Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409

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Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives

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research-interdisciplinary-perspectives

Investigating the state of road vehicle emissions in Africa: A case study of

Ghana and Rwanda
G.K. Ayetor a, b, *, Innocent Mbonigaba c, Joshua Ampofo a, b, Albert Sunnu a, b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana
b
The Brew-Hammond Energy Centre, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rwanda Polytechnic/Integrated Polytechnic Regional College, Kigali, Rwanda

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The estimated economic cost of premature deaths in 2013 from air pollution in Africa was USD 450 billion. The
Roadworthiness economic cost might become uncontrollable if radical policy changes are not implemented soon. Particulate
Vehicle standard matter emission is mostly attributed to road transport and power generation worldwide. This paper examines the
Emissions
state and adequacy of fuel and vehicle standards prevalent across the African continent. Experimental emissions
Fuel standard
Vehicles in use
tests were conducted on 200 vehicles each in Rwanda and Ghana to ascertain compliance to local and inter­
Africa national standards. The result showed that even some new vehicles failed the emission tests while almost all the
diesel cars tested in both countries failed the international standard. It was discovered that only five African
countries have emission standards, most of which were not being implemented. The results also show that while
there are approximately 72 million vehicles in use in Africa, only seven countries are responsible for 70% of
greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation in Africa is growing at a rate of 7%
annually. Poor fuel quality, aging vehicle fleet, and lack of mandatory roadworthy emission tests were to blame
for the deteriorating transport emissions. More than 50% of African countries have fuel quality worse than
European fuel quality predating 1992. The study recommended the UK’s emission standard for the annual in-
service emission testing and Euro 4 standards for both fuel and new vehicle standards.

1. Introduction
Several studies have confirmed the effect of air pollution on human
health all over the world.
It is responsible for at least 9 million annual deaths worldwide, 85%
of which are in developing countries (Brauer et al., 2016, Newell et al.,
2017, Lelieveld et al., 2015, Lelieveld et al., 2019). In Africa, about
600,000 deaths a year are associated with air pollution (UNenviron­
ment, 2016). Transport is the fastest-growing source of fossil fuel carbon
dioxide emissions in the world and is responsible for 24% of direct
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fuel combustion (IEA, 2020, Siskos
and Moysoglou, 2019). Other pollutants from vehicle emissions include
SOx (oxides of sulfur), NOx (oxides of nitrogen), NMVOC (non-methane
volatile organic compounds), carbon monoxide (CO), NH3 (ammonia
compounds), and particulate matter (PM). Vehicle in use worldwide is
estimated to be 1.3 billion (Ventura et al., 2020). Original equipment
manufacturers over the years have relied on technology to reduce
vehicle emissions. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), three-way catalytic
converter (TWC), lean NOx traps (LNT) and Selective Catalytic Reduc­
tion (SCR) are some of the technologies which have been installed in
vehicles to reduce NOx and CO2 emissions (GerMan, 2012, Zhu et al.,
2020). Variable geometry turbocharger (VGT), Diesel Particulate Filters
(DPF), Diesel Oxidation Catalysts (DOC) technologies are currently
being relied on for PM emission control in Euro 6 diesel engines (Let­
mathe and Suares, 2020). As with all machines, the efficiencies of these
technologies reduce with age due to wear and tear. Unfortunately,
countries in Africa and other developing countries are at the receiving
end of outdated technologies due to low purchasing power and lack of
industrialization. The United Nations Environmental program estimated
that 70% of used light-duty vehicles are exported to developing coun­
tries of which 40% is imported by Africa (Baskin et al., 2020). Besides,
most countries that import or assemble these cars in Africa have no
emissions standards that will regulate the kind of emission technology to
be installed in these cars. Also, the annual vehicle in-service testing
regime does not require emissions testing. As a result, good vehicle
maintenance to ensure efficient operation of emission-related

* Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana.
E-mail addresses: gkkayetor@knust.edu.gh, kafuiayetor@yahoo.co.uk (G.K. Ayetor).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2021.100409
Received 26 February 2021; Received in revised form 1 May 2021; Accepted 10 June 2021
Available online 18 June 2021
2590-1982/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
G.K. Ayetor et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409

technologies even when present has not been a priority. There is little
literature if any that examines the state of road vehicle emissions and the
standards that regulate them. The data on vehicle in use in Africa is
sparse. The vehicle fleet, standards, and legislation in place in African
countries need to be investigated to determine the way forward in
curbing air pollution from road transportation. Another major contri­
bution to transportation emissions is bad fuel quality (Hirota and
Kashima, 2020). The high sulfur content of fuel renders any advanced
emission system useless. In 2020, it was discovered that the sulfur
content of fuel sold in Nigeria was 204 times above recommended levels
for advanced emission systems (SDN, 2020, Africanews, 2020, Guard­
ian, 2020). In 2015, Euro 3 fuel standards were adopted in Nigeria but
this has not been implemented till date (Maduekwe et al., 2020).
Africa is regarded as the last frontier in the automotive industry and
is likely to be the last to transition from fossil fuels to electric vehicles Fig. 1. Average PM 2.5 emissions in 2019 (WHO, 2020a).
(Deloitte, 2016). It is incumbent that clean mobility becomes part of the
Agenda now. We adopted a holistic approach in investigating road
health. Since PM 2.5 is directly linked to fuel use and motorization, it
vehicle emissions in Africa.
provides a good estimate of air pollution due to motorization (Singh
This research focused on first investigating the contribution of
et al., 2020, Kumar et al., 2020, Eggenschwiler et al., 2021, Wu et al.,
transportation to air pollution in Africa based on both secondary and
2019). The data in Fig. 1 shows that though Africa has the least
primary data. The factors that contributed to these emissions are also
motorization in the world its average PM 2.5 emission of 97.4 μg/m3 is
discussed. We also investigated the standards in place in Africa that
very high compared to the world average of 82.3 μg/m3. Africa’s
govern vehicle assembly, import, fuel quality, and in-service roadwor­
motorization was 42 vehicles to 1000 inhabitants compared to the world
thiness tests. It became necessary as part of this work to estimate the
average of 182 vehicles per 1000 inhabitants (OICA, 2015). Africa’s
number of vehicles-in-use in Africa as of 2018. In 2015, OICA had
increasing urbanization, low-quality fuel combined with used vehicles
estimated that there were 45 million vehicles in use in Africa. While
that have obsolete and aging technology susceptible to wear and tear are
there were discrepancies between their data and government-released
some of the reasons for the high figures in PM 2.5. On average, 60% of all
documents in the respective African countries, their data only concen­
annual vehicle registrations in Africa are used vehicles (Baskin et al.,
trated on 32 countries our work includes both primary and secondary
2020).
data from 45 countries. We further conducted vehicle emission tests in
Figs. 2 and 3 give an indication of the level of PM 2.5 recorded in 40
Rwanda and Ghana on a total of 400 light-duty vehicles to assess the
countries in Africa in 2019. Mauritius had the least reading of 41.96 μg/
effectiveness of their in-service roadworthiness tests. The data was
m3. Even this value is well above the world health organization’s min­
compared to the local standards and international standards to deter­
imum recommendation of 10 μg/m3. Mauritius has a vehicle fleet of
mine if they were adequate. Due to the lack of data in this area, we
about 600,000 of which 3% are either electric or hybrid-electric vehi­
anticipate that the information in this work will be very useful to orig­
cles. The country bars the importation of used vehicles that are older
inal equipment manufacturers, policymakers, researchers, academi­
than 3 years counting from the day of manufacture. Niger on the other
cians, and the international community. The information will help
hand has no age restriction for used vehicle import and has no emission
improve vehicle policies, standards, and in-service testing of vehicle
standards. Thus, the highest PM 2.5 emission of 213.48 μg/m3 was
emissions in Africa and developing countries. It is also a contribution to
recorded in Niger for these reasons.
the African continental free trade agreement which will facilitate the
Few research publications dedicate to air quality related to trans­
movement of vehicles across borders.
portation emissions in Africa. Primarily because very few cities in Africa
measure air quality (Mboup and Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, 2019). The few
2. Literature review research done on this subject in Africa related only to few cities such as
Senegal and South Africa. Our research is dedicated to the extent of
Air pollution is a growing menace in the world and was responsible transportation emissions including current state, growth rate and future
for 9% of global deaths in 2017 (WHO, 2017). In Africa, air pollution is projections that will influence policy. The research is wholistic in such a
growing but the lack of monitoring to measure air quality is hindering way that it covers the heavy emitters in Africa. The direct relation drawn
effective response to contain it. In 2016, only 10 African countries re­ in this work between air quality and transportation in Africa is lacking in
ported PM data for the WHO database (Mboup and Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, many literatures. The correlation between fuel standards, vehicle
2019). Only 6% of children in Africa live near reliable air quality emission standards and roadworthy emission standards used in Africa as
monitoring stations compared to 72% in Europe (WHO, 2020a). But the compared with international standards is a novelty in this work. For the
growing deterioration in air quality in Africa is well documented based first time we have taken emission results of vehicles in Ghana and
on its effects. Deaths as a result of air pollution in Africa increased from Rwanda according to local and international standards and compared
164,000 in 1990 to 258,000 in 2017 representing a growth of nearly their compliance and the gaps to fill to reduce emissions on the
60% (WHO, 2017). Fig. 1 shows average levels of Particulate Matter (PM continent.
2.5) measured by the world health organization across several regions in
the world in 2019. Various studies have linked PM pollution to 3. Methodology
numerous conditions including premature death from heart or lung
disease, heart attacks, aggravated asthma, decreased lung function, and The first part of the work involved determining GHG emissions of
difficulty in breathing (Wang et al., 2020, Laden et al., 2006, Brain and various African countries in 2015. We were able to estimate the
Valberg, 1979). Depending on their size PM can be classified as PM 2.5 contribution of road transport by analyzing several reports submitted by
(aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 μm) or PM 10 (aerodynamic diameter of some African countries to the United Nations Framework Convention on
10 μm) (Ko et al., 2019). PM 2.5 is considered more serious to human Climate Change (UNFCCC). These include reports (25 in total) from
health because it can easily penetrate the lungs and be transferred government agencies of more than 45 African countries that reported
through blood and lymph circulations (Cormier et al., 2006, Wang et al., their GHG emissions to UNFCC in 2015. The rest of the data were
2015). This is why PM 2.5 is used to study the effect of PM on human

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G.K. Ayetor et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409

Fig. 2. Top 20 Countries with the best ambient air pollution index in Africa (WHO, 2020a).

Fig. 3. Top 20 Countries with the worst ambient air pollution in Africa (WHO, 2020a).

obtained as primary data through requests made to 20 other African
governmental agencies that report on greenhouse gas emissions. The
number of vehicles-in-use in African was obtained through primary and
secondary data as well. Some of the figures had already been reported by
the respective countries. Where the vehicle-in-use of a particular coun­
try could not be obtained, certified data was obtained from the minis­
tries of transportation in the respective African countries. In total,
vehicle-in-use in 45 African countries as of 2018 was obtained. To
investigate the reasons behind the GHG emissions from transport, we
investigated the various vehicle and fuel standards that govern the
import, assembly, and roadworthiness testing in 50 African countries.
Vehicle emissions tests were then conducted on 200 light-duty ve­
hicles each in Ghana and Rwanda. Half of the emissions tests were
conducted on petrol-fueled vehicles and the other half on diesel-fueled
vehicles. Each vehicle was tested according to three standards based
on the Ghana, Rwanda, and UK emission standards. The nineteenth
edition of the UK standard by the Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency
on the in-service emission standards for road vehicles was used as the
benchmark. In terms of procedure, the emissions were conducted using
an exhaust gas analyzer at various test centers in Ghana and Rwanda. In

3
G.K. Ayetor et al.
Rwanda, the test was conducted at the Motor Vehicle Inspection Center
in Kigali city. It is the only inspection center that measures emissions in
Kigali city. There are only three others of such centers in the entire
Rwanda. It is under the control of the Rwanda National Police. Rwanda
instituted a law (Law Number 18/2016 of 18/05/2016) governing the
preservation of air quality. Article 9, requires the Rwanda National
Police to implement emission inspections at a total of four motor vehicle
inspection centers and one mobile facility. In Ghana, the tests were
carried out at two centers in Accra and Kumasi, which are the most
populous cities in Ghana. The composition of vehicles tested in both
countries are illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5.
The engines first had to be run for some time and to ensure the engine
was at the required manufacturer’s operating temperature, the engine
oil temperatures were taken before the tests. In most cases since the
engine was driven to the test center, the vehicles arrived at their normal
operating temperature. Vehicle engines reach their normal operating
temperature after a drive of approximately 5 miles (DVSA, 2017). To
confirm the normal operating temperature, an oil temperature probe
was inserted into the dipstick tube and compared with the manufac­
turer’s recommended value in the manual. The engine speed was
initially raised to 2500 rpm for 20 s and then returned to idle before the
test. Where the engine could not reach 2500 rpm, half of the maximum
engine speed was used instead. This was done according to the standard
operating procedure for the exhaust gas analyzer and as prescribed by
the UK Standard emissions standard (DVSA, 2017). A standard emissions
test was carried out on vehicles manufactured before 1992 while a basic
emissions test was carried out on vehicles manufactured on or after
1992. In the standard test, concentrations of CO and HC were measured
by inserting a sample probe into the exhaust tailpipe at normal idle
speed. The results were only recorded once a stabilized figure was
achieved. For diesel vehicles, smoke density was also measured. The
results were then compared to the Ghana, Rwanda, and UK standards
and discussed in the results. The basic emission tests were carried out to
test vehicles with advanced emission control technologies. Two separate
tests were conducted on these vehicles. During the first test, emissions
were recorded at a fast idle speed of between 2500 and 3000 rpm.
Emissions of HC and CO were then recorded. In the second test, the
engine is allowed to idle between 450 and 1500 pm before the mea­
surements were taken.
Fig. 4. Composition of vehicles tested in Rwanda.
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Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409
4. Results
4.1. Greenhouse gas emissions
Fig. 6 displays the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from 20
African countries in 2015. Nigeria tops the list with 712 MtCO2e emitted
in 2015 alone. Followed by South Africa (516 MtCO2e), Egypt (326
MtCO2e), Algeria (161 MtCO2e), Ethiopia (146 MtCO2e), Libya (133
MtCO2e) and Morocco (86 MtCO2e) (Tarfa, 2018, Motshwanedi, 2019,
Nassar et al., 2017, Sahnoune et al., 2016, Beyene, 2015). Nigeria
contributed more than 72% of West Africa’s GHG emissions in 2015.
Africa’s biggest GHG emitters are Nigeria, South Africa, Egypt, Algeria,
Ethiopia, Libya, and Morocco. Together, these seven countries
contribute more than 70% of Africa’s GHG emissions. South Africa’s
GHG emissions in 2015 represent a 20.5% increase compared to emis­
sions in the year 2000. In 2016, South Africa’s GHG emissions increased
to 531 MtCO2e representing an increase of 3% compared to emissions in
2015. Energy distribution inefficiency, reliance on generators for elec­
tricity due to irregular electricity supply, aging vehicle fleet with
obsolete technology, increasing vehicle fleet, poor transportation system
is some of the reasons for high GHG emissions in these seven countries.
As will be seen in Table 1, these seven countries together have the
highest concentration of vehicles in Africa.
4.1.1. Contribution of transport to GHG emissions
Emissions of carbon dioxide from the transport sector in some Afri­
can countries are shown in Fig. 7. The most emissions from transport
were recorded in these countries. The reference year for this data is
2015. Egypt recorded the highest carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from
the transport sector in Africa. About 65,000 Gg of CO2 was emitted by
the transport sector in Egypt. This is followed by South Africa (53,034
Gg), Nigeria (35,239 Gg), Libya (18, 200 Gg), Morocco (17, 254 Gg),
Kenya (7,287 Gg), and Ghana (6,918 Gg). Together, these seven afore­
mentioned countries are responsible for more than 70% of transport
emissions in Africa. In the transportation sector, road transportation
remains the biggest contributor to GHG emissions in Africa. In Egypt, the
largest contributor to GHG emissions is CO2 from gaseous fuels (20.16%)
followed by Road transportation (15%) (Salah, 2018). Morocco’s
transportation emissions are 19.2% of the nation’s total GHG emissions
in 2015. The growth in transportation emissions is averaging 3% a year
in South Africa, 3.5% in Egypt, 3.6% in Morocco, 4.7% in Nigeria, 5% in
Togo, 11.1% in Ghana, and 14% a year in Ethiopia (Stevens, 2018,
Pwamang et al., 2019, DoE, 2019).
G.K. Ayetor et al.
Fig. 5. Composition of vehicles tested in Ghana.
Fig. 6. GHG Emissions of 20 African countries in 2015 (UNFCCC).
We estimate that transportation emissions in Africa are growing at
about 7% a year as compared to the United States of America’s growth of
0.8% (1990–2017) (EPA, 2019) and the United Kingdom’s (UK) growth
of 0.12% (Brown et al., 2020). This implies that by 2030 transport
emissions in Africa will double that of 2015 if adequate measures are not
put in place to transition to cleaner fuels and electromobility (e-
mobility). Another concern is that though motorization may have
reached its peak in most developed countries, motorization has just
begun in Africa. There is more room for motorization to peak on the
continent. The African continent is regarded as the final frontier of
Automotive growth largely because it is the second most populous
continent with the lowest motorization in the world (Deloitte, 2016).
Fig. 8 depicts the contributions of transport emissions to the total na­
tional CO2 emissions in some African countries. Transport emissions
contributed to 73% of the total CO2 emissions in Cape Verde in 2015.
Similarly, in Burkina Faso, the contribution was 59% followed by Benin
(41%), Morocco (37%), Libya (31%), Egypt (27%), Mauritius (27%),
and Ghana (25%). We estimated that on average, transportation was
responsible for 40% of total CO2 emissions on the continent of Africa.
We estimated the number of vehicles in use in Africa to be 72 million
compared to 237 million in Europe (EU-27) (UNECE, 2020). Africa’s
motorization rate was calculated to be 95 vehicles per 1000 inhabitants
compared to 650 in Europe. Our estimate is based on both primary and
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Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409
secondary data as shown in Table 1. Data was obtained through
communication with various government transport authorities in Africa.
Where the communication was not forthcoming, we resorted to
secondary information. In 2015, OICA had estimated that there were 45
million vehicles in use in Africa. Their estimate considered only 32 out of
54 countries in Africa. Our estimate considers vehicles in use in 45 Af­
rican countries in 2018. Fig. 9 shows the 14 countries in Africa with the
most vehicles in use.
South Africa had the most vehicles in use with 12,027,860 units of
vehicles (eNaTIS, 2020) followed by Nigeria (11,760,871) (NBS, 2019),
Egypt (10,695,694) (El-Dorghamy, 2018), Algeria (4,290,821) (CEIC,
2020a), Morocco (4,056,598) (CEIC, 2019) and Libya (3,553,497)
(Elmansouri et al., 2020). From the data, 76% of Africa’s vehicles in use
are found in only 10 out of 54 countries. South Africa, Nigeria, and
North Africa host almost 70% of Africa’s vehicle fleet. Although South
Africa has the highest fleet, Egypt’s transport emissions are the highest
in Africa as seen in Fig. 5. This is primarily linked to the quality of fuel
and inferior vehicle emissions technology. Sulfur content in diesel fuel
sold in Egypt is as high as 10, 000 ppm rendering even an advanced
emissions technology useless in lowering emissions (UNenvironment,
2020). About 26% of Egypt’s vehicle fleet is more than 27 years old and
25% is between 17 and 26 years old resulting in lower efficiency in
combustion and high emissions (Korkor, 2015).
G.K. Ayetor et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409

Table 1 others such as Kenya, Rwanda, Angola, Morocco have imposed age re­
Vehicles in use in Africa. strictions. African governments have tied vehicle performance to age
# African Country Vehicles in-use (2018) Vehicles (Per 1000 and have resorted to tackling this. However, the concern about used cars
Inhabitants) is not necessarily in their categorization or age but whether such cars are
1 South Africa 12,027,860 (eNaTIS, 211 still roadworthy. The transport inspectorate of the Dutch Ministry of
2020) Infrastructure and Water Management reported that out of 160 vehicles
2 Nigeria 11,760,871(NBS, 2019) 59 to be exported to Africa, more than 80% did not have roadworthy cer­
3 Egypt 10,695,694 (El-Dorghamy, 110 tificates (Baskin et al., 2020). Some of these vehicles did not even have
2018)
4 Algeria 4,290,821 (CEIC, 2020a) 101
catalytic converters attached. Notwithstanding, these vehicles could still
5 Morocco 4,056,598 (CEIC, 2019) 114 be repaired, retrofitted with emissions systems, and reused. Thus,
6 Libya 3,553,497 (Elmansouri 532 rejecting used vehicle imports will only worsen Africa’s motorization
et al., 2020) rate. Some researchers have explained that most vehicles older than 10
7 Tanzania 2,513,823 (MWTC, 2018) 44
years do not exhibit strong and consistent deterioration with age for
8 Burkina Faso 2,395,287 (SaferAfrica, 121
2018) carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions (Zhan et al., 2020, Sofwan
9 Tunisia 2,222,000 (SaferAfrica, 192 and Latif, 2020).
2019) One strategy that could be used to ensure vehicle emission systems
10 Uganda 1,800,000 (Senyonyi, 42 are kept in check is the implementation of annual in-service roadwor­
2018)
11 Ghana 1,421,334 (DVLA, 2020) 46
thiness standards. Most African countries do not have emission tests as a
12 Angola 1,200,000 (Mustapha 39 requirement for passing the annual roadworthiness test. In Ghana,
et al., 2020) Rwanda, Egypt, and South Africa, emissions tests are not mandatory. A
13 Zimbabwe 1,198,584 (CVR, 2018) 83 mandatory emissions test will ensure owners keep their vehicles in
14 Ethiopia 1,138,365 (ITDP, 2020) 10
check. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
15 Chad 1,124,000 (WHO, 2018) 72
16 Liberia 1,085,075 (WHO, 2020b) 225 has recommended UN Rules No.1 as an in-service roadworthiness
17 Ivory coast 1,060,000 (WHO, 2020b) 42 standard for vehicle emission systems. It concerns the uniform pro­
18 Zambia 822,882 (RTSA, 2019) 47 visions for periodical technical inspections of wheeled vehicles con­
19 Senegal 800,000 (WHO, 2020b) 50 cerning the protection of the environment. The standard ensures that
20 Madagascar 800,000 (WHO, 2020b) 30
vehicles comply with emission requirements as prescribed by their
21 Mauritius 580,000 (NLTA, 2020) 458
22 Benin 569,761 (WHO, 2020b) 49 manufacturer. Implementation of such a standard will ensure that ve­
23 Botswana 553,648 (SB, 2019) 245 hicles irrespective of age are kept roadworthy. While some policies in
24 Mozambique 527,901 (WHO, 2020b) 18 African countries have focused on restricting the age and complete ban
25 Niger 436,420 (WHO, 2020b) 19
of used vehicles, new vehicles assembled in Africa have escaped focus. In
26 Togo 406,000 (Abdelilah and 50
Damien, 2018) the case of used vehicles, the standard of the exporting country was
27 Cameroon 381,281 (Abdelilah et al., 15 prevalent at the time of manufacture (Crippa et al., 2016). Only Ghana,
2019) South Africa, Morocco, Rwanda, and Nigeria have any standard regu­
28 Namibia 371,281(WHO, 2020b) 151 lating manufacture and assembly of vehicles in Africa. Table 3 presents
29 Mali 344,345 (WHO, 2020b) 18
the only African countries with vehicle emission standards. As of the end
30 Sierra leone 300,000 (WHO, 2020b) 39
31 Malawi 290,000 (UNEP, 2019) 17 of the year 2020, more than 90% of African countries had no vehicle
32 Kenya 282,672 (CEIC, 2020b) 6 emission standards. New vehicles such as P300 Hardbody and Chery
33 Guinea 259,731 (WHO, 2020b) 21 QQ3 vehicle models have very low standards that will not enable them
34 Rwanda 185,140 (RRA, 2020) 14
to be sold in regulated markets such as Europe or Japan but are widely
35 Somalia 159,000 (ADB, 2018) 10
36 Equatorial Guinea 143,000(WHO, 2020b) 109
sold in Africa (NCAP, 2019). In-service annual vehicle emission stan­
37 Burundi 111,236 (WHO, 2020b) 10 dards, homologation standards of new vehicles, and fuel economy
38 Eswatini 99,830 (WHO, 2020b) 87 standards are recommended to reduce road transport emissions in
39 The Gambia 84,963 (WHO, 2020b) 372 Africa.
40 Eritrea 72,405 (WHO, 2020b) 22
41 Cape Verde 64,955 (WHO, 2020b) 119
42 The central African 57,475 (WHO, 2020b) 12 4.3. Fuel quality
Republic
43 Comoros 34,898 (WHO, 2020b) 42 The quality of fuel significantly influences the extent of pollution. In
44 Sao tome and 34,050 (WHO, 2020b) 161
the case of both diesel and gasoline, sulfur content is influential.
Principe
45 Seychelles 6,504 (SLA, 2020) 67 American and European vehicle legislations require vehicles to be
manufactured to certain mandatory specifications to meet vehicle
emission limits. The technologies required to meet the emission limits
4.2. Vehicle standards are sensitive to the sulfur content of the fuel. Table 4 presents the sulfur
limits and vehicle technologies required to meet the various emission
Several factors have contributed to Africa’s transport emissions but standards in Europe. Vehicles manufactured from 2011 were obliged to
none more significant than technology: outdated vehicle technologies in satisfy Euro 5 emission requirements (Gupta et al., 2020, Long et al.,
cars sold as new, new technologies sold in used cars that may have 2020). The diesel engine had to be fitted with a diesel particulate filter
outlived their usefulness, and local refineries with outdated technologies (DPF) to trap particulate matter, a three-way catalytic converter (TWC)
that are just unable to produce cleaner fuels. Cars are categorized as to reduce Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), and Hydrocarbons (HC), Exhaust
used, pre-owned, or secondhand if they have had one or more retail Gas Recirculation technology to reduce NOx. Euro 6 requires the tech­
owners. Africa imports the largest share of used vehicles in the world nology of Lean NOx Traps (LNT) to meet the stringent NOx limit.
with 60% of vehicle annual registrations classified as used vehicles However, any fuel containing a sulfur content of greater than 500 ppm
(Baskin, 2018b, Baskin, 2018a). Some African Countries have taken will render the EGR ineffective and LNT will only operate effectively if
desperate measures to curb used vehicle import as shown in Table 2. the sulfur content is below 15 ppm (Posada et al., 2016, Cha et al.,
Four (4) countries in Africa including Egypt, South Africa, Sudan, and 2019).
Seychelles have completely banned the import of used vehicles while Vehicles with advanced technologies can only reduce emissions

6
G.K. Ayetor et al.
Fig. 7. Carbon dioxide emissions from Transport in 2015 (UNFCCCR).
Fig. 8. Contribution of transport to total national CO2 emissions.
provided the recommended fuel is used for the vehicle. Unfortunately,
African countries have long had many challenges with fuel quality.
Table 5 gives the state of fuel quality in most African countries. In 2020,
more than 50% of Countries in Africa had fuel quality far below the
lowest European designation since1992. In effect vehicles, whether used
or new, with even the most advanced emission technologies cannot be
used in these countries without maintenance and operational chal­
lenges. Fuel standards need to match vehicle emission standards
(Inghels et al., 2016). The vehicle emission standard ensures the vehicle
has the emission technology to reduce emissions while the fuel standard
specifies the recommended fuel required for the emission technology to
function. The concern is that fuel standards in Africa do not match
vehicle emission standards even in countries where both standards are
being implemented. In 2017, Nigeria started implementing vehicle
emission standards that specified Euro 3 compliance (SON, 2017) but
their current fuel quality is below Even Euro 0. Ghana has Euro 4 fuel
quality fuel but requires vehicle manufacturers to ensure Euro 2 emis­
sions system limit compliance.
There are at least 47 African countries with no emissions standards
(Baskin et al., 2020). Apart from South Africa, no other country in Africa
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Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409
implements fuel economy standards (GFEI, 2019). Fuel economy stan­
dards require auto manufacturers to meet a certain average level of
economy (measured in miles per gallon or mpg) for new fleets. In the
United States (US), a complete fleet-wide fuel economy of 41 mpg by
2021 is required (Wang and Miao, 2020). Such a standard compels
manufacturers to develop fuel-saving technologies. The effectiveness of
the fuel economy of the gasoline auto engine depends on the research
octane number (RON) of the fuel, especially for advanced engines. The
RON is a significant factor in specifying gasoline fuel quality. It de­
termines the fuel’s ability to resist knocking and the higher the value the
higher the ability to resist (Dias et al., 2020). The octane rating is just a
comparison test with trimethylpentane (also isooctane) (Halderman and
Mitchell, 2014). If gasoline has the same antiknock properties as tri­
methylpentane, it is rated as 100 or if it has 95% antiknock properties of
trimethylpentane it is rated 95. The European average RON required is
95 since 2009. This means vehicles imported from Europe will have such
a requirement of fuels or more. If such vehicles use fuels with lesser
RON, autoignition occurs compromising fuel combustion that will lead
to higher emissions and significantly reduced engine performance (Han
and Yao, 2015). Countries like Algeria, South Africa, Ghana, Kenya, and
G.K. Ayetor et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409

Fig. 9. Vehicles in use in Africa in 2018.

Table 2 Table 4
African countries with age restrictions of used vehicle import (Baskin et al., Sulfur limits and technologies required of vehicles to meet European standards
2020). (Ayetor et al., 2020).
African Country Vehicle Age Limit Emission Fuel Gasoline engine features Diesel engine features
Standard Sulfur
Algeria and Mauritius 3 years
Limit
Chad, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Morocco, Tunisia, Gabon, 4 to 5 years
(ppm)
Mauritania
Angola, Djibouti, Kenya, Namibia, Senegal 6 to 8 years Euro 1 2000 TWC integrated with Mechanically controlled
Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Libya, Nigeria, Uganda 9 years and above oxygen sensors, electronic EGR, naturally aspirated
Egypt, South Africa, Seychelles, Sudan Banned ignition, electronic engines, mechanical fuel
injection injection.
Euro 2 500 TWC, multi-point fuel Rotary pump, electronic
injection system (MPFI), control, cooled EGR
Table 3 electronic control unit
African countries with vehicle emission standards. (ECU), exhaust gas
recirculation system
African Country Vehicle Emission Standard
(EGR) for NOx emission
Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa Euro 2 reduction
Morocco, Rwanda Euro 4 Euro 3 350 Improved Engine Electronically controlled
management, EGR, injection, electronically
heated oxygen sensor, on- controlled EGR, after
Egypt have gasoline fuels with RON as low as 89, 93, 91, 93, and 80 board diagnostics, treatment with oxidation
additional close-coupled catalysts
respectively (Anas, 2018). Recommendation for RON in Africa should be
catalyst
at least 95. Euro 4 50 TWC formation, Turbochargers with
intercoolers, common rail
injection system,
4.4. Case studies of Ghana and Rwanda Euro 5 10 Engine calibration, engine DOC, DPF for variable fuel
management, EGR, TWC injection timing
4.4.1. Vehicle emission limits formulation, improved
oxygen sensors
Tables 6 and 7 give the emission limits for roadworthy tests in Euro 6 Below 10 Gasoline Direct Injection, Cooled EGR, SCR, LNT
Ghana, Rwanda, and the United Kingdom (UK). The UK emission stan­ Engine calibration, engine
dards are specified in the nineteenth edition of the In-Service Exhaust management, EGR, TWC
Emission Standards for Road Vehicles. The standard mandates vehicles formulation, improved
oxygen sensors
to meet the emission standards depending on the year of manufacture
and manufacturer specifications in the annex. Where the manufacturer
specifications are unavailable in the annex, then the limits in the tables diesel-fueled. Figs. 10 and 11 show the age profiles of vehicles tested in
will apply. In Ghana and Rwanda, it is not obligatory to pass any of the Rwanda and Ghana respectively. The average age of the vehicle fleet
limits specified. Except the test are used for information purposes only. tested in Rwanda was 20 years. It is well known that Rwanda has a much
Rwanda and Ghana’s emission standards are similar to the UK’s emis­ older fleet because it has no age restrictions on imported vehicles. In
sion standard predating 1992. 2018, the average age of the imported used vehicle to Rwanda was 15
years (Baskin et al., 2020). The average age of the vehicle fleet tested in
4.4.2. Characteristics of fleet tested Ghana was 10 years. Even though Ghana has no age restriction on im­
Two-hundred vehicles each were tested with an exhaust gas analyzer ported vehicles, it has an age-based tax regime where vehicles aged
for their emissions in Rwanda and Ghana. The emissions tested includes between 5 and 10 years benefit from a 50% tax cut. Vehicle importers
hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and Opacity (diesel cars take advantage of this tax cut by importing vehicles within this age
only). Half of each fleet were petrol-fueled and the other half were

8
G.K. Ayetor et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409

Table 5 group.
Fuel Quality of various African Countries in 2020 (UNenvironment, 2020).
African Country Diesel Fuel European Fuel 4.4.3. General emission levels
Sulfur Content Quality Designation Figs. 12 and 13 give the general pass rate of vehicles tested in
Morocco 15 ppm Euro 4 Rwanda and Ghana respectively. Comparison is made with the UK
Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, 50 ppm Euro 4 Standard in both cases. Only 45% of petrol-fueled vehicles tested in
Kenya, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Rwanda passed the local standard. Similarly, only 41% of diesel-fueled
Malawi, Ghana, Namibia, Lesotho, vehicles passed the local standard. Much fewer vehicles (2%) passed the
Eswatini, Benin
Chad 166 ppm Euro 3
UK standard for petrol-fueled vehicles. None of the diesel fleets tested in
South Sudan 350 ppm Euro 3 Rwanda was able to pass the UK standard for diesel-fueled vehicles. The
Niger 380 ppm Euro 2 pass rate in Ghana was 95% for petrol-fueled vehicles and 25% for
South Africa, Democratic Republic of 500 ppm Euro 2 diesel-fueled vehicles according to the Ghana standard. When the UK
Congo, Ethiopia,
standard was used as the criteria, 71% of petrol-fueled vehicles passed
Burkina Faso, Libya 1000 ppm Euro 1
Algeria, Gabon, Angola 1500 ppm Euro 1 but none of the diesel-fueled vehicles passed. The quality of diesel fuel,
Guinea, Mauritania, Tunisia 2000 ppm Euro 0 age of diesel fleet, lack of periodic maintenance is the reason the diesel
Liberia, Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea, 3000 ppm Outside Euro 0 fleet tested in both countries could not meet the UK standard. Fuel
Eritrea, Sierra Leone, Senegal quality standards in both Rwanda and Ghana are according to Euro 4.
Ivory Coast 3500 ppm Outside Euro 0
Madagascar, Zambia, Cameroon, Central 5000 ppm Outside Euro 0
While Rwanda also has a vehicle emission standard according to Euro 4,
African Republic, Djibouti the age of the vehicle fleet and lack of periodic maintenance of vehicles
Congo, Somalia, Togo, Mali, Egypt 10000 ppm Outside Euro 0 may have resulted in the poor emission performance of the diesel fleet.
In their research, Zhan et al. (2020) were able to prove that vehicles
manufactured between 1994 and 2003 deteriorated linearly with age
Table 6 when HC and CO emissions were measured. Ghana’s vehicle emission
Petrol emission limits for Roadworthiness tests in Rwanda, Ghana, and the UK. standard of euro 2 does not correlate with its fuel quality standard of
Euro 4. No matter the high quality of fuel, a vehicle’s emission system
Manufacturing Rwanda Ghana UK
Date can only reduce the pollutants according to the technology installed and
CO HC CO HC CO HC
may not be able to take advantage of the quality fuel.
(%) (ppm) (%) (ppm) (%) (ppm)

≥ 2005 1 400 3.5 1200 0.3 200 4.4.4. Emission levels of CO and HC
1992 to 2004 3 500 3.5 1200 0.5 200
<1992 4.5 600 3.5 1200 3.5 1200
Carbon monoxide emissions if inhaled can combine with blood he­
moglobin to reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the human body
(Huang, 2016). Prolonged exposure results in heart disease, Oedema,
severe pulmonary congestion, and nausea to name a few (Lee et al.,
2020). Carbon monoxide emissions are primarily a result of incomplete
combustion of fuel. The catalytic converter is the after-treatment device

Table 7
Diesel emission limits for Roadworthiness tests in Rwanda, Ghana, and the UK.
Manufacturing Date Rwanda Ghana UK

CO (%) Opacity (m− 1) CO (%) HC (ppm) Opacity (m− 1) CO (%) HC (ppm) Opacity (m− 1)

≥ 2005 1 1.5 3.5 1200 3 0.3 200 1.5

1992 to 2004 3 2.5 3.5 1200 3 0.5 200 2.5
<1992 4.5 5 3.5 1200 3 3.5 200 3

Fig. 10. Age profile of vehicles tested in Rwanda.

9
G.K. Ayetor et al.
Fig. 11. Age profile of vehicles tested in Ghana.
Fig. 12. General results of vehicle fleet tested in Rwanda.
Fig. 13. General results of vehicle fleet tested in Ghana.
used to reduce emissions (including carbon monoxide) outside the en­
gine. A further chemical reaction takes place in the catalytic converter to
ensure the unburned fuel is reduced to water and carbon dioxide before
exiting into the atmosphere (Manojkumar et al., 2020, Dey and Dhal,
2020, Ramlan et al., 2020). Coupled with the upstream oxygen sensor,
the powertrain control module (PCM) is notified of the presence or
absence of oxygen in the emissions exiting the combustion chamber. The
PCM is also notified by the downstream oxygen sensor of oxygen content
10
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409
in the emission exiting the catalytic converter. Fuel intake is adjusted
based on the feedback to determine whether to inject more or less fuel.
An upstream oxygen sensor signal indicating high oxygen content in the
emission exiting the combustion chamber is indicative of a lean mixture
that will demand less fuel intake subsequently. If both the upstream and
downstream oxygen sensors give similar readings, it is indicative of a
dysfunctional catalytic converter. Defective fuel pressure regulator,
defective fuel pump, clogged air filter, and positive crankcase ventila­
tion valve can all cause high carbon monoxide emissions. The presence
and good maintenance of the emission control system are therefore
essential for carbon monoxide control.
The carbon monoxide emissions recorded in both countries are
shown in Figs. 14 and 15. In Fig. 14, about 61% of the petrol-fueled
vehicle in Rwanda passed the local standard but only 41% of the
diesel-fueled fleet passed. Only 2% passed the UK petrol CO standard but
none of the diesel fleets passed the CO standard of the UK. Similarly,
95% of the petrol vehicles tested in Ghana passed the local standard and
71% passed the UK standard. The average CO emissions measured in
Rwanda was 4.1% and in Ghana was 0.66%. While Ghana’s average only
meets the UK standard for vehicles manufactured before 1992, Rwan­
da’s average CO emission does not even meet this.
Hydrocarbon emission can result in serious health effects and
contribute to ground-level ozone concentration and smog (Lelieveld
et al., 2015, Zuo et al., 2018). Hydrocarbons from vehicles are caused by
engine misfiring and can be regulated with catalytic converters. Defec­
tive or worn spark plugs, defective or loose spark plug wires, defective
distributor cap, incorrect ignition timing, lean air–fuel mixture, low fuel
pump pressures can all result in engine misfire (Halderman and Mitchell,
2014). Maintenance is therefore key to reducing vehicle pollutant
emissions.
Figs. 15 and 16 show the HC emissions recorded in Ghana and
Rwanda respectively. About 71% of the vehicles tested in Ghana passed
the UK standard but all passed the local standard. In Rwanda, only 21%
passed the UK standard. Again, the age of the vehicle fleet and poor
maintenance is the prevailing situation in Rwanda. The average HC
emissions measured in Rwanda was 504 ppm compared to Ghana’s
average of 125 ppm. Ghana’s average HC emissions are well within the
UK standard limit of 200 ppm.
4.4.5. Diesel smoke opacity
Diesel smoke emissions have been judged as mutagenic and carci­
nogenic to humans (Steiner et al., 2016). Diesel smoke measurements
are done through opacity tests. Opacity test is the most common diesel
exhaust emission test. It measures the percentage of light that is
obscured by the exhaust smoke. The generation of smoke causes a
reduction in the intensity of the light beam (Michel, 2020). Increasing
opacity values reflect increasing smoke emissions. Fig. 17 shows that
G.K. Ayetor et al.
Fig. 14. Carbon monoxide emission results of vehicle fleet tested in Rwanda.
Fig. 15. Emission results of petrol vehicle fleet tested in Ghana.
44% of vehicles tested passed the opacity test according to the Rwanda
standard. Almost all the vehicles tested failed the opacity test according
to the UK standard. The average opacity rating was 48.57 m− 1 compared
to the UK standard limit of 1.5 m− 1. This is because Rwanda has no age
limitation on imported vehicles. About 56.7% of all vehicles in Rwanda
were made before 1999 and 77.2% made before 2005 (DUHUZE, 2018).
Results for the opacity test conducted in Ghana are shown in Fig. 18.
Only 25% passed according to the Ghana standard and none of the ve­
hicles passed the UK standard limit for smoke density. Ghana’s average
was 393 m− 1. Worn piston rings, turbocharger malfunction, faulty en­
gine coolant temperature sensor, faulty fuel rail pressure sensor, faulty
glow plugs, incorrect injector, coolant leakage, and bad fuel quality are
just a few of the reasons for deteriorating smoke opacity. Interestingly,
some vehicles assembled and sold in Ghana neither passed the test ac­
cording to the local standard nor according to the UK standard. It is
indicative of the low standard technology installed in some of these
vehicles sold as new in Africa. Emissions standards should be adopted
11
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409
for homologation of new vehicles while used vehicles should be required
to pass the UN Rule No. 1 named Uniform Provisions for Periodical
Technical Inspections of Wheeled Vehicles concerning the Protection of
the Environment. This standard can be adopted and implemented as part
of the annual roadworthiness test in African countries. It specifies
emission limits according to the manufacturer’s specifications. But
where the specifications are not available, standard limits are specified
as in the case of the UK standard. All countries belonging to the United
Nations can adopt this standard without any adverse consequences.
5. Conclusion
This research aimed to investigate the state of transport emissions in
Africa and examine the adequacy of fuel and vehicle standards to curb
air pollution. We found out that there are at least 72 million vehicles in
use in Africa with a motorization rate of 95 vehicles per 1000 in­
habitants. About 76% of Africa’s vehicles in use can be found in only 10
G.K. Ayetor et al.
Fig. 16. Hydrocarbon emission results of petrol vehicle fleet tested in Rwanda.
Fig. 17. Diesel fleet opacity results for vehicles tested in Rwanda.
Fig. 18. Diesel fleet opacity results for vehicles tested in Ghana.
out of the 54 countries in Africa. South Africa had the most vehicles in
use of over 12 million vehicles followed by Nigeria (11, 760, 871), Egypt
(10,695,694), Algeria (4,290,821), Morocco (4,056,598), and Libya
12
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100409
(3,553,497). Transportation emissions in Africa are growing at a rate of
about 7% a year and this could double by the year 2030. Egypt recorded
the highest carbon dioxide emissions of 65,000 Gg from transportation
in 2015. South Africa emitted 53,034 Gg followed by Nigeria (35,239
Gg), Libya (18,200 Gg), Morocco (17, 254 Gg), Kenya (7,287 Gg), and
Ghana (6,918 Gg). Similarly, only seven countries were responsible for
70% of Africa’s transport emissions of carbon dioxide in 2015. Egypt’s
transportation emissions are the highest in Africa due to poor fuel
quality and an aging vehicle fleet. Fuel and emission standards were
almost nonexistent on the continent. Only five African countries had
vehicle emission standards for new vehicles assembled in Africa. Rather,
age restrictions and an outright ban on used vehicles have been imple­
mented in a few countries. Except this has been largely unsuccessful in
curbing used vehicle import and reducing air pollution.
In 2019, Mauritius recorded the least PM 2.5 reading of 41.96 μg/m3
in Africa. This value was well above the WHO recommendation of 10 μg/
m3. The highest reading of 213.48 μg/m3 was recorded in Niger, which
has no age restriction for vehicles imported. Nigeria, South Africa,
Egypt, Algeria, Ethiopia, Libya, and Morocco were the highest green­
house gas emitters in Africa for the year 2015 emitting 712, 516, 326,
161, 146, 133, 86 MtCO2e respectively. Together, the seven countries
contribute 70% of GHG emissions in Africa. The quality of fuel in more
than 50% of African countries does not meet even Euro 0 standard. A
standard that predates 1992. Few African countries have in-service
roadworthiness tests that require an emissions test. In the case of
Ghana and Rwanda where such tests are conducted, passing an emis­
sions test is not obligatory. No African country requires a vehicle to pass
an emissions test during roadworthiness testing. The case study of
Ghana and Rwanda proves that their emissions standard is not adequate
since their limits can only compare with the UK standard for vehicles
manufactured before 1992. Even according to the Rwanda standard, the
pass rate for petrol vehicles was 45% and diesel vehicles were 41%.
Almost all diesel vehicles tested in Rwanda and Ghana failed the UK
emission standard. It is concerning that some of the new vehicles
assembled and sold in Africa failed both the local and international in-
service emissions test. Poor fuel quality, lack of adequate mainte­
nance, lack of in-service emission testing, inferior emission systems
technology of new vehicles sold in Africa were identified as some of the
causes of the emission failures. The absence of fuel and vehicle standards
and where available lack of enforcement has dire consequences on
transport emissions.
It is recommended that
• Africa adopts a more stringent emissions standard similar to the UK
emissions standard for its roadworthiness tests. The present stan­
dards used in Ghana and Rwanda are too low to make any significant
impact on transport emissions.
• Emissions tests should be a mandatory requirement for roadworthi­
ness tests
• African countries adopt vehicle standards for new vehicles. The
absence of vehicle standards and the lack of enforcement where
available has made it possible for vehicle manufacturers to sell ve­
hicles without advanced emission systems in some cases.
• Fuel quality standards should be adopted and enforced by each Af­
rican country. The fuel quality must match the vehicle standard
adopted. In this case, a fuel quality of Euro 4 that requires no more
than 50 ppm of sulfur should be adopted. Fuel research octane
number of at least 95 should be available to enable vehicles with
such requirement to achieve their specified fuel economy.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
G.K. Ayetor: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology,
Writing - original draft. Innocent Mbonigaba: Software, Resources,
Project administration. Joshua Ampofo: Supervision, Data curation.
Albert Sunnu: Formal analysis, Validation.
G.K. Ayetor et al.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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