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Risk Engineering
Guideline –
Non-destructive testing
of machines and systems

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2 Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems
1. General.
Machines, systems and components are growing in complexity, are
subject to ever higher amounts of stress, and are often expected to
withstand a wide range of loads. For example, fluctuations in
temperature, vibrations and various compressive loads can
compromise the service life of materials and lead to alterations within
the material that may pose a safety risk or cause outages. Non-
destructive testing is intended to reduce the occurrence of damage
and the resulting unscheduled outages, thus increasing the
availability of machines.
In quality-control processes, non-destructive testing is employed to
monitor quality standards. By learning as much as possible from the
test results, these standards can be maintained at a high level.
With the help of nondestructive testing,
hidden defects in materials, components
andconstruction can be recognized early
enough both before and during
operation, sothat their unforeseen
failure is prevented.
In the pre-operational phase and the production process itself, the
quality of the products being manufactured and the operational
reliability of the production system must be ensured at all times. By
employing NDT, the quality of a product can be monitored and
secured over the entire production process. For this purpose,
automated NDT installations are used in many production processes.
Both destructive and non-destructive methods can be employed to
achieve the desired results. However, due to the complexity and high
quality of many components, non-destructive tests are usually
preferable.
Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems
2. What is non-destructive testing?
In contrast with destructive material testing, non-destructive testing
(NDT) refers to test methods which do not affect or impair the
material or test specimen’s fitness for purpose in any way.
NDT can be used to identify hidden flaws in materials, components
and assemblies early enough both before and during operation, in
order to prevent unforeseen failure. Accidents that put lives at risk
and/or cause serious damage to property and/or the environment can
thus be avoided.
NDT is used in almost all industrial sectors for plant maintenance and
inspection in order to ensure operational reliability. Moreover, NDT is
an important tool for quality control and assurance in the production
process.
It helps to detect and sort out defective components at an early
stage. The quality grade of individual elements or entire components
can be monitored. However, modern technologies are also able to
optimise the production process itself and to reduce the reject rate.
3. Advantages of NDT for proprietors/
business owners, operators and insurance.
For the proprietors or operators of a technical installation, non-
destructive testing should be seen as integral to the overall workflow
and part of the upkeep. The principal goal is to avoid damage and
thus prevent the following negative outcomes:
• danger to personnel,
• costly repairs and downtimes,
• loss of customers due to missed deliveries,
• liability for consequential damages to third-party property,
• permanent quality control measures.
NDT offers advantages particularly in the following areas:
3.1 Occupational Safety
Occupational safety is a hazard-free working environment Condition
during the exercise of the profession. The conditions on people
related effects of hazards are personal injury as a result of injuries
(accidents), occupational diseases and other damaging influences on
health.
Of course, the respective national standards and regulations must be
observed.
3
3.2 Monitoring of components
When it comes to the monitoring of components that are in service,
there are two types to consider:
• components subject to damage on a continuous basis (e.g. due to
corrosion, erosion or vibrations) in which testing is used to
monitor the progress of such damage,
• components whose hazards only become known when cases of
damage (among other incidents) arise, and which are then
inspected specifically. It is also necessary to determine and
analyse the cause of damages in order to gather information for
specific tests.
Continuous damage caused by corrosion, for example, cannot be
avoided in various components used in the chemical industry. The
nature and extent of damage can be assessed on the basis of
preliminary tests or operational experience.
In such cases, NDT is employed to monitor damage progression and
so offers the capability of preventing unforeseen failures. For
example, significantly more extensive damage can be averted by
changing certain operating conditions.
This applies to the early detection of damage as well. NDT can be
used to identify more minor damage such as cracks, wall thickness
deviations, and other flaws so they can be repaired before an
unscheduled outage, operational interruption or other incident
occurs. This also applies to components that were not initially
considered to be at risk. The findings are gained from cases of
damage and when determining their causes.
Changing the design, material or specific loads applied can give rise
to new causes of damage, at least as long as technical development
continues. Damage detected in good time (e.g. cracks) can be
assessed and monitored in terms of its impact. The necessary repairs
must then be planned in advance and carried out at a time that would
not cause an interruption of normal production activities (or would
only cause a brief interruption) if the relevant installation is a
production line, for example.
4 Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems
3.3 Prevention of business interruptions
Business interruption can be very costly if there are no alternative
facilities in place. They are insurable, but this does not solve the
problem, and only moves it elsewhere. Depending on the nature of
business, the losses incurred or the insurance payments falling due
may account for between 20% and 80% of turnover.
High business interruption costs can always arise when part of the
key production facility fails. For these cases in particular,
precautionary NDT examinations are appropriate for the early
detection of damage.
One example of this is damage to the preliminary press in a chipboard
factory. A breakdown of this press would put the entire factory out of
action, costing the operators 80,000 euros each day. It was only
possible to replace the damaged parts after 6 months. This damage
was avoided by taking a number of measures, one of which was NDT,
whereby the progress of damage was assessed every weekend and, if
necessary, repairs were carried out immediately thereafter. Compared
to the high costs of business interruptions, the outlay involved in
testing and repairs was negligible.
3.4. Service life forecasts
NDT provides important information about the remaining service life
of machines, components and system parts. Equipped with this
information, businesses can adapt operating and capital expenditure
needs to operational service life on a medium and long-term basis.
Because this involves procurement costs for long-term investments
(capital expenditures) such as equipment, machines, presses or other
systems, and because these are liquidity-related costs, financing can
be planned in the long term, e.g. by taking out loans or raising equity
capital. Other costs which have to be paid from the operating
expenses (such as those required for repairs and maintenance) can
also be planned more effectively.
Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems 5
3.5. Summary 4. Machines and systems.
The profitability of machines and installations is largely a function of NDT is used for quality assurance during new production and for
their operational reliability and availability. In order to achieve this, it machinery and systems to safeguard production and prevent damage.
is important to identify damage as early as possible. Carrying out Quality assurance during new production is normally carried out by
regular examinations on components of machines subject to dynamic the manufacturer, so the following section focuses on examinations
loads helps to reduce costs by early detection of damage. of production machines and systems at the operator’s premises.
• Minor damage is repaired during overhaul. Examples of some production machines and plants and their risk
• Machine availability is increased. areas are shown in Tab. 2.
• Temporary repairs can be used to continue production until the
scheduled downtime in order to minimise business interruption.
• Test findings can be used by operators and machine manufacturers
to improve the design.
• It provides information to asset management for medium and
long-term planning of maintenance budgets, replacement
procurement and other capital costs.
Fig. 1 and 2: Hydraulic punching machine with cracked press stand
Fig. 3 and 4: Hydraulic monoblock press with cracked joint
6 Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems
Risk areas in machines, presses and systems
Machines/systems
Shredder
Single-shaft shredder
Dual-shaft shredder
Scrap shears
Scrap presses
High-speed presses
Feed and discharge
carriages
Continuous presses
Extrusion presses
Stamping and forming presses
Some transfer presses
Heat forming presses
Injection moulding machines
Hydraulic machines
Toggle-lever machines
Forge rollers
Tab. 1: Risk areas in machines, presses and systems
Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems 7
5. Choosing a test method.
Brief description Risk areas To ensure the effective use of NDT, the right test method and
• Machine frame
conditions must be chosen. This means that it depends on the type,
Machine for shredding and treating various kinds of waste
materials (ferrous, non-ferrous, household waste, industrial • Shafts location, orientation and size of the expected inadmissible defects. At
and plastic waste, etc.) • Drive the beginning of each non-destructive test, consideration must be
given as to which defects are possible in the component. The test
• Weld seams and joints with shears frame
chosen must be appropriate for this. This requires knowledge of the
• Cylinder fastenings
• Piston rod and flange connections
material’s properties, the manufacturing process and – with regard to
High-volume and bulky pieces of scrap are prepared for the
re-melting process by being pressed and cut into smaller • Blade fixture the admissibility of defect sizes – the stress applied to the material.
pieces. • Trough and lid fastening
• Tension rod Depending on the information gained, test conditionsand
• Feed-in, side and holding-down tray requirements will include different test methods used as listed in
• Weld seams and joints with press frame
Table 1.
• Cylinder fastenings
High-volume scrap (e.g. waste from stamping, sheet metal
• Piston rod and flange connections
scrap, light mixed scrap) is prepared for the re-melting
• Tension rod
process by being pressed into compact packets.
• 
Pre-compressor, intermediate-compressor and final com-
pressor tray
Method Main applications and examples
Coating of wood materials • Weld seams and joints with press frame
Potential output: 140 to 200 units per hour Cycle times of • Cylinder and table fastenings Magnetic particle inspection (MT) Surface crack inspection for ferromagnetic materials.
15 s to 2 min. • Transport holes
Production of composite panels • Screw fittings Dye penetrant inspection (PT) Surface crack inspection, pores
Cycle times of 2 to 10 min. • Weld seams and joints with feed and discharge carriages
Crack testing, testing for internal defects, testing of the combination of different materials, weld seam testing, wall thickness
Ultrasound test (UT)
• Heating plate measurement
• Steel strip (high risk during initial assembly)
Continuous wood press for the production of panelling made Eddy current inspection (ET) Crack inspection, positive material identification, material changes
• Roll bars
of wood, e.g. chipboard, MDF, OSB and HDF boards.
• Guide pulleys Visual inspection incl. video endoscopy (VT) Surface inspection, crack testing, corrosion
• Friction lining
On-site hardness testing (HT) Hardness measurement, positive material identification
• Tension rod
Extrusion is a forming process for producing rods, wires, • Cylinder Surface-replica testing Surface inspection, documentation
pipes and complex profiles. In this process, a billet heated to
• Die
forming temperature is pressed through a die with a pressing On-site metallography Microstructure examination as well for replica technique
tool. • Vacuum chamber
• Machine frame Surface roughness measurement Measurement of surface roughness, surface appraisal
• Press frame Coating-thickness measurement For determining the layer thickness of coatings and metallic plating on surfaces
Suitable particularly for series production, for cutting, dra- • Ram
wing, moulding and forming in various industries, such as • Tool table Radiographic inspection (RT) Volume defects, crack testing, weld seam inspection
automotive, electrical, household appliances, furniture and • 
Depending on construction
ancillary construction trades Tension rod, gearing, connecting rod, hydraulic cylinder, Leak testing (LT) Crack testing, leakages
Toggle lever, flywheel, screw Thermographic testing (TT) Measurement and visualisation of surface temperatures. Detection of temperature distribution anomalies, e.g. due to corrosion
During heat forming, the input material is heated to the • Press frame Positive material identification (PMI) Material identification, e.g. with X-ray fluorescence analysis, optical emission spectrometry, infrared spectrometry
temperature at which recrystallisation occurs parallel to • Tool holder, tool table
deformation. The material does not undergo any hardening • 
Depending on construction Acoustic emission (AT) Detection of damage processes
and can be formed again almost without any limitation. Cylinder, hammer, press ram, tension rod, drive
Tab. 2: Test methods NDT
• Tension rod
Injection moulding machines are used to manufacture ready- • Fixed clamping plate
to-use parts from aluminium or from plastic (in cords or
• Moving clamping plate
granulate form). The required moulding compound is prepa-
• End plate
red in the injection unit and then injected into a negative
mould. • Toggle lever
• Screw
• Machine frame
Forge rollers are designed for the preforming of both round • Rolling trunnion
and rectangular materials. The blank is fed radially to the • Tension rod
rollers by means of a manipulator and formed into individual • Gearing
sectors. • Cardan shaft drive
• Adjustment (screw, hydraulics)
8 Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems 9

6. Conducting NDT.
The way in which NDT is conducted depends largely on the following
factors:
• the test object,
• the test method and equipment chosen,
• ambient conditions.
The following conditions generally must also be met before carrying
out testing:
• Smachine/system out of service,
• machine put into a safe condition,
• safe working conditions,
• clean inspection areas,
• certification of testing personnel, e.g. in line with ISO 9712.
To prepare for the NDT inspection, it is essential to become familiar
with the type of loads and risk areas of the machines and systems.
The type, shape, direction and location of damage (e.g. cracks) that
can arise should also be determined. In addition, the accessibility of
the area to be inspected must be checked in order to identify
components that may need to be dismantled or moved to certain
positions. Moreover, it may be necessary to develop, build or modify
special testing equipment.
Finally, the personnel and time required to carry out the NDT
examinations is calculated. This will depend on the test object, the
number of risk areas, the accessibility and the downtimes scheduled
by the operator. Occupational safety and regulatory requirements
must be observed.
7. Scope of testing.
In some industries, the scope of the testing will be constrained by
applicable standards and statutory regulations.
When it comes to testing in the field of machine and plant
construction, the scope of testing is determined by the lessons
learned from damage and by knowledge of the stresses applied to
equipment during operation.
Non-destructive tests are usually relatively expensive, so they can
also have a significant effect on the cost of products. Cost pressures
therefore force us to keep the scope of the testing as small as
possible. However, this does not mean deliberately admitting defects
that could lead to damage. If this results in danger to persons, those
responsible for admitting such defects would risk being accused of
gross negligence and would face criminal charges. Moreover, from a
financial perspective, it is worth noting that the damage caused by a
defect in the product generally entails higher costs than the NDT
inspections that could have been conducted to identify such defects.
The effectiveness of NDT depends largely on choosing the right test
methods and conditions. Knowledge of the probability of detecting
defects should also be employed, and personnel must be familiar with
the manufacturing process and material properties.
Considering the importance of experience to improving quality and
thus also reducing the amount of testing required, there is no doubt
that qualified personnel must be employed for these duties.
8. Limits of methods. When measuring the transit time of an ultrasonic pulse between both
ends of the bolt, changes can be detected when tightening the tie rod
The method is chosen in such a way that the intended objective of the The running time decreases linearly with elongation in the elastic
test is achieved with sufficient reliability and as little effort as range, with two shares contributing to this:
possible. This is not always easy to achieve in day-to-day NDT work. 1. the direct extension of the tie rod ∆ L and
The reliability of a method depends on many influencing factors, 2. the acoustoelastic effect i.e. the degradation ∆ v of the sound
including those that are independent of the process, such as the velocity v due to the elastic Stress in the tie rod.
human factor.
Furthermore, the design, size of defects, misalignment, material
thickness, test temperature, material, etc. can limit the detection of
flaws and defects.
9. Special applications of NDT by exploiting
physical properties.
Bolts/tie-rods measure pre-stress with ultrasonic
Many components in plants, machines and vehicles are joined
together by screws. Insufficient tightened screws can cause
considerable damage to leading man and machine. When using e.g.
torque spanners different clamping forces occur by friction, settling
forces and flow behaviour. The existing clamping force can be
adjusted after tightening with mechanical funds are insufficiently
audited. With safety-relevant components it is required, to check the
clamping force carefully, as this is the only parameter relevant for the
strength of the joint. This can be reliably performed using ultrasonic.
In mechanical engineering, for example, the repair of cracked press
frame tie-rods is used for the reception of pressing forces. When
tensioning the tie-rods the benefits of monitoring and control of the
Preload measurement with ultrasonic become clearly.

The prestressing measurement with ultrasonic is based on the

acoustoelastic effect. This effect describes the influence of elastic
stresses on the sound velocity in the material. In the case of a
prestressed tie rod, a uniaxial stress condition is present. This
influences the sound velocity of longitudinal sound waves, which
spread out along the axis of the tie-rods.
Measurements are made according to the non-destructive material
testing method known as impulse-echo method (Fig. 10): A probe is
coupled to one face end of the tie-rod. It emits an ultrasonic pulse
which passes the screw in its longitudinal direction, on the opposite
end it is reflected as an echo and finally it arrives back at the probe.

Fig. 5 and 6: Forging hammer with cracked joint radius

Fig. 9: Repair with a tie rod Fig. 10: Pulse-echo method with transit time measurement at zero
Fig. 7 and 8: Gear unit of a multi-stage press with cracks in the tooth flanks crossing
10 Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems
When measuring the pre-stress with ultrasonic equipment, the run
time from the emission of the pulse to the arrival of the echo at the
probe is measured. First, measurements are taken on the untightened
tie rod. After conversion considering the material-specific sound
velocity, the result is displayed and saved as a reference length. The
tie rod is then tightened, which causes the run time to increase due to
the acousto-elastic effect. The difference from the reference
measurement allows calculating the corresponding elongation, stress
and pre-stress.
The stress in the tightened tie rod can be checked at any time later.
This also allows proving setting and flow phenomena and changes in
stress under load and taking suitable action. As the temperature
exerts decisive influence on the measurement accuracy, it is
important to ensure that the temperatures are approximately the
same when checking the pre-stress at a later date.
Some of the pre-stress and settling values are controlled and
measured while applying the pre-stress to the tie rod by means of
resistance strain gauges. As the resistance strain gauges stuck on the
shank of the tie rods may fail after a short time due to certain
operating conditions, a subsequent pre-stress check is not possible.
Measuring the pre-stress with ultrasonic equipment offers the
advantage of being reproducible and just as accurate at any time.
Ultrasonic testing of the bonding between different materials
The bonding between rubber and metal is of decisive importance for
various components. In paper machines, the detachment of the
rubber coating from the roller jacket during operation is usually only
noticed when the detached parts fly away. Early detection of faulty
bonding allows avoiding such damage by replacing the rollers in
question. The bond between rubber and steel is difficult. Usually a
two- or even three-layer structure is used. A test method was
therefore developed that allows detecting bonding defects in good
time.
This risk is minimised by the prophylactic use of ultrasonic bond
testing. Early detection of beginning detachments enables well-aimed
replacement of rollers.
Ultrasonic testing of the rubber/metal bond is made more difficult by
high and heavily changing sound attenuation as well as by small
differences in the reflection behaviour of the sound pulses at the
interface. Such testing is possible at low testing frequencies if the
phase angle is used as the criterion of reflection at the interface and
not the echo amplitude. In case of faulty bonding, the phase of the
reflected pulses is reversed by 180° compared to those from the
interface with good bonding.
Due to the special requirements, suitable ultrasonic devices and
sensors must be selected or developed. The test method has already
proven itself in many practical applications.
Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems 11
12. Additional information. 13. European standards, guidelines
This data sheet is not exhaustive and does not exempt you from the
and regulations.
obligation to comply with legal measures as well as official
regulations and requirements. Any liability is excluded. The table below contains an extract of the generally applicable
standards pertaining to NDT.
Standards and guidelines are to be observed and applied in their
Fig. 11: Good bonding Fig. 12: Poor or no bonding currently valid version. For the individual non-destructive test methods, EN standards,
guidelines, data sheets and regulations are published which describe
the general principles, instruments, test equipment and necessary
10. Test cycle. comparator test blocks.
Even under normal operating conditions, cracks or similar defects can In addition, special applications and requirements (e.g. for pressure
never be completely prevented in machines and systems subject to vessels) are particularly described in information sheets, guidelines
dynamic loads, so depending on the examination results, load, and regulations.
utilisation and whether there are alternative production facilities, we
recommend that you define a suitable test cycle for the components
to be examined non-destructively.
Experience has shown that suitable test cycles last between 1 and 3
years.
These inspection intervals do not exempt the operator, the employer
or other persons from compliance with official and legal regulations.
11. Risk-based inspection (RBI).
Avoiding unforeseeable production losses through improved
risk management
Inspection plans are prepared especially in the oil, gas and
petrochemical industries and contribute to avoiding failures of
technical systems, to the health of employees and the protection of
the environment. The preferred method here is risk-based inspection.
The procedure of risk-based inspection serves for identifying and
assessing industrial risks, for improving the availability and safety of
plants and for reducing repair costs. To assess the risks, parameters
such as corrosion, mechanical loads (pressure, vibrations, stresses,
etc.) as well as the production method or process are taken into
account.
The use of software allows optimising inspections and maintenance General
plans on the basis of a risk analysis.
Update Document Year Title
While risk-based inspection not only considers the condition of plant 15.4 EN 1330-1 2014 Non-destructive testing – Terminology – Part 1: List of general terms
components, but also the consequences for people, the environment
and the cost, the so-called time-based inspection defines certain time – EN 1330-2 1998 Non-destructive testing – Terminology – Part 2: Terms common to the non-destructive testing methods
intervals and condition-based inspection looks at the condition of 12.12. EN ISO 9712 2021
system components and then determines the inspection interval. Non-destructive testing – Qualification and certification of NDT personnel
15.3 Beiblatt 1 2014
Many losses in the past have shown that it is important to ensure that 11.3 CEN/TS 15053 2005 Non-destructive testing – Recommendations for discontinuities-types in test specimens for examination
the requirements of RBI plans are met. It has become increasingly
15.11 EN ISO 18490 2015 Non-destructive testing – Evaluation of vision acuity of NDT personnel
apparent that RBI plans exist, but are not implemented, e.g. due to
cost and personnel savings. Non-destructive testing – Code of practice for the approval of NDT personnel by recognised third-party organisa-
10.4 CEN/TR 15589 2007
tions under the provisions of Directive 97/23/EC
10.4 CEN ISO/TR 25107 2006 Non-destructive testing – Guidelines for NDT training syllabuses
10.4 CEN ISO/TR 25108 2006 Non-destructive testing – Guidelines for NDT personnel training organizations
Tab. 3: Abstract general standards NDT
12 Risk Engineering Guideline: Non-destructive testing of machines and systems

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