to some extent involved in hydrographic activities are:
 Regional Centre of Mapping & Resource Development (RCMRD)
 Economic Community of Africa (ECA)

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LAW OF THE SEA:
Impact of the Law of the Sea
The law of the sea normally referred to as “The 3rd United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS 3)” was formulated from 1973 to 1982 and it resulted into one
of the most important international laws. The convention reshaped and continues to
reshape the international marine sector. UNCLOS 3 expanded the coastal state
sovereignty to encompass territorial waters and these sovereign rights are enforced
through several routes such as; the territorial sea, Innocent passage zone, the contiguous
zone e.t.c.

International waters
Water

Dry Land
Territorial waters (Exclusive
economic zone)

400km or
2000nM

UNCLOS 3 also puts many restrictions on the freedom on the high seas through; “the
common heritage of mankind” and measures to protect and preserve the marine life. The
law was necessary because of;
 The equitable sharing of natural resources in the oceans;
 It gave “poor countries” powers equal to those of the “powerful countries” to
manage the environment within the oceans (Fair play).
 It also gives coastal countries powers to survey the ocean bed and demarcate their
respective territorial waters.
 Coastal countries are also given powers to survey the continental shelf, continental
slope and the continental rise until where the continental plate ends. The innocent
passage zones, contiguous zones, oceanic topographic features e.t.c are then
demarcated and drawn on charts. The charts are then sent to the UN sea bed
authority.
 Coastal countries pay tax to the UN for the exclusive enjoyment of territorial
waters (exclusive economic zone). These taxes are used to help underprivileged
countries.


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 Continental
landmass

Continental
shelf Continental
slope Continental
rise Continental
margin

The convention consists of 320 articles organized into 17 parts having 49 sections. Some
of the articles comprise of the following; territorial sea, straights used for international
navigation, archipelagic states (Island states), exclusive economic zone, continental shelf,
high seas, rights of access for landlocked countries to and from the sea and freedom of
transit through a coastal state, protection and preservation of marine environment, rights
to the sea or ocean floor, right to carry out marine scientific studies e.t.c

1. Baselines:
In determining the extent of a coastal state’s territorial sea and other maritime zones, it is
obviously necessary first of all to establish from what points on the coast the outer limits
of such zones are to be measured. This is the function of the baseline.
A baseline is the line from which the outer limit of the territorial sea and other coastal
state zones (the contiguous zone, the exclusive fishing zone and the exclusive economic
zone (EEZ)) is measured.

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• The waters on the landward side of the baseline are known as internal waters. The
baseline thus forms the boundary between the internal waters and territorial sea. This
boundary does not mark the outer limit of the state’s territory, since in international
law the territorial sea forms part of a state’s territory.
• The baseline represents the demarcation between the maritime areas (the territorial
sea and other zones) where other states do enjoy certain general rights. Baselines may
also be relevant in drawing maritime boundaries.
• Where two neighboring states agree that the boundary between their maritime
zones is to be a line equidistant from both states, it is from the baselines of each
state that such equidistance is normally calculated.
• If all coastlines were relatively straight and unindented, the question of ascertaining
the baseline would be a simple. All that would be necessary would be to select the
high or low tide as the baseline. In practice however, the position is not nearly so
straight forward: many coasts are not straight but indented or penetrated by bays, and
have island, sand-banks and harbour installations off them.
• It is necessary, therefore to have rules on baselines which deal with a wide variety of
geographical circumstances. Article 3 of the territorial sea convention and article 5 of
the law of the sea convention provide in identical words that the normal baseline for
measuring the breadth of the territorial sea is the low-water line along the coast as
marked on large scale charts officially recognized by the coastal state.
• The effect of choosing the low-water line, rather than the high-tides line is to push the
outer limit of the territorial sea and other zones further seawards, particularly on
coasts where there is an extensive tidal range. The rules in article 3 and 5 apply
particularly, as suggested earlier, to coasts which are relatively straight and
unindented
• The special geographical circumstances for particular rules are laid down in the
Geneva and law of the sea conventions as: Straight baselines for coasts deeply
indented or fringed with islands, Bays, River mouths, Harbour works, Low-tide
elevations, Islands, bays, reefs.

There are two types of baselines: normal baselines (Subsection 7.2.1) and straight
baselines
(Subsection 7.2.2),
i. Normal baselines: The normal baseline used for measuring the breadth of the
territorial sea is the low water line along the coast as marked on large-scale
nautical charts officially recognized by the coastal state (Article 5 of UNCLOS).

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 ii. Straight baselines: (Article 7 of UNCLOS): In localities where the baseline is deeply
indented, or has a ridge of Islands along the coast, a straight baseline joining
appropriate points may be used. The law stipulates that a coastal state shouldn’t
fix a baseline that departs very much from the shape of its shoreline.

Exclusive economic
Coast Ocean
zone

200Nm

2. Rights of innocent passage: Subject to the convention, ships of all states, both the
coastal states and the landlocked countries, enjoy rights of innocent passage over the
territorial waters of the coastal state. The passage is said to be innocent as long as it
doesn’t prejudice the peace or breach the security of the coastal state. If the foreign
ship ceases to be innocent, or steps outside the scope of passage, it may be excluded
from territorial sea. Warships may not pass without consent into this zone because
they threaten. Merchant ships may pass and repass because they do not threaten.

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3. The contiguous zone: The coastal state exercises the necessary control over its
customs and sanitary checks to prevent the violation of customs, fiscal, immigration
and sanitary laws. A coastal state is allowed to punish whoever infringes on any of
the above laws. This is a zone of sea contiguous to and beyond the territorial sea in
which states have limited powers for the enforcement of customs, fiscal, sanitary and
immigration laws. UNCLOS III decided to move the contiguous zone seaward, setting
the outer limit at twenty four miles from the baseline (LOSC, art 33) so allowing a
twelve mile zone.

4. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ): The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a zone
extending up to 200 miles from the baseline, within which the coastal state enjoys

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 extensive rights in relation to natural resources and other jurisdictional rights, and
third states enjoy the freedoms of navigation, over flight by aircraft and the laying of
cables and pipelines.
Rights, jurisdictions and duties of the coastal state in the exclusive economic zone:
(Article 56). In the exclusive economic zone, the coastal state has;
a) Full sovereign rights for the purpose of exploration, conservation and
management of natural resources within the water and on the seabed.
b) Jurisdictions as provided for in the relevant provisions of the convention with
regard to;
 The establishment and use of artificial islands, installations and structures.
 Marine scientific research etc
Note: In the exclusive economic zone, the coastal state is supposed to enjoy the economic
benefits exclusively/solely.

5. Continental shelf: (Article 76) :

The continental shelf of a coastal state comprises; the seabed and the sub-soil of the
submarine areas that may extend beyond its coast throughout the natural prolongation
of its land territory to a distance of 200Nm (approx 400Km) from the baseline used to
measure the territorial sea.
Physically, the sea bed adjacent to the coast is usually comprised of three separate
sections.

• First, that section which slopes down gradually from the low-water mark to a
depth, averaging about 130 meters, at which the angle of slope increases markedly:
This is the continental shelf.
• Second, the section bordering the shelf and having the steeper slope, going down
to around 1200 to 3500 meters: this is the continental slope.
• Third, beyond the slope in many places there is a gentle falling away of the sea
bed, this is composed mainly of sediments washed down from the continents,
called the continental rise which descends to around 3500 to 5500 meters.
• Together these three sections form the continental margin, which constitutes about
one fifth of the sea floor.

6. Continental margin: (Article 76): This is the edge of the continental plate. It doesn’t
include the deep ocean floor with its oceanic ridges or subsoil thereof.
 The coastal state should demarcate the outer limits of the continental shelf, the
baseline and the other zones.
 The coastal state is obliged to deposit the marine chart at the UN.

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  The convention requires that a coastal state should establish the outer edge of the
continental margin wherever it extends to more than 200Nm from the baseline.
 The continental margin – and especially the continental shelf – is rich in natural
resources.

7. High Seas:
These are all parts of the sea that are not included in the exclusive economic zone, in
the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a state, or in the archipelagic waters of
an archipelagic state.
An archipelagic state: a group of islands, including parts of islands, interconnecting
waters and other natural features which are so closely interrelated that such islands,
waters and other natural features form an intrinsic geographical, economic and
political entity, or which historically have been regarded as such. The high seas are
open to all states, and no state may validly purport to subject any part of them to its
sovereignty (HSC, art. 2; LOSC, arts. 87, 89).

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TYPES OF HYDROGRAPHY

3.1 Horizontal and Vertical Positioning (hydrography)

1. Horizontal Hydrography:
A terrestrial network of geodetic marks supports two-dimensional hydrographic
positioning. This horizontal control is necessary to position depth information accurately
on the earth. Thus, in horizontal hydrography we deal with horizontal coordinates i.e.
eastings and northing or longitudes and latitudes. Coordinates can be computed from
angles/ bearings only, distances only, time, phase and acceleration which are the basic
observables/ measurements.

Tools used in horizontal positioning Include:

i. Sextant
ii. Theodolite
iii. Subtense bar
iv. Total station
v. Satellite systems (GPS)
vi. Inertial Positioning System(IPS)
vii. Radial Positioning System
viii. Astronomy

2. Vertical Hydrography:
A network of geodetic marks supports three-dimensional hydrographic positioning. This
vertical control allows accurate determination of the depth of the sea floor. Depth
information from hydrographic surveys must be reduced to a sounding or vertical datum
(Mean Lower Low Water for NOAA nautical charts) for charting purposes. Reducing
measured depths to a uniform vertical datum requires the application of tidal and water
level height information.

Under vertical hydrography a number of precision benchmarks are established along the
shorelines which are subsequently used for setting and checking tide gauges. The
soundings are referred to as the tide gauges for obtaining depth of water.
Vertical hydrography thus deals with the height coordinate of a point and the main tools
used are:

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 i. calibrated
rod/wire
ii. Echo
sounders
iii. Side scan
iv. Tide gauge

Calibrate rod
Under vertical hydrography just like any other survey, there are problems which
are caused by standardization effect, metrological conditions, pressure,
temperature, e.t.c.
These problems include:
i. Metrological parameters like wind, temperature, e.tc
ii. Tides which cause tidal water movements/variations
iii. Sea water process like salinity
iv. Ocean circulations/movements of water
v. Seabed configurations or properties.

3.2 Types of hydrographic Surveys

a) Wharf Survey/ Shoreline survey
Purpose:
i. To ensure depth safe for docking, specify and check dredging work, monitor
silt and erosion. Dredging is the removal of silt.
ii. The vessel: small boat of 3-5m long, open and travelling at slow speed to enable
sample more points. The small boat enables it to be turned at short distances to
take more detail.
iii. Determination of the shoreline
iv. Location of shoreline details i.e. prominent features
v. Location of light houses, churches, temples, etc., to be used as reference points
later.
vi. Determination of high and low water lines for average spring tides.
 Typical scale; large scale e.g. 1;1000

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 Production:
 This should be a distance of about 100m from the dry land.
 Depth of about 50m maximum and the accuracy for the depth should be
less than 10cm and this requires an equipment of 200 kHz echo sounder.

Calibrated
sounding
chain

Lead line.

An echo-sounder is a navigation device used to ascertain water depth

or to locate underwater objects by measuring the time taken for emitted
sound waves to return from either the bottom or the object.
 Calibration: care must be taken in calibrating the instrument and
corrections for the boat-like disturbances like tides and currents made.
 Extent: about 150 m maximum
 Accuracy in horizontal: less than 1m, especially very high accuracy as
you move to the wharf
 Equipment: the sextant and a subtense bar have been used for long but
new EDM instruments like microwave and infrared are used.
 Area coverage: at least 100% coverage i.e. the entire area. The line
spacing should be 1m i.e. line spacing shortens at the shore, widens in
the deep waters.

b) Offshore Survey/ coastal survey

Purpose: To ensure safe passages for ships/boats, identify navigation hazards,
ports and harbour development and monitor erosion (coastal erosion).
 Vessel: a boat of 10-15m at a speed of about 10km/h
The offshore survey is also called the coastal survey because the portion
of the coast that is not covered in the wharf survey is included in here.

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 Fixing a vessel's position offshore

 Scale: the chart scales may range from 1:5000 to 1:20,000 which are still
large scale charting.
 Production: a Hydrographer can cover in a production of 25sqkm/day.
 Line spacing: this is wider than 500m and in the range of 100s of meters.
 Depth: the survey normally extends up to200m maximum and the
required depth accuracy is ±50cm.
 Equipment required should be about 5o kHz echo sounder.
 Extent the survey can extend to about 5okm from the shore in the deep
waters.
 Horizontal accuracy required is ±10m
 Data handling is normally automatic handling and field sheets can be
printed in the field.

b) Deep Water/ oceanic Survey

These surveys cover the waters of the open ocean in which positions are
determined entirely by astronomical observations and dead reckoning. It therefore
differs from the surveys that have been previously considered in which positions
are referred to the land.
Depicting hazards on the sea bed, exploration for hydrocarbons and other natural
resources plus measurement of currents and tides are some of the purposes of
deep ocean surveys.
Large enclosed vessels of about 50 – 100 m travelling at speeds ranging from 20 to
40km/h are used for such surveys. Chart scale is usually small. (e.g.: 1:50,000;
1:100,000).
Production: 500Km-1000km from the shoreline and 5000 sq.km per day can be
covered. Information is still collected in lines which are 10Km apart. Points on
these lines are spaced 1-2Km apart. Maximum depth is usually 5Km with a depth

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 accuracy of ±5m. Horizontal accuracy is about ±100m. Hazards are not of concern
here unlike in the previous surveys where depth is shallow.
Equipment:
Echo-sounder of about 10 KHz is used. Horizontal positioning can only be met by
GPS and astronomical positioning methods.
Data handling: automated

Note: Nautical Mile: An international unit of measurement of distance at sea equal

to 1.852 km or about 6,076 ft.

3.3 Coordinate Systems:

These are very vital in navigation as in movement on ground/roads, water and in
air. In the three cases proper navigation tools like maps/charts, positioning
devices like GPS and direction giving devices like compasses are important.
The coordinate systems can be considered into the following:
i. Earth fixed, earth centered which give positions on the ellipsoidal surface
of latitude, longitude or positions on mapping surface – eastings and
northings.
ii. Earth fixed but relative to the target. Here we are taking the reference point
and interest id direction and distance from it.
iii. The vehicle fixed (boat): is the reverse of the earth fixed but relative to the
target in that the boat it is the vehicle/boat that is fixed with reference to a
point on the earth surface.
Activities involve:
Tracking: this is concerned with determining the staring known position and track
subsequent positions as you move; direction and speed to the final position.
Accuracy in tracking (navigation) is crucial because at times destination can be missed.
Indicators of accuracy include:
 Relative accuracy
 Shift at the end point
 Resolution of equipment (this gives the final limit of measurement of the system)
 Repeatability of measurements
 Reliability
 Precision
Errors that normally affect the measurements are
 Blunders/mistakes
 Systematic errors

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  Random errors
Other indicators of accuracy are:
 Confidence regions i.e.
- Confidence circle for E,N
- Confidence sphere for a 3D i.e. including height
- Confidence ellipsoid for a 3D
- Confidence ellipse for a 3D
- Confidence diamond for a 3D
A confidence region is one where measurements of the same quantity are likely to fall.
Another factor that affects the accuracy of measurements if Geometrical Dilution of
precision e.g.to fix point C from the figure below two surveyors, X and Y perform the
following:
X: D & E to fix C and Y: A&B to fix C
C Results of X are used because rays from A and b
may
Converge before the exact mark for C.
D E
A B Points can be fixed: (i) Graphically or (ii)
analytically

i.e. from equations and solved by least squares method.

3.3.1 Geodetic datums

The most straightforward way to describe a position in three-dimensional space is by
means of a Cartesian coordinate system. Such a coordinate system is generally known as
a geodetic datum. The coordinates X, Y, Z are defined with respect to some reference point.
Although the reference point can be arbitrarily selected, for a global coordinate system
usually the centre of the Earth is chosen. Instead of using a Cartesian system it is often
more convenient to use a curvilinear system, with coordinates latitude ρ, longitude λ and
height h. This allows for a separation between 'horizontal' position (ρ, λ) and vertical
component h. A coordinate surface is defined as the surface on which one of the coordinates
is constant.

3.3.2 Vertical datums

The elevation of a point can only be expressed with respect to the elevation of another
point. It could be related to the centre of the Earth, the mean surface of the ocean, the
orbit of a satellite or simply a bench mark. The chosen reference to which elevations are

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referred to is called a vertical datum. Currently there are about 100-200 vertical datums
in the world.
Orthometric heights are defined with respect to the geoid which is an equipotential
surface approximated by Mean Sea Level (MSL). The elevation of MSL could only be
determined by fitting a level surface to observations of the mean level of the sea surface
over the oceans. The mean elevation of the sea surface at a particular location is thus not
necessarily the same as the elevation of MSL. MSL experiences long term variations.
It is useful to define various average tidal elevations that can be used in comparing tidal
characteristics from place to place.
 MWL: Mean Water Level is an average of all hourly water levels over the available
period of record.
 MSL: Mean Sea Level is the ideal equipotential surface that could be obtained by
fitting a level surface to observations of the mean level of the sea surface.
 HHWLT: Higher High Water, Large Tide is the average of the highest high waters,
one from each of 19 years (period of regression of lunar nodes) of prediction.
 HHWMT: Higher High Water, Mean Tide is the average of all the higher high
waters from 19 years of prediction.
 LLWMT: Lower Low Water, Mean Tide is the average of all the lower low waters
from 19 years of prediction.
 LLWLT: Lower Low Water, Large Tide is the average of the lowest low waters, one
from each of 19 years of prediction.
 MLLWS: Mean Lower Low Water Spring, the average of the lower low water
heights over a period. It is so low that during average meteorological conditions
the occurring depth will seldom be less than charted.
 LAT: Lowest Astronomical Tide is not an observed tide, but the lowest tide that
can be expected to occur under average meteorological conditions and under any
combination of astronomical conditions.
MWL is the only surface whose elevation is determined in practice by the straightforward
application of the definition. MWL departs from MSL for many reasons: surface slopes
due to majors currents, prevailing winds, trends in precipitation, evaporation, freezing,
melting, heating and cooling, etc. The remaining surfaces were calculated from semi-
empirical formulae using the harmonic coefficients of the major tidal constituents. At
present, all the surfaces can be generated with 19 years predictions applying directly the
definitions.

For reasons of navigational safety, depths and elevations shown on hydrographic charts
must be below and above specified datum surfaces

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  Depths are referenced to a low water datum.
 Elevations are referenced to a high water datum.
Chart Datum is the datum to which each of the following are referenced:
 depths on a published chart
 tide height predictions
 most water level measurements
Sounding datum is the intermediate datum chosen during a hydrographic survey using an
instantaneous or short term average of water. It is chosen rather arbitrarily to facilitate an
immediate start for a sounding survey, and it may or may not remain as the Chart Datum.
Datum for elevations on a chart is the water surface to which the charted elevations of
prominent targets (lights, beacons, steeples, chimneys, etc.) and clearances under
obstacles (power lines, bridges, etc.) are referenced.
POSITIONING (DETERMINATION OF E, N/ ρ, λ)
For this section refer to your GPS and GNSS Lecture materials
Area to consider:
Line of position, surface of position and their mathematical models
o Other lines of position are bearing LOP, Distance LOP, angle LOP
Satellite positioning- GPS
o Concept of GPS
o GPS –Segments
o Problems that affect GPS signals
o Ranging with GPS
o Phase measurements and their problems
o Receiver designs
o Static, kinematic, on the fly, RTK, autonomous positioning, DGPS
Doppler
Inertial positioning system/ inertial navigation system
Acoustic positioning
Electronic positioning system
Radar positioning, Marine radar

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TIDAL THEORY
4.1 Tides
“Tides” should not be confused with “tidal streams”, although loose terminology has
undoubtedly come to use the word “tide” for both. A tide is a periodic vertical movement
in the level of the sea, whereas a tidal stream, even though resulting from a tide, is a
periodic horizontal movement. Tides affect the depth of water at a place; tidal streams
affect navigation courses.
An ocean tide is a periodic motion of water due to the differential gravitational forces of
celestial bodies (mostly Moon and Sun) upon different parts of the rotating Earth. In
consequence of the solar cycle, at times of new and full moon, at a place the highest high
waters (HHW) and the lowest low waters (LLW) of a tide cycle.

a) Solar and Lunar tides

Solar tides: the tides which are caused due to the force of attraction between the sun and
the earth are called solar tides.
Lunar tides: The tides which are caused due to the force of attraction between the moon
and the earth are called lunar tides. The moon being the nearest celestial body to the earth,
it is a major tide producing body.
b) Spring and neap tides
The combined effect of the solar tide and lunar tide is important especially at the new
moon when the earth, moon and sun are in a straight line. In this position the
gravitational force of the sun is in the same direction as that of the moon and thus both
tides are added. Such tides are called spring tides. Due to the phase of the moon, spring
tides occur twice a month, about the time of new and full moon.

After ½ day. There occurs a difference of 90º in the longitudes of the sun and moon. The
gravitational force of the sun opposes that of the moon. In this position, the crest of the
moon tide coincides the trough of the solar tide. The resultant tide is the neap tide.
During neap tides, the high tide is lower and low tide is higher than usual.
Spring tide occurs at times of new and full Moon when the Sun, Moon and Earth are in
line. The attractive forces are acting in the same direction, and the resulting tide is a
higher tide.
Neap tide occurs at times of first and third quarter of the Moon when the attractive forces
due to the Sun and the Moon are at right angles to each other, and the resulting tide is
lower than average.
There are thus two separate tide cycles: height fluctuations from SPRINGS to NEAPS
twice each in a lunar month (29 days).
Specifically, four classes of tides can be distinguished:
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 i. Diurnal (D): only one HW (High Water) and one LW (Low Water) each lunar day.
ii. Semi-Diurnal (SD): two nearly equal HW's and two nearly equal LW's
approximately uniformly spaced over each lunar day.
iii. Mixed, Mainly Diurnal (MD): either two unequal HW's and LW's at irregular
spacing over a lunar day, or only one HW and one LW in a day.
iv. Mixed, Mainly Semi-Diurnal (MSD): two HW's and two LW's each lunar day, with
irregular height and time intervals.

Priming and lagging the tides are the effects when the Moon is in positions between
quadrature and new or full.

4.2 Tide datum

The hydrographic surveys in tidal areas should be referenced to a base elevation or chart
datum, normally taken as the lowest astronomical tide level or LAT, and also referred to
as LLWS (Lower Low Water Spring) in some countries. This level is the result of the effect
of celestial bodies only and does not include the additional effects of:
 atmospheric pressure (low pressure increases tide level);
 storm surge (increases tide level);
 wind (landward wind increases tide level); and
 Heavy rainfall (increased flow in estuaries increases tide level).

Tide datum

In areas where this is not possible, hydrographic surveys in tidal areas should be
referenced to a base elevation which has been determined by measuring the tide heights
over the Tidal Datum Epoch. The Tidal Datum Epoch is the specific 19-year period or
Metonic cycle (where the moon returns to exactly the same place at the same longitude
and against the same constellation in the sky with the same phase) over which tide
observations are taken and reduced to obtain mean values (e.g. Mean Lower Low Water
or MLLW) for tidal datums.
Due to the long-term rise in global sea level and land subsidence, tidal datum readings
are constantly changing and require continuous monitoring and updating. To facilitate
the process of establishing tidal datum readings, tide stations are operated at various
locations (at all major and secondary port cities) for long- (primary), medium-
(secondary), and short-term (tertiary) durations.

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4.3 Primary tide stations
Long-term tide stations are referred to as primary control tide stations. These are tide
stations at which continuous observations have been made over a minimum 19-year
Metonic cycle. Their purpose is to provide data for computing accepted datums needed
for a project and the predicted tides are normally published as a tide almanac.

Typical predicted tides for a total station showing the neap tide

Tidal datum readings may also be determined by recovery of nearby tidal benchmarks
from a former datum determination or by new tidal observations conducted in
accordance with the correct procedures.

4.4 Tidal streams

The tidal phenomenon gives rise to tidal streams – periodic horizontal movements of
the water. In Open Ocean this horizontal movement is either non-existent or negligible,
but in inshore and coastal waters where there is any appreciable vertical movement a
horizontal movement also can be expected.
The cause of tidal streams is primarily a change in water levels. The average velocity of
tidal streams depends upon the average height of the advancing tide wave: in Deep
Ocean where this height is small the stream rate is either very feeble or negligible; where
the height is large the velocity will be correspondingly great. As a tidal stream encounters
any obstruction to its to-and-fro movement, its direction and velocity are affected.

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In the absence of tides, feeble sea currents may be experienced during strong sea storms.
These currents, though not very great when compared to tidal streams, should be
observed closely because they usually carry weeds uprooted from offshore areas.

Currents in general make navigation more difficult but not impossible. In the presence of
seaweed or flotsam (including timber and vegetation carried down by rivers), however,
navigation may be hindered by weeds fouling up propellers. Flotsam, or floating debris,
may also prove troublesome if it piles up inside a harbour by a prevailing tidal stream or
sea current.

When measuring currents at sea, the following points should be observed:

 the general direction and duration of the storm or incoming waves, if the currents are
storm generated;
 if seaweed appears, after how many hours of storm does it make its first appearance;
and
 If flotsam or driftwood appears, their landfall, in many instances one particular spot
or bay may accumulate more debris than adjacent ones, in which case it should be
discarded as a potential harbour site.

4.5 Mean Sea level (MSL)

MSL at selected points along the shore of any large country is required to be determined
so that all bench marks in the country refer to same datum. MSL is determined by taking
hourly tidal observations over a period of 19 years. However, for ordinary purpose, it can
also be determined by taking hourly observations extending over a period of one lunar
month. The level of high and low waters are observed for one lunar month and the mean
of an equal number of high and low water tide readings are taken as the mean sea level.

Tide Gauges:
The gauges which are used to measure the height of tidal water over the areas to be
surveyed are known as tide gauges. The most commonly used tide gauges are classified
under:
i. Non-registering type tide gauges which include staff gauge, float gauge and
weight gauge.
ii. Self registering type gauges.
4.6 Soundings
The measurements of depth below the water surface are called soundings. Soundings are
taken to determine the general topography of the bottom surface of water bodies.

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Sounding datum is the level (plane) to which soundings are reduced during the course
of hydrographic survey.
Soundings are required for the following purpose:
i. To prepare accurate charts for navigation
ii. To determine the quantities of the materials to be dredged and the areas where
dredged material is to be dumped.
iii. To locate the areas from where material is to be dredged.
iv. To design the works i.e. break water, sea wall, e.t.c.

Equipments for taking soundings:

These are grouped under:
a) Shore signals and buoys
b) Sounding equipments which include
i. Sounding boats row launches
ii. Sounding rod or poles
iii. Lead lines
iv. Sounding machines which include wedell’s sounding machine and
Fathometers (echo-sounding)

Hydrographic Angle Measuring Instruments (sextant)

Rowing boats, theodolites or prismatic compasses are generally not suitable for
measuring angles from sounding boats due to their unstability. A sextant is well suited
to hydrographic work for measuring angles in any plane. It is the most hand instrument
designed so far. The sextant which is used in hydrographic surveying is known as the
sounding sextant. It differs from the astronomical sextant.

4.7 Error Sources in hydrography

The use of non-vertical beams introduces additional uncertainties caused by incorrect
knowledge of the ship’s orientation at the time of transmission and reception of sonar
echoes. Uncertainties associated with the development of the position of an individual
beam must include the following:
a) Positioning system errors;
b) Range and beam errors;
c) The error associated with the ray path model (including the sound speed profile), and
the beam pointing angle;
d) The error in vessel heading;
e) System pointing errors resulting from transducer misalignment;
f) Sensor location;

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g) Vessel motion sensor errors i.e. roll and pitch;
h) Sensor position offset errors; and
i) Time synchronization / latency.

Contributing factors to the vertical uncertainty include:

a) Vertical datum errors;
b) Vertical positioning system errors;
c) Tidal measurement errors, including co-tidal errors where appropriate;
d) Instrument errors;
e) Sound speed errors;
f) Ellipsoidal / vertical datum separation model errors;
g) Vessel motion errors, i.e. roll, pitch and heave;
h) Vessel draught;
i) Vessel settlement and squat;
j) Sea floor slope; and
k) Time synchronization / latency.

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