NS 0116

Network Standard
Volume 1

Design Standards for Distribution Earthing

1 October 1997
 SUMMARY

Network Standard NS0116 Design Standards for Distribution Earthing provides the
criteria for earthing of distribution substations to be connected to EnergyAustralia’s
network.

This document is subject to amendment by EnergyAustralia at any time.

It is the responsibility of the user of this document to ensure that only the current
version is being used.
 Network Standard NS 0116

Design Standards for Distribution Earthing

1 October 1997
CONTENTS
FOREWORD............................................................................................. 1
SCOPE ..................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................... 2
1.1 General............................................................................................ 2
1.2 Geographic Area............................................................................... 2
1.3 Life of Document ............................................................................... 2
2. DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................ 3
3. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS .................................................................. 4
4. ELECTRODE TYPES............................................................................. 5
4.1 Former Sydney Electricity Area.......................................................... 5
4.2 Former Orion Energy Area................................................................. 5
5. SUBSTATION EARTHING ...................................................................... 6
5.1 General............................................................................................ 6
5.2 Combined Earthing System................................................................ 6
5.3 Segregated Earthing System ............................................................. 8
5.4 Pole Transformer Earthing ................................................................. 8
5.5 Kiosk Substation Earthing Arrangement .............................................. 9
5.6 Chamber Substation Earthing Arrangement ....................................... 11
5.7 High Resistivity Soils........................................................................ 11
6. OVERHEAD LINE EQUIPMENT ............................................................ 12
6.1 Former Sydney Electricity Area........................................................ 12
6.2 Former Orion Area.......................................................................... 13
7. ENVIRONMENTAL............................................................................... 14
7.1 Containment of Silt .......................................................................... 14
8. TESTING............................................................................................. 14
8.1 Methods of Measuring Resistance.................................................... 14
8.2 Soil Resistivity................................................................................. 17
8.3 Electrode Resistance ...................................................................... 18
8.4 Earthing Resistance Testers ............................................................ 19
8.5 Test Hints....................................................................................... 20
APPENDIX A - SOIL RESISTIVITIES........................................................ 21
 1 1 October 1997

Foreword

EnergyAustralia is responsible for the management and operation of

EnergyAustralia’s electricity supply network. This network, which supplies the
most populous area in Australia, is a major infrastructure investment. The
network is required to operate economically and reliably under all weather and
other environmental conditions.

As part of its formal asset management approach EnergyAustralia’s aim is to

provide a series of cost effective modular designs for use in developing the
distribution network. For these designs to meet the requirements of
EnergyAustralia, they must satisfy a range of functions far wider than basic
electrical performance and economy. These functional requirements include
meeting all statutory obligations, operating effectively under adverse
environmental conditions and utilising readily available components which
have demonstrated reliability.

This Network Standard lays down the requirements for distribution earthing
that meet the requirements of EnergyAustralia.

This standard may be amended or updated at any time to reflect improvement in

design, technology advances etc. The Designer must ensure that the latest
version of this standard is used for distribution earthing design and installation.

This standard is an interim issue, pending the development of a new standard

for distribution earthing designs of the recently amalgamated organisations and
is valid until superseded.

Scope

This Network Standard:

• applies to 11kV or 415 Volt distribution systems

• does not apply to SWER systems

• does not apply to Zone or Sub-Transmission Substations, 11kV Regulators

or auto transformers

NS 0116
 1 October 1997 2

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

This Network Standard sets out the standards for the design of distribution
earthing system requirements for the connection of equipment to the
EnergyAustralia’s network.

This Network standard does not cover the installation and testing of the
earthing system. These topics are specified in other Network Standards.

This Network Standard should be read in conjunction with EnergyAustralia’s

documents, NS0113 Site Selection and Civil Design Standards for Chamber
Type Substations, NS0114 Electrical Design Standards for Chamber Type
Substations, and NS0117 Design Standards for Kiosk Type Substations.

1.2 Geographic Area

The former Sydney Electricity supply district comprises the area between the
Pacific Ocean in the east, the Royal National Park in the south, the southern
boundaries of Lake Macquarie in the north and Auburn in the west.

The former Orion Energy supply district comprises the area between the
Pacific Ocean in the east, Lake Macquarie in the south, to Port Stephens in the
north and the Upper Hunter Valley in the northwest .

1.3 Life of Document

This standard is an interim issue, pending the development of a new standard

for distribution earthing designs from the recently amalgamated organisations
and is valid until superseded.

NS 0116
 3 1 October 1997

2. DEFINITIONS

Group Those electrodes mutually connected which may

be disconnected from service together in terms of
Clause 4.1.
In service Electrically connected to the earth bus and water
main, LV neutrals and HV cable sheaths, when all
other groups are so connected, i.e. as normally
operated in service.
Out of service Electrically disconnected from the earth bus and
water main.

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 1 October 1997 4

3. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

The integrity of the earthing system is critical in providing a safe electricity

supply. The earthing system must comply with the general requirements of the
Electricity Association publication EC 5 Guide to Protective Earthing and
Electrical Supply Association of Australia /Telstra Earth Mat Rise Code.

The earthing system must be designed with due regard to any potentially
hazardous situation arising from metallic structures in contact with or near the
electrical apparatus. Such structures include but are not limited to metallic
fences, swimming pools, flammable gas or liquid storage tanks, electric
railway lines, pipelines, high voltage substations, high voltage transmission
lines, operating theatres or similar medical facilities, communication centres,
pits, pillars and metallic sheathed communication cable.

Earthing of electrical apparatus must fulfil two requirements:

• to minimise the risk to personnel and the general public from voltages which
may appear on or near equipment or structures within authorised or easy
access during fault conditions.

• that equipment is adequately earthed to ensure protective devices operate

correctly in the event of electrical faults on the system.

Distribution Substation earthing must be arranged so that:

• the step and touch voltage limits will not be exceeded.

• the short-time current carrying capacity of the earthing conductors and

electrodes are not exceeded.

Other requirements:

• the MEN system of earthing is installed throughout the low voltage supply
network.

• the low voltage neutral connections are to be continuous throughout the low
voltage network ie. Across open points in the low voltage phase conductors.

• compression lugs must be of an approved type and must not be of a split or

slotted type.

• all bolts nuts and washers must be 3016 grade stainless steel, minimum size
10 mm.

• connection to neutral and earth bars must be made on a separate bolted

connection for each cable. ie two or more terminations per bolt or stud is not
permitted.

• earth installations shall be designed and installed so as not to encroach on

the footpath/street allocations of other public utilities. Street allocations are
specified in NS 0130 Specification for Underground Cable Laying.

NS 0116
 5 1 October 1997

• at locations where soil conductors are unknown, a soil resistivity test is

recommended to determine the most efficient depth and spacing of electrode.
Soil resistivity test method is described in the Test cluse of this standard.

4. ELECTRODE TYPES

The earth grids must consist of a deep electrode system interconnected with
earthing cable. The following types are acceptable and apply only in the
Geographic area in which the substation is to be installed:

4.1 Former Sydney Electricity Area

• Driven rod system utilising 13 mm OD copper clad steel rods in 1800 mm

lengths. When driven in ground types other than sand or loam, the start
electrodes must be fitted with a hardened steel driving point. Rods must be
joined with the approved friction joint couplings. Minimum depth of
electrodes to be 5 metres.

• Copper tube/bore hole system constructed by boring a 35 mm (diamond bit)

or 50 mm (clay bit) clearance hole in the ground to a suitable depth, then
inserting a 14.3 mm OD x 1.63 mm wall copper tube and filling the bore
hole with a slurry made of an approved earthing compound by pumping
down the tube to fill the hole from the bottom up. Minimum depth of
electrode to be 5 metres.

The above installation depth of electrodes are minimum values only and in
some geographic areas, greater depths or additional rods will be required to
achieve the required earthing system impedance.

The electrodes within a group are to be interconnected with bare stranded

copper cable with a cross sectional area of at least 70 mm2. The cable must be
connected to the electrodes with the compression fittings applicable to the type
of electrodes used. Welding or brazing must not be used.

Electrode groups must be connected to the equipment or substation structure

with black insulated stranded copper cable with a cross sectional area of at
least 70 mm2. The cable must be connected to the electrodes with the
compression fittings applicable to the type of electrodes used. Welding or
brazing must not be used.

4.2 Former Orion Energy Area

Driven rod system utilising 15 mm OD copper clad steel rods in 1800 mm

lengths. When driven in ground types other than sand or loam, the start
electrodes must be fitted with a hardened steel driving points. Rods must be

NS 0116
 1 October 1997 6

joined with the approved friction joint couplings. Minimum depth of rod is
3.6 metres.

A 64 mm hole is drilled into the ground to a depth of approximately 6 metres. A

length of 35 mm2 soft drawn copper cable (19/1.53) is inserted into the total
depth of the hole. A mixture of “Good Earth” and water to form a slurry is then
poured into the hole. During the pour, the slurry should be tamped to expel any
trapped air pockets. Allow the slurry to set and then top up the hole as
required.

The electrodes within a group are to be interconnected with bare stranded

copper cable with a cross sectional area of at least 35 mm2. The cable must be
connected to the electrodes with the compression fittings applicable to the type
of electrodes used. Thermic welding must not be used.

Electrode groups must be connected to the substation structure with

green/yellow insulated stranded copper cable with a cross sectional area of at
least 35 mm2. The cable must be connected to the electrodes with the
compression fittings applicable to the type of electrodes used. Thermic welding
must not be used.

5. SUBSTATION EARTHING

5.1 General

The electrode installation must be in accordance with Clause 4. For Pole

Transformer and Kiosk substations the electrodes must be as specified for the
geographic area in which the substation is to be installed. For chamber
substations the former Sydney Electricity electrode installation must apply.

All electrical equipment in the substation must be connected to the earthing

system via the neutral/earth bar in accordance with the relevant drawing for the
type and option of substation.

All low voltage neutral terminals of transformers and neutrals of outgoing low
voltage cable and busbar supplies must be connected to the neutral busbar. The
neutral busbar must be one piece of copper bar, without joints.

5.2 Combined Earthing System

The combined earthing system is strongly preferred and every attempt to

achieve a 1 ohm or lower earthing impedance must be used, even if deeper
electrodes and additional electrodes are required.

Underground high voltage connected substations must have a combined system

of earthing consisting of two groups of electrodes, each with a minimum of two
electrodes and labelled as A group and B group. These groups must be located
so as to minimise the interaction effects between them.

NS 0116
 7 1 October 1997

Overhead high voltage connected substations having a rating of 50 kVA or

greater must have a combined system of earthing consisting of two groups of
electrodes, each with a minimum of three electrodes and labelled as A group
and B group. These groups must be located so as to minimise the interaction
effects between them.

The A and B earth electrode groups must be independently connected to a

combined neutral/earth busbar.

A Combined earthing system in which the various elements of the substation

earthing system are interconnected must be installed when the LV neutral
conductor is one of the following:

(a) Joined to the earthing systems of at least two other substations by continuous
low voltage neutral conductors.

OR

(b) connected by metallic sheathed HV underground cables to the earthing

systems of at least 2 adjacent distribution centres.

It is essential that at least two independent neutral connections or HV cable

sheath connections of adequate short time fault current carrying capacity are
provided.

If practicable a connection must be provided from the low voltage neutral

earthing bar to the water main. The connection must be black insulated
stranded copper cable with a cross sectional area of at least 70 mm2 and must
be connected to a 20 mm brass plug in the water main. The termination of the
water main connection to the neutral earthing bar must be labelled with a
50 mm x 25 mm brass tagged inscribed “Water Main Connection” The
approval of the Water Authority is mandatory before connection to the water
main is made.
If the water main is to be included in the earthing installation, its resistance
must be checked before installation. The testing method is detailed under the
testing clauses of this specification.

Note: Water main connection are no longer mandatory for distribution

substation earthing due to the widespread use of rubber sealing rings
and non metallic piping by the Water Authorities.

NS 0116
 1 October 1997 8

5.3 Segregated Earthing System

The combined earthing system is strongly preferred and every attempt to

achieve a 1 ohm or lower earthing impedance must be used, even if deeper
electrodes and additional electrodes are required.

A segregated earthing system must only be used where:

• an in service earth impedance of 1 ohm or lower cannot be achieved by a

combined earthing system

• where the interconnections to other substations by LV neutrals or cable

sheaths cannot be provided.

• isolated distribution centres in which HV to LV system faults are cleared by

fuses or by reclosers and/or sectionalisers. It may also be practicable to
isolate the LV reticulation system from the effects of HV faults, for example
by insulating LV OH conductors with 0.6/1 kV insulation.

A segregated earthing system must consist of three groups of electrodes, two

HV and one LV. The HV groups must be labelled group A and group B and the
LV group labelled group C. There must be minimum separation of 2 metres
from the HV groups.

The conductors connecting the HV and LV groups, to the substation must be

0.6kV insulated 70 mm2 stranded cable or uninsulated 70 mm2 stranded cable
separated by a minimum of 40 mm above ground and 2metres below ground.

5.4 Pole Transformer Earthing

Former Sydney Electricity Area

The earthing installation must comply with drawing 36377 Pole Transformer
Earth Rod installation Layout and special requirements for the type of pole
transformer being installed. The following drawing number detail these special
requirements:

• 31776 Type O Pole Transformer Earthing Arrangement

• 63498 Type R and R1 Pole Transformer Earthing Arrangement
• 117592 Type R HV and LV ABC Terminations Arrangement and Details
• 117193 Type W Pole Transformer Earthing Arrangement
• 153899 Type Q Pole Transformer Earthing Arrangement
The combined earthing system must have an in service impedance not
exceeding 1 ohm and an individual electrode group impedance not exceeding
30 ohms.

NS 0116
 9 1 October 1997

The standard pole transformer connection to a neutral routed in two different

directions to two adjacent distribution substations, is equivalent to two neutral
connections specified in Clause 4.

Where a segregated earthing system is required, because of location of the pole

transformer, a neutral spark gap must be installed on the transformer LV neutral
bushing. The design of the spark gap is detailed on EnergyAustralia drawing
64267. The spark gap must be connected between the transformer LV neutral
and the transformer tank.

Former Orion Energy Area

The earthing system shall comply with

• electrodes are to be driven in a direct line between the pole under

construction and adjacent pole.

• pole substations shall have separate HV and LV earths. The resistance to

earth shall not exceed:

Substation Ω)
Maximum Resistance Value (Ω
HV LV
Single Pole > 750 kVA 30 15
Single Pole ≤ 50 kVA 30 30

• the first electrode of the HV and LV earths are to be a minimum of 2 metres

apart and on opposite sides of the poles

• all earthing conductor shall be a minimum of 35 mm2 insulated conductor

and shall be clamped to electrodes.

• the earth conductors shall be covered with PVC earthwire troughing form
150 mm below the ground to a minimum height of 2.4 metres above ground.

5.5 Kiosk Substation Earthing Arrangement

Former Sydney Electricity Area

The earthing installation shall comply with the following drawings

• 25121 Substation Earthing Typical Installation of Earth Electrodes

• 25420 Type E Kiosk Layout of Earthing Conductors and Details

NS 0116
1 October 1997 10

The combined earthing system shall have a resistance to earth not exceeding
1 ohm and an individual electrode group resistance to earth not exceeding
15 ohms.

The 11 kV and 5 kV transformer cables are bonded and earthed at the

switchgear only.

Former Orion Energy Area

The earthing system for kiosk type substations shall comply with

Combined Earth System:

• electrodes shall be driven in two diagonally opposite corners under the base
of the substation.

• a minimum of 70 mm2 copper wire is to be compression clamped to each

electrode which are to be laid to the LV entry hole positioned HV1
(A group) HV2 (B group).

• the combined resistance to earth shall be in the range 1 to 30 Ω.

• if the combined resistance to earth is not achieved by the two electrodes

under the base of the substation, additional electrodes shall be installed in
the cable easement. These shall be connected to the HV1 earth by a
minimum 70 mm2 copper cable compression clamped to the electrode.

• all electrodes and cables shall be kept clear of the cable entry hole

• the HV1 and HV2 earth tails shall be sufficient length to project one metre
above the base of the kiosk.

Segregated Earthing System:

Where segregated earthing is specified the HV and LV earth system shall not
exceed

Substation Type Ω)
Maximum Resistance Value (Ω
HV LV
Rating ≥ 500 kVA 30 10
500 kVA ≥ Rating > 50 kVA 30 15
Rating ≤ 50 kVA 30 30

The HV earth shall consist of two electrodes driven in the corners under the
bare area and connected in parallel with 70 mm2 copper stranded cable, which
shall be compression clamped to each electrode.

The LV earth shall consist of two electrodes connected in parallel with 70 mm2
copper stranded cable, which shall be of compression clamped to each
electrode.

NS 0116
 11 1 October 1997

The minimum separation between the HV and LV earths shall be 2 metres. This
also applies for separation between HV earths and any street light LV pillars
water pipes or other equipment bonded to the LV earth.

All electrodes and cables are to be kept clear of cable entry holes.

The HV and LV earth tails shall be laid in their respective entry hole position
and be of sufficient length to project one metre above the base.

5.6 Chamber Substation Earthing Arrangement

The earthing installation must comply with drawing 25121 Substation Earthing
Typical Installation of Earth Electrodes. The earthing system must be
installed under the foot print of the substation chamber.

A combined earthing system must be used, however the earthing system must be
stand alone type not connected to building reinforcement bars or grading rings
and must be well clear of the building lightning protection system

The earthing system must be installed before any waterproof membranes are
laid and before the substation floor is constructed. Earth electrodes must be
installed at no less than 3 metres apart and in two groups. The connection from
the two groups A and B must be up through the floor directly to the position of
the substation earthing bar.

When the substation is constructed on a suspended floor slab the earthing

system must be installed at the lowest level of excavation directly below the
substation footprint. The group A and B electrodes are to be bought up through
the building structure to the position of the earth terminal bar in accordance
with EnergyAustralia drawing 25121 Substation Earthing Typical Installation
of Earth Electrode.

In upper level substations the two group A and B electrodes must be bought up
to the substation with the high voltage feeder risers.

The combined earthing system must have an in service impedance not

exceeding 1 ohm and an individual electrode group impedance not exceeding
15 ohms.

The high voltage and low voltage cable sheathes must be connected to the earth
mat at the high voltage switchgear earth bar and the low voltage switchboard
earth/neutral bar respectively.

5.7 High Resistivity Soils

Where the above minimum values of earth impedance, for each type of
substation, cannot be achieved with the minimum number of 5 metre electrodes,
additional or longer electrodes must be installed up to an equivalent of three
10 metre electrodes per group. In some locations to obtain a suitable resistance
value, it may be necessary to drill to depths exceeding 10 metres.

NS 0116
 1 October 1997 12

6. OVERHEAD LINE EQUIPMENT

6.1 Former Sydney Electricity Area

The minimum number of electrodes for each type of overhead equipment is

listed in Table 1. The electrodes must be installed in accordance with
Clause 4.

Table 1

Equipment No. of electrodes

Pole mounted recloser or sectionaliser Two groups, each with two electrodes

Note: Surge arresters, rod gaps and tanks of equipment associated with air break
switches such as OH line reclosers and sectionalisers are earthed by a second
installation. The two installations must be isolated from each other and nearest
elements of each must be separated in the ground by a distance of not less than
2 metres. The connection from the pole foot to the nearest electrode of the
arrester and frame earthing installation must be insulated, and not closer than 2
meters from any element of the air break switch handle earthing installation.

HV Line surge arrester installation Two groups, each with two electrodes

HV UG/OH cable sealing ends and surge Pole butt electrode and the earth lead
arresters (cables with continuous metal must also be bonded to the sheath of the
sheaths or screen) cable

LV regulators other than static balancers Two electrodes

Note: The tanks of static balancers must not be earthed. At each static balancer
location, a notice must be displayed warning staff that the frame of the
equipment must be considered "live" until proved otherwise.

Line air break switchgear with insulated One electrode or pole-butt electrode
rod extension to handle

MEN neutral earth points One electrode or pole-butt electrode

HV ABC catenary One electrode or pole-butt electrode

The maximum resistance value of each installation or group of electrodes with

the other electrode group out of service is listed in Table 2.

NS 0116
 13 1 October 1997

Table 2

Equipment Maximum resistance of the

earthing installation

HV line surge arrester earthing 20 ohms

installation including pole mounted
reclosers or sectionalisers

Air break switches in OH lines The earth installation must be used

for earthing the metallic operating
handle. Provided the operating rods
are made of timber or equivalent
insulating material, the maximum
earth resistance must be 100 ohms.

At each MEN earthing points 30 ohms

HV ABC catenary Earthed only where electrodes are

installed for other equipment. The
maximum catenary resistance must be
10 ohms.

6.2 Former Orion Area

Air Break Switch Earth electrode to be driven 1 metre from the

pole base on a direct line between the pole and
adjacent poles. The electrode shall be installed
on the same side as the ABS handle. The earth
impedance shall not exceed 30 Ω.
Earthing cables shall be a minimum of 35 mm2
insulated conductor and shall be clamped to
electrode.

Cable Box All earthing cable shall be a minimum of 35 mm2

insulated conductor and shall be clamped to
electrode.

HV Cable End Box Earth impedance not to exceed 30 Ω.

(combined earth)

HV Cable End Box Earth imepedance not to exceed 30 Ω.

(segregated earthing system)

LV Cable box Cable box earth impedance not to exceed

15 Ω. The cable cover is to be bonded to the LV
neutral.

NS 0116
 1 October 1997 14

7. ENVIRONMENTAL

7.1 Containment of Silt

The Service Provider must comply with all EPA regulations regarding the
prevention of silt and or other spoil resulting from earth electrode hole boring,
entering any drain, creek, river or natural water course.

8. TESTING

8.1 Methods of Measuring Resistance

8.1.1 General
There are two methods for measuring the resistance of an electrode or a group
of electrodes: the Two-Spike (Fall-of-Potential) Method and the Two-Point
Method. Both use a null-reading bridge earth resistance tester.

The Two-Spike Method can be influenced by the proximity of buried metallic

objects such as water or gas pipes. Therefore, if readings taken by this method
are found to be too high, the Two-Point Method is used as a check.

8.1.2 Two-Spike Method

The Two-Spike Method is the most commonly used (see below). Two auxiliary
electrodes (A and B) are put in a straight line with the electrode E (or group of
electrodes) under test, the normal separation between E and A and between A
and B is 10 metres.
When current is passed from the Earth Tester through electrodes E and B, the
voltage drop between electrodes E and A is measured. The resistance of the
auxiliary electrodes A and B has no direct influence on the result.

NS 0116
 15 1 October 1997

Two-Spike (Fall-of-Potential) method

Warning, a buried metallic object such as a water pipe has the effect of nullifying
electrode A with the result that the voltage V is that measured between electrodes E and
B. This results in an incorrect excessive reading (see figure below) and hence the Two-
Point Method must be used as a check.

Nullifying effect on electrode A of a buried metallic object such as a pipe.

NS 0116
 1 October 1997 16

8.1.3 Two-Point Method

The Two-Point Method is used where the result of the Two-Spike Method is in
question (due to a buried metallic object) or where space limitations or ground
covering make the Two-Spike Method impossible to use.

Current from the Earth Tester is passed from electrode E under test to the
buried metallic object (e.g. water pipe) and the voltage between them is
measured (see figure below).

Both the resistance of the water pipe and that of the electrode or group under
test is measured but since the resistance of the buried object (e.g. water pipe) is
very low, the reading obtained is assumed to be that of electrode or group E.

WARNING

Cables or Pipes Near UG/OH Connections,

Street Lighting fed by UG Cables,

Traffic Lights,

Gas, Water and Telephone Services

Must All Be Avoided

(For details refer the relevant Street Allocations in

NS 0130 Specification for Underground Cable Laying for URD)

Two-Point method

NS 0116
 17 1 October 1997

1.2 Soil Resistivity

The purpose of measuring the soil resistivity (ρ) is to establish the resistance
represented by the soil between the electrodes. It is measured using test
electrodes and a null-reading bridge. Known as the Wenner 4-point method, the
procedure is set out below.

When determining soil resistivity on site, a number of readings are taken for
various values of test-electrode spacing and depth. From values obtained,
either a curve is drawn or the value of soil resistivity calculated. Calculation
requires that the ratio of test-electrode spacing to depth is maintained at a
maximum value of 20:1. For accurate results, electrode spacing should not be
less that 1.5 metres.

The following is the Wenner 4-point method:

(a) Set out four test electrodes in a straight line and space them at equal
intervals of a metres (e.g. 10 metres).

(b) Drive the electrodes into the ground to a depth of a/20 metres or to as close
to that depth as possible. Do not exceed that depth.

(c) Connect the electrodes and earth - tester as shown in Figure 4.1.

(d) Operate the earth tester and obtain a null balance. Note the reading (R).

(e) Calculate the soil resistivity from:

ρ = 2πaR

where ρ = soil resistivity, in ohm metres (Ω.m)

a = distance between electrodes, in metres (m)

R = reading of null meter, in ohms (Ω)

(f) Calculate the average value of ρ (ρav) from the values obtained from the
calculation.

Circuit for the measurement of soil resistivity

NS 0116
 1 October 1997 18

8.3 Electrode Resistance

Electrode resistance can be calculated from the length and diameter of the
electrode and the average soil resistivity (ρav), as follows:

(a) Measure the length of an electrode (L), in metres, and its diameter (D), in
millimetres.

(b) Calculate the resistance of the electrode from:

ρav  1000 L 
Re =  2.3 log10 + 11
.
2πL  D 
where

Re = resistance of electrode, in ohms (Ω)

ρav = average soil resistivity, in ohm metres (Ω.m)

L = length of electrode, in metres (m)

D = diameter of electrode, in millimetres (mm)

Conversely, the length of an electrode of known diameter can be determined

from the above.

NS 0116
 19 1 October 1997

8.4 Earthing Resistance Testers

Three types of earth-resistance testers all of which are of the null-reading type
are being used.

Circuit diagram of a typical a commercial earth-resistance tester of the null-

reading bridge type using a hand-operated generator and dynamometer type
galvanometer.

The two older testers differ only in the method of voltage generation. One uses
a hand-operated generator while the other a replaceable battery with push-
button operation. The newer 'Geohm' tester is an electronic instrument and is
push-button operated. With these instruments the correct reading is that
obtained when the meter reads centre scale.

Typical hand-operated earth resistance tester

'Geohm' push-button type of earth resistance tester

NS 0116
 1 October 1997 20

8.5 Test Hints

To minimise induction effects:

• Set the test cable reels at right-angles when they are in close proximity.

• Keep current and voltage leads separate. A separation of between

5 to 10 metres is sufficient.

• If the test instrument has two or more ranges, note the results for each
voltage/current combination. Variations in results may indicate that
insufficient current is being injected.

Where there is insufficient test current due to high contact resistance, try one or
more of the following:

• Without exceeding the depth-to-spacing ratio, drive the current electrodes

deeper.

• Drive additional electrodes. Install them near each other and connect them
together so that they form a common electrode.

• To reduce contact resistance, pour water (or salt-water) around the current
electrodes.

NS 0116
 21 1 October 1997

Appendix A - Soil Resistivities

General

Soil resistivity (ρ) is a measure of the resistance of the soil across a theoretical
cubic metre with electrodes of one square metre on either side.

Soil resistivity is expressed in ohm metres (Ω.m) not ohms per metre. It is
sometimes wrongly described as specific resistance.

Soil resistivity varies depending upon the physical nature of the soil, its
chemical composition, dissolved salts and moisture content. Below is a list of
typical soil resistivities.

Soil ρ (Ω
Ω .m) at 20oC

Swampy earth 10

Clays 8 to 50

Clay, sand and gravel mix 40 to 250

Sand and gravel 60 to 100

Broken slate,shale and sandstone 10 to 500

Rock 200 to 10 000

When the resistivity is not known, a value of 100 Ω.m is taken to the
representative of an average soil with a moisture content of around 25%.
Lowering the moisture content to 5% can raise the resistivity to 500 Ω.m.
Completely dry soil can have resistivities of thousands of ohm metres. A
simple guide for resistivity values is given below.

Soil ρ (Ω
Ω .m)

Mud or coal 1

Wet soil 10

Moist soil 100

Dry soil 1 000

Rock 10 000

NS 0116
1 October 1997 22

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